1 Student Foundations of ESS Revision slideshow

Topic 1 revision

1. Environmental History and Value Systems 1.1

2. Environmental History In the US – frontier ethic dominates during 1700’s &1800’s In 1800’s naturalists begin to voice concern John James Audubon – painted birds and sparked interest Henry David Thoreau – writer and naturalist who lived on Walden pond for 2 years George Perkins Marsh (1801-1882) – wrote Man and Nature 1 st discussion of humans as agents of environmental change

3. Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) – 17.4 million acres of land protected 1872 – Yellowstone NP established  world’s first NP John Muir (1838-1914) est. Yosemite, Sequoia NPs and Sierra Club Aldo Leopold (1886-1948) – Naturalist – A sand county almanac Rachel Carson (1907-1964) – Silent Spring Garrett Hardin (1968) – Tragedy of the Commons Paul Ehrlich (1968) – Population Bomb

4. Environmental History of U.S. in the last 30 years

5. Top 10: Anthropogenic Environmental Disasters 1. Bhopal: the Union Carbide gas leak 2. Chernobyl: Russian nuclear power plant explosion 3. Seveso: Italian dioxin crisis 4. The 1952 London smog disaster 5. Major oil spills of the 20th and 21st century 6. The Love Canal chemical waste dump 7. The Baia Mare cyanide spill 8. The European BSE crisis 9. Spanish waste water spill 10. The Three Mile Island near nuclear disaster http://www.lenntech.com/environmental-disasters.htm

6. Mercury and Minamata 1950’s Japan Suddenly people develop acute mercury poisoning – numbness, muscle weakness, coma death Minamata disease – 2,300 officially recognized victims Chisso corporation dumping methyl mercury into local bay Biomagnification of Hg through food chain into people

7. Bhopal disaster (1984, India) Union Carbide pesticide plant released 42 tonnes of toxic methyl isocyanate gas  500,000 exposed, 8,000 dead within a week, >16,000 dead since

8. Chernobyl Meltdown (1986 Ukraine) Reactor tests conducted Required shutdown of safety systems Cooling system failure Leading to meltdown Explosion releasing radioactive cloud Permanent evacuation in 30 km radius Eventual deaths 8,000- 400,000

9. Now? Contained not Cleaned

10. Whaling Historically hunted for blubber, whale oil Now hunted for meat International Whaling commission forms in 1946 – moratorium in 1986 Now whaling by Inuits & Norway & Iceland (legitimate?) & Japan (Scientific?)

11. Once we’re awake (aware) Growth of environmental pressure groups – Greenpeace, Sea Sheppard Function locally and globally Development of Environmental Stewardship Increased media coverage ➔ increased awareness of issues

12. These events Help us to establish our environmental value systems This is a world view or set of paradigms that shapes the way an individual or group perceives and evaluates environmental issues Influenced by cultural, religious, economic and socio-political factors

13. Interactive timeline http://blog.longnow.org/2007/08/10/environmental-history-timeline/

14. Environmental Values as a system Input – education, cultural dogma, religious doctrines, media Transfers and Transformations – Processing of information, thinking, discussion, regurgitation Outputs – decisions, perspectives, courses of action

15. Environmental Value Systems Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments. An EVS is a worldview or paradigm that shapes the way an individual, or group of people, perceives and evaluates environmental issues, influenced by cultural, religious, economic and socio-political contexts. An EVS might be considered as a system in the sense that it may be influenced by education, experience, culture and media (inputs), and involves a set of interrelated premises, values and arguments that can generate consistent decisions and evaluations (outputs).

16. Ecocentric An ecocentric viewpoint integrates social, spiritual and environmental dimensions into a holistic ideal. It puts ecology and nature as central to humanity and emphasizes a less materialistic approach to life with greater self-sufficiency of societies. An ecocentric viewpoint prioritizes biorights, emphasizes the importance of education and encourages self-restraint in human behavior.

17. Anthropocentric An anthropocentric viewpoint argues that humans must sustainably manage the global system. This might be through the use of taxes, environmental regulation and legislation. Debate would be encouraged to reach a consensual, pragmatic approach to solving environmental problems.

18. Technocentric A technocentric viewpoint argues that technological developments can provide solutions to environmental problems. This is a consequence of a largely optimistic view of the role humans can play in improving the lot of humanity. Scientific research is encouraged in order to form policies and to understand how systems can be controlled, manipulated or changed to solve resource depletion. A pro-growth agenda is deemed necessary for society’s improvement.

19. There are extremes at either end of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists–ecocentric to cornucopian–technocentric), but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly into any classification.

20. The continuum Ecocentrism Anthropocentrism Technocentrism Deep Ecologists Soft Ecologists Environmental Managers Cornucopians

21. Pick a world view and from that standpoint describe what you see

22. The influence of these philosophies We will look back to this as we move forward in the course Some examples look at US presidents Carter  progressive environmental policy to get us off of oil Reagan  crushes solar energy industry Bush 1  reauthorized clean air act but Gulf war was one of the worst environmental disasters in history Clinton  good – increased preserve area, pollution standards; bad – NAFTA, subsidizing SUV era of US automakers Bush 2  Works to weaken environmental regulations on businesses – loosening scrubber requ. Obama  Blocks mountain top coal mining

23. Historical Clashes of World views Native Americans (first nation Americans) vs. European Pioneers Buddhist vs. Judeo-christian Societies Communist vs. capitalist societies

24. Native Americans Deep respect for the natural world Thought of themselves as part of it not as lords over it. Much of their religion was tied to nature so spiritual connection as well Only when the last tree has died and the last river been poisoned and the last fish been caught will we realize we cannot eat money. ~ Cree Indian Proverb ~

25. European Pioneers Frontier economics Exploitation of seemingly unlimited resources Becomes Manifest destiny – expansion not only good but obvious and certain How does Chinese Expansion to the west Differ?

26. Justify your personal viewpoint on environmental issues Where do you stand on the continuum of philosophies? Does it change with the specific issue For example does your stance on population control put you in the same area as your stance on resource exploitation or sustainable development We will answer this question again at the end of the course as well

27. A way of systematically figuring out how things interact. 1.2

28. What is a system? “A system is an assemblage of parts and their relationship forming a functioning unit”* A system can be made up of living things, non-living things or mixes of both. It can be a whole variety of sizes, from cells to cities to biospheres. Big systems can be made up of many little systems. eg. organisms, organ systems, organs, tissues, cells, organelles……

29. Some examples of systems: A motorbike Sydney Cityscape A Eukaryote cell Human anatomy

30. Types of System An open system – exchanges energy and matter with what is around it. e.g A closed system – exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings e.g. A isolated system – exchanges neither energy nor matter with its surroundings.

31. Precipitation Precipitation to ocean Evaporation Evaporation From ocean Surface runoff (rapid) Ocean storage Condensation Transpiration Rain clouds Infiltration and percolation Transpiration from plants Groundwater movement (slow) Groundwater movement (slow) Runoff Runoff Surface runoff (rapid) Surface runoff (rapid) Precipitation What type of System is this?

32. Biosphere 2 Was Biosphere 2 open, closed or isolated? Explain why? Why was NASA so interested in what went on at Biosphere 2? Have a look for Biosphere 2 what went wrong… what do you think?

33. Models… Simplified description to show how something works

34. Models To help understand how systems work we create models. Models are simplified versions of reality that allow us to understand the impacts of inputs and processes with a system. Allows us to make predictions

35. Models include: Physical models - wind tunnels, globes, aquariums Computer models - climate change, evolution Mathematical Equations - Diversity index Data flow diagrams======

36. To make a system diagram there are some conventions: All systems have They are represented as: Storages (of matter or energy) Boxes Flows (in, thru’ and out) Arrows - Inputs - Arrow in to the system - Outputs - Arrow out of the system Boundaries -------------------------- Processes (transfers or transformations) Label on the arrows eg - Respiration

37. Transfer or transformation? Predator eating prey Rain falling and becoming a river Sun’s heat warming up a person In a plant sunlight joining with CO2 and water to become glucose

38. Model of an Immature Forest

39. Model Strengths Easier to work with than complex reality can predict changes by changing inputs without waiting for real world changes can be applied to similar situations can help discover patterns can visualize very large and very small things can experiment without disrupting natural systems

40. Model limitations Accuracy lost due to simplifying If assumptions are wrong conclusions are wrong Predictions may be inaccurate May be too simple Can be interpreted in different ways

41. The Laws of Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is about the flow of energy (Thermo – heat Dynamics - movement.) The 1 st law states : Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can however change from one form to another. So, the total energy in a system is constant. Ecosystem : sunlight (photosynthesis) biomass eaten heat

42. The 2 nd law states : Energy goes from a concentrated form to a dispersed form e.g. from the sun to dispersed heat Amount of energy doesn’t change but the amount available does Energy holds molecules together so as there is less energy, there is more disorder This is called entropy

43. Equilibria - balances Equilibrium is the tendency of a system to return to an original state after it gets disturbed. 1. Steady state – Your body temperature – get ill, recover

44. Equilibria - balances 2. Static – nothing goes in; nothing comes out; the amount of stuff in the system stays the same. e.g. a chair… NB: No ecosystem or living thing.

45. Stable and unstable equilibria Stable : even quite a large disturbance will return to the ‘status quo’. Unstable : even a small disturbance will upset the balance.

46. Some stable systems resist change: Sometimes the change is so great it moves to a NEW stable position:

47. Feedback Loops Feedback is often responsible for keeping or upsetting balances: There are 2 types of feedback; Positive (+ve) feedback Tends to destabilize equilibrium; pushing a system to a new state. Negative (-ve) feedback Tends to stabilize systems and resist change. It allows self regulation.

48. Positive feedback A runaway cycle – often called vicious cycles A change in a certain direction provides output that further increases that change Change leads to increasing change – it accelerates deviation Example: Global warming Temperature increases  Ice caps melt Less Ice cap surface area  Less sunlight is reflected away from earth (albedo) More light hits dark ocean and heat is trapped Further temperature increase  Further melting of the ice

49. Negative feedback One change leads to a result that lessens the original change Self regulating method of control leading to the maintenance of a steady state equilibrium Predator Prey is a classic Example Snowshoe hare population increases More food for Lynx  Lynx population increases Increased predation on hares  hare population declines Less food for Lynx  Lynx population declines Less predation  Increase in hare population

50. Hot day?

51. Cold day. You get cold: How does your body react? Hairs? Blood vessels? +ve feedback or –ve feedback?

52. Remember hare’s prey and other predators also have an effect

53. Complexity and Stability As complexity in an ecosystem increases so does the stability in the system. Complex ecosystems have many routes for energy and matter to travel, changes in one area tend to cause only a small disturbance (e.g. Tropical Rainforest). Simple ecosystems tend to have large disturbances with small changes (e.g. Tundra).

54. Resilience of Systems Resilience = The ability of a system to return to its initial state after a disturbance The greater genetic diversity in a population the more resilient it tends to be species able to shift geographical ranges are often more resilient climate influences resilience - cold dry areas are slower to recover than warm wet areas Species with high reproduction rates tend to be more resilient Control over the environment can increase resilience

55. Natural Capital includes the core and crust of the earth, the biosphere itself, the atmosphere and all water resources .

56. Natural Capital is the term used for ‘natural resources’ which can be exploited to produce natural income of goods and services. The Natural Income is any sustainable yield or rate of harvest from the stocks of resources. e.g. trees as timber that can be harvested and sold for money. NATURAL CAPITAL and INCOME

57. 3 categories of Natural Capital Renewable - living species and ecosystems which can be replaced by natural productivity (photosynthesis!) as fast as they are used (e.g. food crops, timber). Replenishable - non-living resources which are can be continuously restored by natural processes as fast as they are used (e.g stratospheric ozone layer, groundwater ).

58. 3. Non-renewable - Resources which cannot be replenished at the same rate at which they were used. Any use of these resources implies depletion of the stock. e.g. fossil fuels, minerals. If these resources are being depleted we must: 1) improve efficiency of use 2) develop substitutes or 3) recycle

59. Sustainability is the extent to which a given interaction with the environment exploits and uses the NATURAL INCOME without causing long term deterioration of NATURAL CAPITAL . Harvesting renewable or replenishable resources at a rate that will be replaced by natural growth. Long term harvest (or pollution or destruction) rate must not exceed rate of natural capital renewal. “Living within the means of nature” The depletion of essential forms of natural capital is unsustainable.

60. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)

61. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)

62. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)

63. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)

64. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)

65. 1.4 Measuring Changes in the system IB ESS

66. Environmental Impact Assessments Purpose: To establish the impact of a project on the environment before implementation To predict impacts on species, habitats and ecosystems (model!) To guide the decision making process To inform policy To promote sustainable development EIAs may be ignored depending on the environmental values of the government involved. Do the benefits outweigh the risks? There is also high uncertainty and speculation in EIAs.

67. Environmental Impact Assessments Steps: Baseline Study – measures environmental factors prior to the beginning of a proposed project Habitat type Species number, diversity, endangered list Soil quality, pH Land use – residential, industrial, agricultural Human population A poor quality baseline study is detrimental to the value of the EIA

68. Environmental Impact Assessments EIA Components: Identify impacts Predict the scale of potential impacts Limit the effect of potential impacts to acceptable limits Often a technical (scientific paper) and a non-technical paper available for the general public to understand

69. EIA Limitations Bias – source of funding Data – lack of available, relevant data Vested Interests – who is the developer? The person conducting the baseline study? Uniformity – there are no worldwide standards to follow Model – predictions may not always be correct…other disadvantages of models from Topic 1

70. Ecological footprint Our impact on the environment can be measured using ecological footprint. The theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste under prevailing technology.

71. Ecological Footprint Population More people consume more resources. High growth rates in lower income countries is the main factor increasing the Ecological Footprint in those areas. Consumption per Person Continued economic growth means ever larger economies producing more and increasingly affluent people consuming more, using more resources and producing more waste leading to increasing Ecological Footprint. Resource and Waste Intensity How efficiently are resources used? Our ability to extract a greater amount of wealth from the resources we use. (new technologies, energy efficiencies, renewable energy, reusing and recycling, green design)

72. Biocapacity Biocapacity is the amount of productive land and sea (measured in hectares 100mx100m) which is available for use. Two factors affect biocapacity. 1 – The AREA of land/sea available. How much is there? The land area cultivated by humans is increasing leaving less land in its natural state. eg rainforests being cut down for palm oil cultivation. This leaves less forest to absorb our carbon emissions. 2 – The BIOPRODUCTIVITY of that land/sea. Yield? With careful management land can be cultivated without it being degraded. Technology can be used to increase yields. High Yield Varieties of crops, GM, mechanisation, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation. But it must be noted that tech inputs can increase the ecological footprint due to increased energy consumption.

73. Ecological Footprint Formula Amount of productive land and sea available in an area. This is also known as biocapacity Ecological Footprint Amount of human consumption and waste production

74. The question is, are we using up resources faster than the Earth can regenerate them? Weekly food shop for an average German family. $500

75. USA : $346 per week

76. Chad : $1.62 per week

77. Ecological Footprint per Country as a Proportion of Global Total USA high due to high consumption levels, China and India high mainly due to high populations.

78. Nef 2009 But how are we doing as a global population overall? If we all lived like the average person form the USA we would need 5 Earths.

79. Pollution

80. Pollution The addition of a substance to the environment by human activity or through natural means at a greater rate than it can be rendered harmless by the environment which has an appreciable effect on organisms Pollution disrupts normal environmental processes and are considered disagreeable, toxic and/or objectionable

81. Many forms of pollution matter - organic or inorganic energy - sound, light, heat living organisms - invasive species

82. Primary Pollution - active on emission, can immediately cause harm. Secondary Pollution - primary production that undergoes a physical or chemical changes after emission

83. Point source pollution (PS) vs Non-point source pollution (NPS) Point Source comes from a single clearly identifiable site Non-point source comes from numerous widely dispersed origins, difficult to detect exact origin.

84. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP) Often pesticides or industrial products - large molecules that are fat soluble Remain active in the environment for a long time Bioaccumulate Biomagnify in food chains

85. Monitoring Pollution Measured Directly or Indirectly Direct records amount of pollutant in water, air or soil e.g. acidity of rain water, nitrates in soil, have metal concentrations, etc Indirect records changes in abiotic or biotic factors e.g. oxygen content of the water, presence or absence of indicator species