3rd module Computer architecture in detail.pptx

Computer hardware with details.

1. Module 3 st MOTHERBOARD, EXPANSION SLOTS & STORAGE DEVICES.

2. Anatomy of motherboard

3. CPU Socket (Central Processing Unit Socket): This is where you install the CPU (Central Processing Unit), which is often referred to as the computer's brain. The CPU performs all the calculations and instructions that drive the computer's operations. RAM Slots (Random Access Memory Slots): These slots hold the RAM (Random Access Memory) modules. RAM provides temporary storage for data that the CPU is actively using, allowing the computer to run applications and processes smoothly. . Anatomy of motherboard

4. Anatomy of motherboard Expansion Slots: These slots allow you to install additional expansion cards to enhance the computer's capabilities. Common expansion cards include graphics cards, sound cards, and network interface cards. Power Connectors: The power connectors supply electrical power to the motherboard. The main power connector typically comes from the computer's power supply unit (PSU) and ensures that all components on the motherboard receive power. SATA Ports (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment Ports): These connectors allow you to attach storage devices such as hard drives and solid-state drives. SATA ports enable data transfer between the motherboard and storage devices.

5. Anatomy of motherboard USB Headers (Universal Serial Bus Headers): USB headers are used to connect front panel USB ports on the computer case to the motherboard. This provides convenient access to USB ports on the computer's exterior. BIOS/UEFI Chip: The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) chip stores the firmware that initializes the hardware during startup. It also contains configuration settings for the computer. CMOS Battery: The CMOS battery powers a small memory chip that stores BIOS/UEFI settings and system information. It ensures that settings are retained even when the computer is powered off.

6. Anatomy of motherboard Fan and Heatsink Connectors: These connectors are used to attach cooling fans and heatsinks to dissipate heat generated by the CPU and other components. Proper cooling is essential to prevent overheating. Audio Connectors: These connectors provide connections for speakers, headphones, microphones, and other audio devices. They are part of the onboard audio subsystem. Ethernet Port: The Ethernet port, often known as the LAN (Local Area Network) port, enables a wired network connection. It allows the computer to connect to a local network or the internet via an Ethernet cable.

7. Anatomy of motherboard I/O Ports (Input/Output Ports): These are external connectors on the rear of the motherboard for various peripherals, such as USB devices, video displays (HDMI, DisplayPort, VGA), keyboard, mouse, and more. Debug LEDs/Post Code Display: Some motherboards have diagnostic features like LEDs or a display that can provide error codes during startup to help troubleshoot hardware issues.

8. Expansion Card Installation (e.g., Graphics Card, Sound Card): 1. Power Off and Unplug: Ensure your computer is powered off and unplugged from the electrical outlet. 2. Remove the Side Panel: Open your computer case by removing the side panel(s). This usually involves unscrewing screws or using quick-release mechanisms, depending on your case. 3. Locate the Appropriate Expansion Slot: Identify the expansion slot on the motherboard where you want to install the card (e.g., PCIe x16 for a graphics card). 4.Prepare the Slot: For PCIe slots, you may need to release the retention clip or screw securing the slot cover.

9. 5. Insert the Card: Gently but firmly insert the expansion card into the slot. Ensure that the card's connectors align with the slot. 6. Secure the Card: If the card has a securing mechanism (e.g., a retention clip or screw), secure it to hold the card in place. 7.Connect Power (if required): Some high-end graphics cards may require additional power connectors from the power supply. Connect any necessary power cables to the card.

10. 8. Replace the Side Panel: Put the side panel back on and secure it in place. 9. Connect Display (for Graphics Card): Connect your monitor's cable (e.g., HDMI, DisplayPort) to the graphics card's video output. 10. Power On and Install Drivers: Power on your computer and install the necessary drivers for the expansion card from the manufacturer's website or the included disc

11. Peripheral Connector Installation (e.g., SATA, USB, Audio): Identify the Connector Type: Identify the specific connector on the motherboard where you want to connect the peripheral (e.g., SATA port for a hard drive, USB header for a front panel USB port). Prepare the Connector: For connectors like SATA or USB, you'll need to plug the appropriate cable or connector into the motherboard port. Secure the Connector: Make sure the connector is securely seated in the port. Cable Management: Route and manage cables neatly to avoid clutter and interference with airflow. Connect the Peripheral: Connect the other end of the cable to the peripheral device (e.g., hard drive, USB device). Power On and Install Drivers (if necessary): Power on your computer, and the peripheral should be recognized and ready to use. For some peripherals, like USB devices, drivers may install automatically.

12. Hard disk Drive(HDD) A computer hard disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile data storage device. Non-volatile refers to storage devices that maintain stored data when turned off.   HDD is an electro-mechanical storage device, which is an abbreviation of Hard Disk Drive. It uses magnetic storage for storing and retrieving the digital data. It is a non-volatile storage device. Hard Disk Drive is installed internally in our computer systems , which is connected directly to the disk controllers of the motherboard. Hard Disk Drive is a storage device which stores the  operation system (OS) , installed software, and the other computer files. HDD means the data is retained when our computer system is shut down . HDD is also called a fixed disk, hard disk, or hard drive . The HDD was introduced in the year 1956 by IBM.

13. Parts/componants of HDD Platters (Disks): These are circular, flat disks typically made of aluminum or glass. Data is stored on the platters in the form of magnetic patterns. Each platter of a hard disk is divided into a number of concentric tracks .  Each track is divided into a number of sectors , each of which can store the same amount of data . Read/Write Heads: These are tiny sensors located close to the platters.  Head : is a device present on the arm of the hard drive that reads or writes data on the magnetic platters, mounted on the surface of the drive Actuator Arm and Actuator: It is a device, consisting of the read-write head that moves over the hard disk to save or retrieve information.

14. Platter Surface: The platter's surface is where data is written and read. You can find images illustrating the platter surface in some HDD-related diagrams. Spindle: The spindle is a rod that runs through the center of the platters. Images of the HDD spindle may be visible in diagrams depicting the entire HDD assembly. Actuator Pivot( the central or most important thing.) : The actuator arm is connected to an actuator pivot, allowing it to pivot and move. Images of the actuator pivot can be found in diagrams or illustrations of HDD internals . Parts/componants of HDD

15. Seek time –  The time taken by the R-W head to reach the desired track from its current position. Rotational latency –  Time is taken by the sector to come under the R-W head. Data transfer time –  Time is taken to transfer the required amount of data. It depends upon the rotational speed. Controller time –  The processing time taken by the controller. Average Access time –  seek time + Average Rotational latency + data transfer time + controller time. Performance of the HDD

16. Features of HDD Features of HDD Non-volatile: . High Capacity: . Relatively Slow Speed: . Mechanical Parts:  Cost-effective:  Reliable: .

17. Advantages of Hard Disk Drive (HDD) Following are the advantages of Hard Disk Drive: One of the significant advantages of a Hard Disk drive is that its cost is low. Another advantage of Hard Disk Drive is that it is readily available in the market. Hard Disk Drives are faster than the optical disks. The capacity for storing the data in HDDs are large.

18. Disadvantages of Hard Disk Drive (HDD) Following are the disadvantages or limitations of Hard Disk Drive: The speed of reading and writing in HDD is slower than the RAM. HDDs are noisy. Another disadvantage of HDD is energy inefficiency. HDDs consume more power. The form factor of HDDs is heavier than the SSDs.

19. Examples : A hard disk has an average seek time of 7 milliseconds (ms) and a rotational delay of 3.5 ms. Calculate the total average access time (in ms) for this hard disk.

20. Solution: Total Average Access Time = Average Seek Time + Rotational Delay Total Average Access Time = 7 ms + 3.5 ms = 10.5 ms

21. A hard disk has a data transfer rate of 150 megabytes per second (MB/s). Calculate how long it would take to transfer a 6-gigabyte (GB) file from the hard disk to a computer.

22. Solution: Time = File Size / Data Transfer Rate Time = 6 GB / 150 MB/s = 40 seconds

23. SSD(Solid-state Drive) SSD is a non-volatile storage device, which stands for Solid State Drive. SSD stores the data on flash memory chips and maintains the data in a permanent state, even when the power is off. These storage devices store the data in the semiconductor(a solid substance that allows heat or electricity to pass through it ) cells. Unlike traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) that rely on rotating disks and mechanical components for data storage and retrieval. Unlike the HDDs (Hard Disk Drives), SSDs do not have any moving parts. That's why they are called solid-state drives . SSDs offer advantages such as reduced boot times, quicker file transfers, and advanced system overall performance.

24. Features of SSD Velocity:  SSDs are quicker than HDDs because they use flash memory. This means your computer starts quickly, programs open quicker, and everything feels more responsive. Reliability:  SSDs are more reliable because they don't have moving parts like HDDs. HDDs can get damaged if dropped or bumped, but SSDs can handle these better. Durability:   SSDs are tough and can handle rough conditions like extreme temperatures and vibrations. They're appropriate for laptops, portable devices, and places where reliability and durability count. Energy efficient:  SSDs use less power because they don't have spinning disks or moving components like HDDs. This means laptops and portable devices can last longer on a single battery charge. Noiseless:  SSDs are silent because they have no moving parts that can make noise. This makes them great for locations where you need quiet things, like recording studios, offices, and home theaters.

25. How does SSD work? SSDs) utilize a technology called flash memory to store and retrieve data . no moving components, improving speed and reliability. Flash memory chips :  they're made from cells that can keep electric charges. The most common type of flash memory used in SSDs is NAND flash memory. Controller :  The controller acts as the brain of the SSD, managing information flow between the flash memory chips and the host device . It handles tasks that include error correction and garbage collection (reclaiming unused or deleted information ). Interface :  The interface connects the SSD to the host machine and permits data transfer . Common interfaces include Serial ATA (SATA), widely used in client SSDs, and PCIe ( Peripheral Component Interconnect Express), which gives faster speeds and is generally discovered in high-performance SSDs.

26. Optical Storage-Optical disk Optical storage is a type of digital storage that uses light from a laser to read and write data on a spinning disc.

27. Fundamentals of Optical Storage Technology In optical storage technology, data is written and read by a laser diode in the optical storage drive. Recording and reproducing data involves several steps: 1. Encoding : Transforming data into a binary format to be stored on a disc. 2. Writing: Storing data on a disc by burning pits. 3. Reading : Retrieving data from the disc using a laser that detects changes in light reflection. 4. Decoding : Converting the binary information back into the original data.

28. Common types of optical storage Compact Disc (CD): Introduced in the 1980s, CDs can store up to 700MB of data. Digital Versatile Disc (DVD): Developed in the late 1990s, DVDs can store between 4.7GB and 17.1GB depending on the type. Blu-ray Disc (BD): Launched in the mid-2000s, BDs can store between 25GB and 128GB.

29. RAID (Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks)? RAID or redundant array of independent disks is a data storage virtualization technology that combines multiple physical disk drive components into one or more logical units for data redundancy, performance improvement, or both. A RAID system consists of two or more drives working in parallel. A RAID system consists of two or more drives working in parallel. These can be hard discs, but there is a trend to use SSD technology (Solid State Drives). It is a way of storing the same data in different places on multiple hard disks or solid-state drives to protect data in the case of a drive failure. The disks can combine into the array in different ways, which are known as  RAID levels .

30. RAID level characteristics Fault-tolerance   is the ability to survive one or several disk failures. Performance  shows the change in the read and writes speed of the entire array compared to a single disk. The  array's capacity  is determined by the amount of user data written to the array.

31. Standards RAID Levels 1. RAID 0 (striped disks) 2. RAID 1 (mirrored disks) 3. RAID 5(striped disks with single parity) 4. RAID 6 (Striped disks with double parity)

32. 1. RAID 0 (striped disks) RAID 0 is taking any number of disks and merging them into one large volume . It will increase speeds as you're reading and writing from multiple disks at a time . But all data on all disks is lost if any one disk fails . An individual file can then use the speed and capacity of all the drives of the array . The downside to RAID 0, though, is that it is NOT redundant. The loss of any individual disk will cause complete data loss. This RAID type is very much less reliable than having a single disk.

33. 2. RAID 1 (mirrored disks) RAID 1requires the use of at least 2 drives. It duplicates data across two disks in the array, providing full redundancy. Both disks are store exactly the same data, at the same time, and at all times. Data is not lost as long as one disk survives . At any given instant, the contents of both disks in the array are identical . RAID 1 is capable of a much more complicated configuration. The point of RAID 1 is primarily for redundancy . If you completely lose a drive, you can still stay up and running off the other drive. The downsides are that you will have slightly higher write latency . Since the data needs to be written to both drives in the array.

34. 3. RAID 5(striped disks with single parity) RAID 5 requires the use of at least three drives. It combines these disks to protect data against loss of any one disk; the array's storage capacity is reduced by one disk. It strips data across multiple drives to increase performance. But, it also adds the aspect of redundancy by distributing parity information across the disks.

35. 4. RAID 6 (Striped disks with double parity) RAID 6 is similar to RAID 5, but the parity data are written to two drives. The use of additional parity enables the array to continue to function even if two disks fail simultaneously. However, this extra protection comes at a cost. RAID 6 has a slower write performance than RAID 5.

36. Aspect HDD SSD Technology Spinning magnetic disks (platters) NAND flash memory Speed Slower due to mechanical parts Significantly faster, no moving parts Durability More susceptible to physical damage More durable, resistant to shocks Noise and Heat Produces noise and heat Silent operation, minimal heat generation Power Efficiency Consumes more power More power-efficient, longer battery life Size and Form Factor Larger, standard 3.5" or 2.5" Various form factors including 2.5", M.2 Price Less expensive per gigabyte More expensive per gigabyte, but prices have been decreasing Capacity Available in high capacities Available in various capacities Performance Slower access times and data transfer rates Faster access times and data transfer rates Lifespan Mechanical wear over time Limited write cycles, but improving

37. Aspect Primary Memory (RAM) Secondary Memory (HDD/SSD) Volatility Volatile - Loses data when powered off Non-volatile - Retains data when powered off Access Speed Very fast, low latency Slower compared to RAM, higher latency Capacity Limited capacity, smaller size Larger capacity, suitable for long-term storage Purpose Stores data actively used by the CPU Stores the operating system, applications, user data Type of Memory Volatile memory modules Non-volatile storage devices (HDD, SSD) Cost More expensive per unit of capacity More cost-effective for large storage needs Location in Computer Integrated directly on the motherboard Typically external to the CPU, connected via interfaces Data Retention Requires constant power to maintain data Maintains data even without power Speed vs. Capacity Trade-off Emphasizes speed over capacity Emphasizes capacity over speed

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