1. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PRACTICE 1 for PGDAM.pptx

Information Technology Practice

1. GLOBAL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PRACTICE for PGDAM part 1…. AMS 616 Ishaya Idris Akaaba

2. General Course Scope. Information Processing Concepts Definition of Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom (DIKW) DIKW Hierarchy concepts Information Processing(IP) definition – perception, memory and decision making Stage model of IP - Stage Theory Types of information system in an organization Network Systems Network representation concepts(network data- cost, capacity, nodes or vertices, links or edges) Network operations and applications Flows (Source/Destination) – transportation, assignments, etc problems Business and IT Strategic Alignment Introduction to strategic alignment concepts Types of Strategic alignment models Analysis of SAM in organization

3. Part 1. Table of contents. Information Processing Concepts Definition of Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom (DIKW) DIKW Hierarchy concepts Information Processing(IP) definition – perception, memory and decision making Stage model of IP - Stage Theory Types of information system in an organization

4. Learning Objectives After learning the material covered in this course, students should be able to: Review Data, Information and knowledge concepts Review of information processing concepts Evaluation of the different types and categories of information system in an organization Review of Network concepts and applications Discussion of alignment of ICT / business strategies Review of trends in information technology and business Review of the different approaches and techniques for the acquisition of information systems Analysis of the choices (strategic / tactical / social / ethical) facing businesses when investing in ICT Review of the concept of competitive advantage Review of knowledge management and learning in organization

5. INFORMATION PROCESSING (IP) CONCEPTS Definition of Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom   Since we can read data, grasp information, and acquire knowledge, we must differentiate these terms in the perceptual and cognitive space. Because we can also store data, information, and knowledge in the computer, we must also differentiate them in the computational space.

6. Perceptual and Cognitive Space The data-information-knowledge-wisdom (DIKW) hierarchy is a popular model for classifying human understanding in the perceptual and cognitive space. The origin of this hierarchy can be traced to Russell Ackoff’s definitions of data, information, and knowledge as shown below:

7. Table 1. Russell Ackoff’s definitions of data, information, and knowledge in perceptual and cognitive space

8. Let P be the set of all possible explicit and implicit human memory. The former encompasses the memory of events, facts, and concepts, and the understanding of their meanings, context, and associations. The latter encompasses all non-conscious forms of memory, such as emotional responses, skills, and habits. We can thus focus on three subsets of memory, where P data , P info , and P know are the sets of all possible explicit and implicit memory about data, information, and knowledge, respectively.

9. Computational Space Let C be the set of all possible representations in computer memory. Similarly, we can consider three subsets of representations, C data , C info , and C know . However, data is an overloaded term in computing. For example, it’s common to treat programs as a special class of data. In many cases, it isn’t possible to distinguish programs from other data. Applying the same analogy, a computer representation of a piece of information or knowledge is just a particular form of data. A computer representation of visualization is also a form of visual data.

10. Table 2. Definitions of data, information and knowledge in computational space.

11. DIKW Hierarchy The diagrams below show two views of the DIKW hierarchy. The first depicts it as a linear chain and the second as the ‘Knowledge Pyramid.’ What is the significance of these visual depictions? The acronym DIKW is a shorthand representation for the data-to-information-to-knowledge-to-wisdom transformation.

12. Figure 1: A view of the DIKW hierarchy as a Chain

13. Figure 2: The Knowledge Pyramid

14. The DIKW Pyramid, also known variously as the "DIKW Hierarchy", refers loosely to a class of models for representing structural and/or functional relationships between data, information, knowledge, and wisdom. Typically information is defined in terms of data, knowledge in terms of information, and wisdom in terms of knowledge. In addition to a hierarchy and a pyramid, the DIKW model has also been characterized as a chain.

15. Looking at them individually…….. Data In the context of DIKW, data is conceived of as symbols or signs, representing stimuli or signals, that are "of no use until...in a usable (that is, relevant) form". This non-usable characteristic of data is refer to as "know-nothing". In some cases, data is understood to also refer to symbols, signals or stimuli. Data are also "facts".

16. Information In the context of DIKW, information is differentiated from data in that it is "useful". Information is inferred from data, in the process of answering interrogative questions (e.g., "who", "what", "where", "how many", "when"), thereby making the data useful for "decisions and/or action". Information is defined as data that are endowed with meaning and purpose.

17. Knowledge Knowledge is typically defined with reference to information. Definitions may refer to information having been processed, organized or structured in some way, or else as being applied or put into action. Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, expert insight and grounded intuition that provides an environment and framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the minds of knowers (Tacit Knowledge ). In organizations it often becomes embedded not only in documents and repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices and norms (Explicit Knowledge) . It is also an understanding

18. Wisdom Wisdom is described as "know-why". Wisdom is the ability to increase effectiveness. Wisdom adds value, which requires the mental function that we call judgment. The ethical and aesthetic values that this implies are inherent to the actor and are unique and personal. Wisdom can simply be referred to as "integrated knowledge--information made super-useful". Wisdom is also characterized as "knowing the right things to do" and "the ability to make sound judgments and decisions apparently without thought". Wisdom involves using knowledge for the greater good. Because of this, wisdom is deeper and more uniquely human. It requires a sense of good and bad, right and wrong, ethical and unethical.

19. Representations Figure 3: A flow diagram of the DIKW hierarchy (Both Zeleny , Milan (1987) and Ackoff , Russell (1989) have been credited with originating the pyramid representation)

20. DIKW is a hierarchical model often depicted as a pyramid, with data at its base and wisdom at its apex. DIKW describes structural or functional relationships (lower levels comprise the material of higher levels). DIKW has also been represented as a two-dimensional chart or as one or more flow diagrams. In such cases, the relationships between the elements may be presented as less hierarchical, with feedback loops and control relationships.

21. Information processing Concepts and Models Information refers to representations derived by a person from environmental stimulation or from processing that influences selections among alternatives choices for belief or actions. Information processing (IP) therefore refers to how information is modified so that it eventually has its observed influence. IP played a major role in understanding of perception, memory and thought actions (cognitive abilities)

22. Stage Model of Information Processing: Figure 4: Stage Theory model (adopted from Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)) This model proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages of MEMORY

23. Sensory memory  (STSS) . Sensory memory is affiliated with the transduction of energy (change from one energy from to another). The environment makes available a variety of sources of information (light, sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.), but the brain only understands electrical energy. The body has special sensory receptor cells that transduce (change from one form of energy to another) this external energy to something the brain can understand. In the process of transduction, a memory is created. This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for vision; about 3 seconds for hearing).

24. It is absolutely critical that the learner attend to the information at this initial stage in order to transfer it to the next one. There are two major concepts for getting information into STM: First, individuals are more likely to pay attention to a stimulus if it has an  interesting feature . We are more likely to get an orienting response if this is present. Second, individuals are more likely to pay attention if the stimulus activates a  known pattern . To the extent we have students call to mind relevant prior learning before we begin our presentations, we can take advantage of this principle.

25. Short-term memory  (STM) .  Short-term memory  is also called  working memory  and relates to what we are thinking about at any given moment in time, this is conscious memory. It is created by our paying attention to an external stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere around 15 to 20 seconds unless it is repeated (called maintenance rehearsal) at which point it may be available for up to 20 minutes.

26. Another major limit on information processing in STM is in terms of the number of units that can be processed an any one time. A given number is 7  +  2, but more recent research suggests the number may be more like 5  +  2 for most things we are trying to remember. Because of the variability in how much individuals can work with (for some it may be three, for others seven) it is only necessary to  point out the most important information . There are two major concepts for retaining information in STM: organization and repetition.

27. A related issue to organization is the concept of  chunking   or grouping pieces of data into units. For example, the letters "b d e" constitute three units of information while the word "bed" represents one unit even though it is composed of the same number of letters. Chunking is a major technique for getting and keeping information in short-term memory; it is also a type of elaboration that will help get information into long-term memory.

28. Repetition is a technique we all use to try to "learn" something. However, in order to be effective this must be done after forgetting begins. For the most part, simply memorizing something does not lead to learning (i.e., relatively permanent change). We all have anecdotal evidence that we can remember something we memorized, but just think about all the material we tried to learn this way and the little we are able to remember after six months or a year.

29. Long-term memory  (LTM). Long-term memory is also called preconscious and unconscious memory in Freudian terms. Preconscious means that the information is relatively easily recalled (although it may take several minutes or even hours) while unconscious refers to data that is not available during normal consciousness. The preconscious memory relates to long-term memory. The two processes most likely to move information into long-term memory are elaboration and distributed practice

30. There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/learning process: imaging  -- creating a mental picture; method of loci  (locations)--ideas or things to be remembered are connected to objects located in a familiar location; pegword  method (number, rhyming schemes)--ideas or things to be remembered are connected to specific words (e.g., one-bun, two-shoe, three-tree, a is for apple, b is for ball,etc .) Rhyming  (songs, phrases)--information to be remembered is arranged in a rhyme (e.g., 30 days hath September, April, June, and November, etc.)

31. Types of Organizational Information Systems Identification of different types of Information System in an Organization The different types of information system that can be found are identified through a process of classification by which things can be categorized or classified together so that they can be treated as if they were a single unit. The classification of information systems into different types is a useful technique for designing systems and discussing their application. One of the oldest and most widely used systems for classifying information systems is known as the pyramid model; this is described in more detail below.

32. However, it is important to remember that different kinds of systems found in organizations exist to deal with the particular problems and tasks that are found in organizations. Consequently, most attempts to classify Information systems into different types rely on the way in which task and responsibilities are divided within an organization. As most organizations are hierarchical, the way in which the different classes of information systems are categorized tends to follow the hierarchy. This is often described as "the pyramid model" because the way in which the systems are arranged mirrors the nature of the tasks found at various different levels in the organization.

33. This is a three level pyramid model based on the type of decisions taken at different levels in the organization.

34. Three level pyramid model based on the type of decisions taken at different levels in the organization

35. Similarly, by changing our criteria to the different types of data / information / knowledge that are processed at different levels in the organization, we can create a five level model.

36. most common types of information system in an organization: While there are several different versions of the pyramid model, the most common is probably a four level model based on the people who use the systems. Basing the classification on the people who use the information system means that many of the other characteristics such as the nature of the task and informational requirements, are taken into account more or less automatically.

37. Four level pyramid model based on the different levels of hierarchy in the organization

38. different kinds of Information Systems BASED ON FOUR LEVEL PYRAMID: Starting from the bottom approach…….. Transaction Processing Systems Transaction Processing System are operational-level systems at the bottom of the pyramid. They are usually operated directly by shop floor workers or front line staff, which provide the key data required to support the management of operations. This data is usually obtained through the automated or semi-automated tracking of low-level activities and basic transactions.

39. Management Information Systems Within our pyramid model, Management Information Systems are management-level systems that are used by middle managers to help ensure the smooth running of the organization in the short to medium term. The highly structured information provided by these systems allows managers to evaluate an organization's performance by comparing current with previous outputs.

40. Decision Support Systems A Decision Support System can be seen as a knowledge based system, used by senior managers, which facilitates the creation of knowledge and allow its integration into the organization. These systems are often used to analyze existing structured information and allow managers to project the potential effects of their decisions into the future. Such systems are usually interactive and are used to solve ill structured problems. They offer access to databases, analytical tools, allow "what if" simulations, and may support the exchange of information within the organization.

41. Executive Information Systems Executive Information Systems are strategic-level information systems that are found at the top of the Pyramid. They help executives and senior managers analyze the environment in which the organization operates, to identify long-term trends, and to plan appropriate courses of action. The information in such systems is often weakly structured and comes from both internal and external sources. Executive Information System are designed to be operated directly by executives without the need for intermediaries and easily tailored to the preferences of the individual using them.

42. Functions of an EIS(Executive Information Systems) EIS organizes and presents data and information from both external data sources and internal MIS or TPS(Transaction Processing Systems) in order to support and extend the inherent capabilities of senior executives.