A-Level English Glossary

1. Welcome'to'the'most'important'booklet'that'you’ll'get'all'
year!!!'
'
The'words'contained'in'this'glossary'only'provide'the'basis'for'
quality'analysis.'Do'not'make'the'mistake'of'assuming'that'one'
need'only'learn'a'proportion'in'order'to'grade'well'in'all'
assessments'on'an'A@level'English'Language'course.'All'terms'
MUST'be'learnt'as'early'as'possible;'it'is'evidently'better'to'be'
as'familiar'as'you'can'with'the'terms.''
'
Read'this'over'and'over,'get'your'family'or'friends'to'test'you,'
practise'attributing'these'terms'to'texts'you'read...'whatever'it'
takes,'just'make'sure'you'learn'these'terms'(of'which'there'are'
approximately'200…YAY!).'

2. Common'noun!–!a!naming!word!for!a!thing!that!is!tangible,!e.g.!chair,'penguin,'man,'
arsonist,'murderer,'ghost,'crumpet,'trumpet.!!
!
Abstract'noun!–!a!naming!word!for!an!idea,!concept,!state!of!being!or!belief,!e.g.!
tidiness,'sadness,'antidisestablishmentarianism,'love,'politics,'Marxism.''
!
Proper'noun!–!a!naming!word!for!a!specific!example!of!a!common!noun!(often!are!
names!of!places!or!specific!people),!e.g.!Bob,'Eiffel'Tower,'Burnley,'Wayne'Rooney.'
!
Verb!–!a!word!that!represents!an!action!or!process:!in!simple!terms!a!‘doing’!word.!
!
Active'verb!–!a!word!that!represents!a!physical!action,!e.g.!jump,'run,'kill,'slap,'kiss,'
makeBlove,'wallop,'sleep.'
!
Stative'verb!–!a!word!that!represents!a!process!that!is!often!only!mental,!e.g.!think,'
love,'ponder,'believe,'(to)'fear.''
!
Auxiliary'verb'–'a!verb!that!has!to!be!used!with!another!verb!in!order!to!create!
present!participles!or!the!future!tense,!e.g.!“DID'you'go?”;'“I'AM'going”;'you'WILL'
go”.'
!
Modal'verb'–!an!auxiliary!verb!that!express!a!degree!of!either!possibility!or!
necessity,!e.g.!might,'could,'must,'should,'may.'!
!
Adjective!–!a!describing!word!that!modifies!a!noun.''
!
Adverb!–!a!describing!word!that!modifies!all!types!of!word,!excluding!nouns.!
!
Superlative!–!an!adjective!that!displays!the!most!extreme!value!of!its!quality,!e.g.!
most,'biggest,'smallest,'worst,'furthest,'farthest,'quietest,'zaniest.'Most!of!the!time!
superlatives!end!with!‘Cest’.!
!
Comparative!–!an!adjective!that!relates!one!thing!in!some!way!to!another!and!
usually!ends!in!‘er’:!bigger,'smaller,'further,'farther,'quieter,'zanier.'
!
Definite'article'–!the.'
!
Indefinite'article!–!a'or!an.'
!
Pronoun'–!a!word!that!takes!the!place!of!a!noun!in!a!sentence,!e.g.!him,'her,'it,'he,'
she,'I,'you,'me'(selfBreflexive'pronoun),'they.'
!
First'person'pronoun!–!I,'and!the!first!person!plural:!we,'our,'us.'
!
Second'person'pronoun!–!you.'

3. Third'person'pronoun!–!him,'her,'he,'she,'it,'and!the!third!person!plural:!them,'
those.'
!
Possessive'pronoun'(1st,'2nd'or'3rd'person'depending)!–!my,'mine,'our,'your,'his,'
hers,'theirs.'
!
Demonstrative'pronoun!–!this,'that,'those.'
'
Monosyllabic'lexis!–!words!of!one!syllable.!
!
Polysyllabic'lexis!–!words!of!two!or!more!syllable.!
!
Imperative'sentence'mood!–!when!a!sentence!is!issuing!a!command.!
!
Declarative'sentence'mood!–!when!a!sentence!is!making!a!statement.!
!
Interrogative'sentence'mood!–!when!a!sentence!is!asking!a!question.!
!
Exclamatory'sentence'mood!–!when!a!sentence!conveys!a!strong!sense!of!emotion,!
sense!of!alarm!or!overly!strong!emphasis.!
!
Register!–!the!level!of!formality!of!a!text.!
!
Tenor!–!the!tone,!or!the!relationship!between!author!and!reader!and!how!it!is!
created.!
!
Attitudes'–'The!opinions!expressed!in!the!text.!
!
Content!–!What!the!text!is!about.!
!
Context!–!Things!outside!the!text!which!may!shape!its!meaning,!e.g.!when!it!was!
written,!who!wrote!it.!
!
Form!–!the!structure!and!shape!of!a!text.!
!
Themes!–!the!recurring!ideas!and!images!in!a!text.!
!
Colloquialism!–!Informal!language!usage,!e.g.!bloke,'fella,'lass,'bog'(toilet),!arse,'
bum,'grub,'scram,'!
!
Exclamation!–!a!one!word!sentence!(always!a!minor!sentence)!with!an!exclamation!
mark!at!the!end.!
!
Ellipsis!–!when!parts!of!a!written!structure!are!missing.!In!texts,!sometimes!they!are!
indicated!by!three!full!stops!in!a!row,!denoting!perhaps!a!significant!pause...!Do!you!
see?!
!

4. Syntax!–!the!way!words!form!sentences!(the!ordering!of!them!to!create!meaning).!
!
Parenthesis'–!an!aside!within!a!text!created!by!sectioning!off!extra!information!
between!brackets,!dashes!or!between!two!commas.!
!
Parenthetic'commas,'dashes'or'brackets!–!see!above.!
!
Rhetorical'question!–!a!question!designed!not!to!be!answered,!perhaps!to!pique!
interest!or!make!a!point;!a!stylistic!choice.!
!
Hypophora!–!when!a!rhetorical!question!is!immediately!followed!by!an!answer!in!a!
text,!e.g.!“Is'this'the'best'film'ever?'You'bet'it'is!”'
!
Hyperbole!–!deliberate!overCexaggeration!of!things!for!effect.!
!
Litotes!–!deliberate!downplaying!of!things!for!effect.!
!
Parallelism/patterning!–!the!creation!of!patterns!in!a!text,!through!repetition!of!
words!or!phrases!(phonological!parallelism)!or!by!balancing!meanings!(semantic!
parallelism)!for!deliberate!effect.!
!
Repetition!–!the!repetition!of!words!or!phrases!(see!parallelism)!
!
Tricolon/tripling!–!grouping!in!threes,!either!through!repetition!or!through!
structures!(either!within!a!sentence!or!paragraph).!This!can!be!for!emphasis!or!to!
add!a!sense!of!gathering!momentum!to!a!point!being!made.!
!
Imagery!–!a!descriptive!or!metaphorical!use!of!language!to!create!a!vivid!picture.!
!
Pre@modification!–!a!descriptive!technique!where!the!descriptive!words!come!before!
the!thing!they!are!describing,!e.g.!the!big,'fat!wad!of!cash!spewed!from!his!
inadequate!pocket.!
!
Post@modification!C!a!descriptive!technique!where!the!descriptive!words!come!after!
the!thing!they!are!describing,!e.g.!the!wad!of!cash,!big'and'fat,!spewed!from!his!
pocket.'
'
Metaphor!–!a!comparison!that!states!that!something!is!actually!something!else.!
“Take'a'leaf'out'of'her'book”'or'“I’m'a'demon'driver”.'
!
Simile!–!a!comparison!that!states!that!something!is!‘like’!or!‘as’!something!else.!“I'
drive'like'a'demon”'or'“he’s'as'big'as'a'house”.''
!
Synecdoche!–!a!metaphor!that!states!that!something!is!only!a!small!constituent!part!
of!itself,!even!though!we!commonly!understand!otherwise,!e.g.!“a'new'set'of'
wheels”'(car)'or'“he’s'behind'bars”'(prison)'
!

5. Analogy!–!explaining!something!in!terms!of!something!else.!!
!
Allusion!–!to!refer!to!something!indirectly!or!metaphorically.!
!
Pathetic'Fallacy!–!when!the!environment!or!weather!mirrors!emotions.!
!
Personification!–!a!device!in!which!the!nonChuman!is!given!personal!and!human!
qualities,!e.g.!the'trees'danced'in'the'wind.!
!
Extended'metaphor!–!when!a!metaphor!continues!throughout!a!text!with!recurring!
references!to!the!compared!item.!
!
Homeric/epic'simile!–!see!extended!metaphor!and!apply!to!simile.!The!‘Homeric’!
part!refers!to!Homer’s!Odyssey!to!connote!length!and!recurrence.!!!
!
Symbolism!–!using!figurative!and!metaphoric!language,!items!or!incident!in!a!way!
that!means!that!certain!things!represent!other!things,!e.g.!a!colour!could!represent!
the!sadness!of!a!character!or!a!volcano!erupting!could!symbolise!the!political!
infighting!of!the!townspeople!beneath!the!volcano.!!
!
Lexis!–!another!word!for!the!word!‘word’!!!'
'
Field'specific'lexis!–!the!language!of!a!certain!area!(be!it!vocation,!activity!or!subject!
etc),!e.g.!field!specific!lexis!for!computing!would!include!mouse,'monitor,'RAM,'
gigabyte'etc;'field!specific!lexis!for!English!Language!would!include!everything!in!this!
glossary.!
!
Lexical'set!–!the!selection!of!relative!lexemes!from!a!text.!One!can!take!a!lexical!set!
of!field!specific!lexis,!modifiers,!proper!nouns…!or!whatever!would!support!a!
statement!an!English!student!would!like!to!make!about!a!text.!!
!
Lexical'bundle!–!a!recurrent!sequence!of!words!or!a!collection!of!words!that,!
through!repetition!of!use,!just!naturally!go!together,!e.g.!“I'don’t'think…”,'“would'
you'mind…”,'“I'don’t'want'to.”!!
!
Semantics!–!the!meaning!of!words.!
!
Acronym!–!words!created!by!the!initials!of!other!grouped!words,!e.g.!the'UN,'NATO,'
RSPCA.'
!
Synonym!–!an!alternative!word!choice!that!has!the!same!or!a!very!similar!meaning,!
e.g.!a!synonym!of!horror'is!fright.'
!
Homophone!–!different!words!that!sound!exactly!the!same!when!said!out!loud!(be!
very!careful!of!these!with!regards!to!your!spelling),!e.g.!they’re,'their,'there;'new,'
knew,'no,'know;'need,'knead,'kneed;'led,'lead.'
!

6. Homonym!–!when!one!word!has!multiple!meanings,!e.g.!great!can!mean!both!size!
and!positivity;!cool!can!mean!both!coldness!and!a!‘cool!dude’;!heavy!can!mean!
physical!weight!or!the!seriousness!of!a!situation.!
!
Archaism!–!a!word!that,!over!time,!has!fallen!out!of!common!usage.!Older!ones!
include!zounds,'thus,'betwixt'etc,'however!slang!can!become!archaic!as!new!
generations!opt!to!choose!new!terms!for!things:!dig'it,'bodacious'and!radical!are!
perhaps!examples!of!this.!
!
Juxtaposition!–!the!placing!together!of!elements!(whether!text,!image!etc)!for!some!
conscious!effect,!whether!that!be!complimentary!or!contrasting.!!!
!
Antithesis!–!when!ideas!contrast!or!oppose!one!another;!a!semantic!contrast!in!a!
text.!Often!used!in!reasoned!arguments!or!to!create!emphasised!contrast.!
!
Binary'opposites!–!elements!of!a!text!that!hold!opposite!ends!of!a!notional!scale!e.g.!
hot/cold,'big/small,'loud/quiet.'
'
Oxymoron!–!The!use!of!apparently!contradictory!words!in!a!phrase,!e.g.!peaceful'
war,'hot'ice.!
!
Collocations!–!words!that,!through!usage!just!naturally!go!together.!We!collectively!
understand!they!are!inextricably!linked,!e.g.!Laurel'and'Hardy,'fish'and'chips,'salt'
and'vinegar,'John,'Paul,'George'and'Ringo,'fire'and'ice,'broad'grin,'broad'backed.'
!
Asyndetic'Listing!–!the!listing!of!elements!that!excludes!any!form!of!coCordinating!
conjunction.!The!prefix!‘a’!basically!means!‘absence!of’.!!
!
Syndetic'listing!–!the!listing!of!elements!that!features!a!coCordinating!conjunction.!
!
Phonological'features!–!any!devices!used!that!relate!to!sound,!e.g.!alliteration,!
repetition.!
!
Onomatopoeia!–!when!a!word!is!spelled!exactly!as!the!same!as!the!sound!it!
describes…!kaboom,'drip,'plop,'quack,'miaow.''
!
Consonance!–!the!repetition!of!double!consonants!in!the!middle!of!words,!e.g.!I’d'
better'buy'more'butter'before'I'go'out'and'post'these'letters.''
!
Assonance!–!the!repetition!of!vowel!sounds,!e.g.!you'should'wear'a'hood'while'you'
chop'the'wood'good.'Assonance!can!create!rhyme.!!
!
Alliteration'(guttural,'lateral,'sibilant,'bilabial/plosive,'dental,'aspirant,'fricative)'–!
the!repetition!of!consonant!sounds!in!a!text,!often!at!the!beginning!of!words.!You!
must!always!correctly!label!the!exact!type!of!alliteration!as!listed!above.!!
!

7. Plot!–!the!structured!cause!and!effect!of!incidents!experienced!by!a!protagonist!that!
makes!a!story!interesting:!the!exposition,!the!complication!and!the!resolution.!!
!
Exposition!–!the!parts!of!a!story!(usually!early!on)!where!the!writer!gets!across!all!
the!information!about!the!situation!of!a!character,!who!they!are,!where!they!are!and!
what!the!‘status!quo’!is!before!the!plot!begins!in!earnest.!It!should!always!be!as!
subtle!as!possible,!which!usually!means!avoiding!expressing!exposition!through!
dialogue.!!!
!
Narrator!–!the!‘voice’!that!tells!a!fictional!story.!Can!be!a!first,!second!or!third!person!
narrator!(see!personal!pronouns!to!find!out!more).!
!
Protagonist!–!the!character!the!reader!is!meant!to!identify!with!the!most!and!follow!
through!the!story.!The!hero!(or!antiChero).!
!
Anti@hero!–!a!protagonist!who!isn’t!always!morally!virtuous!but!has!enough!qualities!
to!endear!themselves!to!a!reader.!!
!
Antagonist'–!the!character!who!opposes!the!goals!of!the!protagonist.!!
!
Dialogue!–!the!presentation!of!character’s!speech.!!
!
Monologue!C!a!type!of!poem!or!a!prolonged!piece!of!drama!where!one!‘character’!
delivers!a!speech!that!reveals!their!innermost!feelings.!Dramatic!monologues!can!
infer!an!addressee!or!audience!who!the!speaking!character!is!relating!to.!
!
Soliloquy'–!see!monologue.!
!
Dramatic'irony'–!When!the!audience!is!aware!of!more!than!one!of!the!characters!in!
either!a!play!or!a!piece!of!fiction!to!create!a!dramatic!effect.!
!
Ambiguity!–!when!there!can!be!more!than!one!possible!meanings!or!outcomes!in!a!
story,!creating!a!sense!of!intrigue.!
!
Anthropomorphism!–!when!an!animal!takes!on!the!characteristics!of!a!human!being,!
e.g.!wearing!clothes,!buying!cakes!and!talking.!!
!
Suspension'of'disbelief!–!the!reader’s!ability!to!take!for!granted!fantastical!aspects!
of!fiction!in!order!to!enjoy!the!story.!
!
Genre!–!category!of!fiction!or!type!of!text,!e.g.!romance,!horror,!thriller,!magazines,!
etc.!!
!
Audience!–!who!the!text!is!aimed!at.!
!
Purpose!–!the!reason!the!text!has!been!produced,!e.g.!to!entertain,!inform!etc.!
!

8. Foreshadowing'–!the!hinting!at!things!to!come!through!early!elements!of!a!story.!
!
Mimesis!–!mimicry.!A!story,!for!example,!may!mimic!the!gasping!breath!of!a!pursued!
protagonist!by!using!short,!sharp,!sentences!and!lots!of!aspirant!alliteration.!
!
Pastiche'–!a!piece!of!art!or!writing!that!imitates!a!form!or!genre!to!generate!
humour.!
!
Satire'–!a!piece!of!writing!or!art!that!pokes!fun!at!the!societal!establishment.!!
!
Neologism!–!a!newly!invented!word.!
!
Portmanteau!–!a!newly!invented!word,!created!by!merging!two!words!together,!for!
example!snozcumber!(from!schnoz!and!cucumber)!or!chillax'(from!‘chill!out’!and!
‘relax’).!!
!
Compound'words!–!a!word!created!by!utilising!two!existing!words!separated!by!a!
hyphen,!e.g.!globalBvillage,'boneBheaded,'to'goBstraight.!There!are!compound!
versions!of!nouns,!adjective,!adverbs,!verbs.!
!
Clipping!–!colloquial!omission!of!parts!of!words!to!create!a!more!casual!alternative,!
e.g.!‘cause,!bra,!pram.!!
!
Rhetoric!–!an!example!of!persuasive!language,!arguably!including!advertising.!
!
Stereotype!–!a!label!for!a!social!group,!utilising!certain!characteristics!of!group!
members!and!applying!it!to!everyone!within!the!grouping.!
!
Taboo'language!–!words!that!are!considered!socially!unacceptable!to!say!in!polite,!
civilised!society,!e.g.!swear!words!or!words!that!are!politically!incorrect.!!
!
Connotation!–!the!associations!that!can!be!gleaned!from!words.!
!
Denotation!–!the!literal!meaning!of!the!words.!
!
Irony!–!language!that!conveys!a!meaning!other!to!than!that!literally!expressed!by!the!
words,!usually!for!humorous!effect.!!
!
Sarcasm!–!the!use!of!language!in!an!ironic!way!with!the!express!purpose!of!
offending!or!wounding!the!recipient!in!some!way.!
!
Euphemism!–!the!polite!way!to!say!something!not!normally!considered!socially!
appropriate,!usually!to!refer!to!going!to!the!toilet,!death!etc.!I'need'a'tinkle,'I'need'
the'little'boys’'room,'he’s'pushing'up'daisies,'she’s'gone'to'meet'her'maker.'
!
Dysphemism!–!an!unnecessarily!extreme!way!of!saying!something,!not!normally!
socially!appropriate.!It!could!incorporate!taboo!language!or!contain!too!much!

9. information!than!necessary.!You’re'husband'had'his'head'blown'off'and'there'was'
blood'everywhere.''
!
Headline!–!the!large!text/title!of!a!newspaper!article.!Often!these!can!incorporate!
word!play!and!alliteration.!!
!
Tagline!–!beneath!the!headline,!there!may!be!a!slightly!smaller!sentence,!designed!
to!clarify!the!gist!of!the!story.!!
!
Subheading!–!usually!a!one!or!two!word,!emboldened!phrase!that!breaks!up!the!
main!article,!often!foreshadowing!what!is!to!come!later!in!the!story.!!
!
Caption'–!part!of!a!multiCmodal!text,!these!will!be!juxtaposed!with!an!image.!Often!
they!are!used!to!say!something!witty!or!humorous,!maybe!punning!or!taking!out!of!
context!the!image!in!question.!!
!
Grab'quote!–!an!enlarged!example!taken!from!the!text,!usually!a!sensationalised!
piece.!It!attempts!to!draw!the!reader’s!eye,!engender!curiosity,!and!thus!make!the!
reader!read!the!story.!!
!
Slogan!–!a!catchy!line,!often!a!minor!sentence,!that!sums!up!an!advert,!sticks!in!the!
mind,!and!makes!the!product,!ultimately,!seem!more!appealing.!!
!
Pun!–!a!play!on!words:!“SupercallygoballisticCelticareatrocious”'Caledonian'Thistle'
beat'Celtic'5B0;'“Celebrity'Big'Blubber”'Wally'the'Whale'dies'in'the'Thames,'right'by'
the'Celebrity'Big'Brother'house.'
!
Journalese!–!the!sensationalised!language!that!is!particular!to!tabloid!newspapers,!
e.g.!slam,'probe,'spat'(as'in'fight),'shocker.'
!
Multiple'modifiers!–!doubling!and!trebling!up!of!adjectives!is!used!frequently!in!
tabloid!newspapers!and!also!other!genres!of!text.!!
!
Cliché!–!when!language!is!used!over!and!over!until!it!becomes!so!well!known!that!it!
loses!its!original!potency,!e.g.!at'the'end'of'the'day,'I’m'over'the'moon,'he'was'as'
quiet'as'a'mouse.''
!
Idiom'–!a!saying,!often!a!cliché!where!the!words!that!make!up!the!saying!do!not!
have!the!same!meaning!as!the!overall!semantic!effect,!e.g.!I’m'over'the'moon;'you’re'
taking'the'Mickey;'he’s'pushing'up'daisies;'you’re'having'a'laugh.''
'
Malapropism!–!when!a!speaker!accidentally!uses!the!wrong!word!that!sounds!the!
same,!or!like!it!should!belong!in!their!sentence/utterance:!The'world’s'my'lobster;'I'
will'illiterate'you'from'my'memory.'
!
Text'speak!–!the!phonetic!spelling!of!text!too!long!to!type!out!in!full!on!a!mobile!
phone.!!

10. !
! ! !
!
'
Orthography!–!the!method!of!spelling/correct!spelling!–!we!would!refer!to!the!‘nonC
standard!orthography’!of!words!from!the!past!in!comparison!to!how!we!write!them!
today.!
!
Etymology!–!the!origin!of!a!word!or!the!history!of!how!it!came!to!be.!!
!
Ampersand!–!the!symbol!“&”,!arguably!more!prominent!in!the!past.!
!
Non'standard'capitalisation!–!you!may!see!in!very!old!texts,!capital!letters!being!
allocated!midCsentence!to!words!other!than!proper!nouns,!perhaps!for!emphasis,!or!
perhaps!arbitrarily.!Look!at!the!specific!text!in!question!and!put!forward!your!own!
reasoning!for!it.!
!
Archaism/archaic'language!–!a!word!that!has!fallen!out!of!common!usage!or!is!old!
fashioned.!These!can!also!include!slang!words!that!have!fallen!out!of!the!youth!
lexicon.!!
!
Anachronistic'language!–!language!that!seems!‘out!of!time’.!For!example,!something!
may!be!written!in!a!very!old!fashioned!way!for!stylistic!reasons,!say!a!fantasy!style!
novel,!yet!it!may!contain!dialogue!that!would!appeal!to!a!modern!young!audience,!
using!slang!etc.!It’s!like!when!you!spot!an!extra!wearing!a!digital!watch!in!a!historical!
movie.!!
!
Semantic'shift!–!the!shift!in!a!word’s!meaning!over!time,!e.g.!‘sick’!evolves!to!
become!something!other!than!illness!but!a!slang!reference!to!something!positive..!!
!
Inverted'syntax!–!when!the!ordering!of!words!is!rearranged!to!create!an!alternative!
weighting!to!a!sentence.!Think!of!Yoda!on!Star!Wars!–!“Good!with!the!force,!he!is.”!
!
Slang!–!colloquial!language,!often!coined!by!the!younger!generations!to!imprint!their!
own!social!identity!on!the!language!and!differentiate!themselves!from!the!perceived!
establishment.!
!
Globalised'vocabulary'–!in!the!20th!Century,!in!the!advent!of!massCmedia,!social!
mobilization!and!international!travel,!there!have!been!an!influx!of!new!words!and!
phrases!that!we!now!take!for!granted,!e.g.!kebab,'cab,'sushi,'karaoke,'knish,'talk'to'
the'hand,'zombie,'savoirBfaire.!!
!
!
!
!
!
!

11. !
!
Discourse!–!the!study!of!spoken!language.!
'
Mode!–!the!mode!of!the!text!is!how!it!is!presented.!Is!it!in!the!written!or!spoken!
mode?!Whichever!mode!it!is,!it!will!be!governed!by!differing!rules!and!structures.!!
!
Vocabulary!–!the!amount!of!words!available!to!an!individual.!
!
Paralinguistic'features!–!literally!‘beyond!language’.!The!things!that!aid!
communication!but!don’t!literally!constitute!language,!e.g.!body'language,'facial'
expressions,'laughter,'sighs,'whispering.'
!
Prosodic'features!–!the!‘sound!effects’!of!spoken!language.!Things!like!stress,!
intonation!and!pitch.!!
!
Stress!–!the!emphasis!placed!on!certain!words,!through!volume,!significant!pauses!
beforehand,!or!inflexion.!!
!
Intonation!–!the!rise!and!fall!of!an!individual’s!natural!speaking!voice!or!the!variation!
or!‘tune’!to!keep!listeners!interested.!These!naturally!differ!from!nation!to!nation!as!
different!languages!have!different!intonation!qualities.!!
!
Pitch!–!the!rise!or!fall!of!the!voice.!High!pitch!is!squeaky!and!low!pitch!is!deep.!
!
Turn'taking!–!coCordinated!and!rule!governed!coCoperation!between!two!or!more!
participants!of!a!conversation.!
!
Adjacency'pair!–!a!moment!in!turn!taking!where!one!utterance!constrains!the!
response!in!some!way,!e.g.'a'question'leads'to'an'answer;'a'suggestion'leads'to'an'
acceptance'or'declination.'
!
Back'channelling!–!the!process!of!giving!feedback!through!encouraging!noises!and!
positive!comments!when!a!speaker!is!talking!to!encourage!them.!!
!
Running'repair!–!the!process!of!socially!organising!a!conversation!if!two!people!find!
that!they!have!been!talking!simultaneously.!!
!
Topic'marker!–!an!utterance!that!establishes!the!topic!of!a!conversation.!
!
Topic'shifter!–!an!utterance!that!moves!a!conversation!on!to!another!topic,!e.g.!
“Anyway...'“'
!
Interrupted'construction!–!the!breakdown!of!an!utterance!where!half!way!through!
the!speaker!will!completely!change!tact,!focus!or!even!topic!and!move!onto!
something!else,!sometimes!abandoning!the!original!utterance!mid!word.!Explain!in!
detail!how!these!have!occurred.!!

12. !
False'starts!–!The!speaker!realises!the!beginning!of!an!utterance!isn’t!working!and!so!
effectively!reCstarts!by!rephrasing.!
!
Hesitation'indicators!–!moments!in!discourse!that!indicate!that!the!speaker!is!in!
some!way!playing!for!time.!This!can!be!seen!in!certain!forms!of!stuttering!and!in!
fillers!such!as!um,'err'and!ahh!when!the!speaker!is!thinking!of!the!next!thing!to!say.!
!
Fillers!–!the!insertion!of!words,!phrases!or!noises!into!a!speaker’s!discourse,!e.g.'like,'
y’know,'sort'of,'right.'These!can!be!due!to!the!individual’s!own!idiolect!or!convey!
some!subliminal!conversational!purpose,!depending!on!the!context.!''
!
Latch@ons!–!when!a!speaker!takes!their!turn!immediately!after!the!preceding!speaker!
has!finished!speaking!leaving!no,!or!little,!pause.!This!can!be!due!to!an!attempt!for!
conversational!dominance!or!a!degree!of!familiarity!between!the!speakers,!among!
other!reasons.!
!
Overlaps!–!when!one!speaker!speaks!over!another.!
!
Glottal'stops!–!the!omission!of!(usually)!dental!sounds!in!the!middle!of!words!like!
butter,!letter,!better!etc,!in!pronunciation.!Occasionally!these!can!occur!at!the!ends!
of!words!like!‘what’.!!!
!
Non@fluency'features!–!any!feature!which!would!indicate!that!the!speaker!is!not!
speaking!with!fluency!for!whatever!reason,!e.g.!someone!might!stammer!if!they!are!
under!severe!pressure,!or!a!foreign!speaker!may!invert!syntax!or!elide!certain!words!
from!their!utterances.!!
!
Tag'question!–!a!question!tagged!onto!the!end!of!an!statement,!e.g!‘It’s'cold,'isn’t'
it?’'
!
Vocative'–!a!direct!reference!to!another!speaker!in!discourse,!e.g.'“Bob,'can'you...”'
!
Elision!–!the!omission!of!a!vowel!or!syllable!in!the!pronunciation!of!a!word…!OR!the!
omission!of!a!vowel!at!the!end!of!a!word!when!the!subsequent!word!begins!with!a!
vowel!(as!apparent!in!northern!pronunciation),!e.g.!“it’s'either'one'or't’other.”'
!
Code'switching!–!the!ability!of!a!speaker!to!alter!the!register!or!clarity!of!their!
speech!to!suit!a!different!social!situation.!!
!
Received'Pronunciation!–!the!typical!pronunciation!associated!with!the!social!elite!
of!Britain.!The!Queen’s!English!etc.!!
!
Accent'–!The!manner!of!pronunciation!particular!to!a!certain!geographical!region.!
!
Regional'Dialect!–!the!actual!words!used!and!the!spoken!grammar!which!is!
particular!to!a!certain!geographical!region.!!

13. !
Sociolect!–!the!vocabulary!and!spoken!grammar!which!is!particular!to!a!certain!social!
group.!!
!
Idiolect!–!the!speech!patterns!of!an!individual.!
!
!
!
Alternate(rhyme(Lines&of&poetry&where&the&rhyme&is&on&every&other&line&
(abab)&
Caesura(A&mid8line&pause&
Couplet(A&two&line&verse&(often&rhyming)&
End3focus(A&change&in&the&structure&of&the&sentence&to&place&emphasis&
on&a&closing&sentence&element.&
Enjambment(Run8on&lines&
Eye(rhyme(Where&the&rhyme&looks&like&it&should&rhyme&but&the&sound&
is&not&exactly&the&same.&
foregrounding(A&change&in&the&structure&of&the&sentence&to&place&emphasis&
on&an&opening&sentence&element&
Form(The&structure&and&shape&of&the&text&
Iambic(A&unit&of&poetic&meter&containing&one&unstressed&syllable&
followed&by&one&stressed&syllable&8/&
Internal(rhyme(Where&the&rhyming&sound&occurs&within&a&line&of&verse&
Octet(An&eight&line&verse&
Pentameter(A&unit&of&poetic&meter&containing&five&feet&(10&syllables&in&
total)&
Petrarchan(or(Italian(
sonnet(
A&poem&of&14&lines,&divided&into&an&octet&and&a&sestet,&
written&in&iambic&pentameter,&rhyming&abbaabbba&cdecde&
(sestet&may&vary)&
Quatrain(A&four8line&verse&
Rhythm(The&pattern&of&syllables&and&stresses&within&poetry&
Sestet(A&six8line&verse&
Shakespearean(or(
English(sonnet(
A&poem&of&14&lines,&divided&into&three&quatrains&and&a&
couplet,&written&in&iambic&pentameter,&rhyming&abab&cdcd&
efef&gg&
Stanza(The&division&of&lines&in&a&poem,&also&called&a&verse&
Verse(Type(The&type&of&poem&e.g.&sonnet,&lyric,&ballad,&ode,&narrative&
poem&etc.&
Volta(The&turning&point&in&a&sonnet&

14. When analysing a text, the worst thing you could possibly do is dive
straight in and start analysing. There are things you need to consider
before you start writing in order for you to successfully structure
your work and analyse in sufficient depth to succeed on this course
to the required level.
First, you must GASP at the text, whatever it may be. You’ve probably
guessed that GASP is one of those horrible acronyms, but it should help you
remember the process of initial consideration.

G – Genre – what type of text is it? Is it a leaflet, advertisement, piece of
rhetoric, transcript of somebody singing in the bath, shopping list, or maybe a
piece of high literature… what is it? Once, you’ve answered this question, you
should begin thinking about the general linguistic conventions of such a text.

A – Audience – who is it written for (specifically)? So, it’s an advert for
chocolate, for example, but who is the target audience? Is the text trying to
appeal to men and women, old or young, rich or poor?

S – Subject – what is the text about? If it is an article, what is the subject
and will that have an effect on the language used?

P – Purpose – what is it trying to do overall?


So imagine if you were confronted with, say, an introduction to a Jamie Oliver
cook book - you may be able to make the following statement:
(G) The text is the introduction to a cookbook by Jamie Oliver where he
directly addresses the reader and welcomes them in a friendly tone. (A) It
is written for people with a direct interest in cooking and, because of his
informal and approachable manner on television, it could be assumed that
a lot of people would read this who might be initially intimidated by the
notion of cooking. (S) The text details the contents of the book and what
the reader can expect from the overall publication. (P) Overall it is
attempting to entice perhaps browsers in bookshops to make a purchase,
or for people who have bought the book to take a chance on some of the
more difficult recipes within.

15. After thinking about the GASP you need to write your analytical essay. To
do this you will need to apply the CLIPO framework. CLIPO is not a hard
and fast rule that must be applied; however you must include all its
elements in some form within your analytical work.

C – CONTEXT – you need to begin your essay with a rundown of the
contextual factors that will shape the thrust of your discussion. Who has
written the text, when was it written etc? In essence, you can make this
opening to the essay something resembling the GASP paragraph.

L – LEXIS – or the ‘language’ used. Make analytical comments on
grammar, syntax, imagery, lexical choices etc.

I – INTERACTIONAL FEATURES - how does the text interact with the
audience. Look at the graphology. Are there any typographical features.
Does it address the audience directly using first person pronouns? Does it
utilise images? Are modal elements juxtaposed for effect?

P – PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES – are there any sound effects utilised by
the text? Is there alliteration, assonance, consonance, onomatopoeia,
phonetic spelling etc?

O – OVERVIEW – sum up your findings and perhaps evaluate the
effectiveness of all the features that you have analysed in relation to the
points you made in the CONTEXT section, referring once again to GASP.
In theory, now you have the makings of a decent essay.

However, there is one last framework that you have to now
apply to this ‘skeleton’ in order to flesh it out and proclaim
‘I’m a top notch essay!’

16. This is how you write a good essay. This is how you
get the top grades. This booklet is just about the
best thing ever…remember…love it, hug it…and it’ll
just hug you right back.

At school, you will probably have been told to use POINT, EVIDENCE &
EVALUATION when analysing texts.

We’re going to be a little bit more grown up here at College (well, a bit
anyway) so from now on we’ll use CQA. Once, you’ve GASP(ed) and
planned your analytical essay with CLIPO, every single point you make
must follow thusly:


C – COMMENT – okay, so you’ve spotted a feature of language so now
you need to mention it. Go on – write a declarative sentence. That’s all you
need to do. Just come out and say it!


Q – QUOTE – oh? Does the text really utilise synecdoche to create a
parallel image to the central notion that the concept of robots symbolise a
whole totalitarian society of emotionless drudgery. What an excellent
comment. Although an examiner will always want proof that you know
what you’re talking about and that you aren’t trying to merely create a
good impression with waffled terms. Prove it! Follow up your comment with
a direct quote from the text to support your astute claims.

A – ANALYSIS – Going good so far. You’ve commented well and proved it
with a quote. Now analyse the quote in depth. Discuss the effect of the
notion you’ve outlaid in the comment and relate it to GASP. For example,
why is it using metaphor? How does the metaphor work? Why will the
intended audience appreciate this particular metaphor? Is it a cliché? If it is
a rather commonly understood metaphor, used in wider circles, then what
effect does this have on the audience? Is it usual for this type of text to
utilise imagery like this?