A Review Of Advantages And Disadvantages Of Using ICT Tools In Teaching ESL Reading And Writing

Paper Writing Service
http://StudyHub.vip/A-Review-Of-Advantages-And-Disadvantage 👈

1. A Review of Advantages and Disadvantages of Using ICT Tools in Teaching ESL Reading
and Writing

Melor Md Yunus
1
, Norazah Nordin
1
, Hadi Salehi
1, 2*
, Norul Rafidah Binti Redzuan
1
, and
Mohamed Amin Embi
1

1
Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600 Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia
2
Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Najafabad, Isfahan, Iran

*Correspondence: Hadi Salehi (Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Najafabad Branch, Islamic
Azad University, Najafabad, Isfahan, Iran. Tel: [phone]. E-mail:
[email protected])

Abstract: The study of integrating Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
teaching and learning is one of the most widely discussed issues in the field of education. The
majority of researchers and educators believe that ICT, when properly used, improves teaching
and learning and provides more teaching and learning supports for the teachers and learners.
There is no doubt that using ICT in schools improves teachers’ instructional process and
facilitates students’ learning process. Many research studies have shown the positive and
motivating effects of technology aided instruction. However, some discouraging factors act as a
barrier and prevent teachers to integrate ICT applications into the teaching process. This study
aims to review the advantages and disadvantages of using ICT tools in teaching English as a
Second Language (ESL) reading and writing.
Key Words: Information and Communication Technology (ICT), English as a Second Language
(ESL), Reading, Writing, Teaching, Learning
1. The Use of ICT in ESL Classrooms
ICT has been proven to provide a good environment for general language courses (Mullamaa,
2010). The general layout of web-based activities in language classrooms included exercises as
enrichment activities and they usually support what has been learnt in the classrooms. One of the
earliest uses of ICT in education was word processing, used to help learners in the writing
process. Our research shows that even today, word processing is one of the primary uses of ICT
in ESL (Murray, Lloyd & McPherson, 2006). Educators have required learners to use word

2. processing to create their documents, but have also used features such as comment and track
changes to have students respond to each other’s writing. Some researchers have found that word
processing and electronic response lead to greater revision and therefore more effective writing,
while other researchers have found that learners pay more attention to surface features than to
organization or content.
ICT and web-based learning solutions offer the learners the possibilities for making the
learning process more interesting and challenging (Yunus et al., 2010). Some of the capacities
here are attractive and enthusieng, even similar to what has been pointed out as the educational
reserve of video games. Mullamaa (2010) suggested that the principles these follow often relate
to the principles of encouraging active learning. In language teaching, the educational and
tutoring support available can be used in creating the e-learning environments for teaching
general language courses in different languages at different levels; for learning terminology, and
ESP (English for Specific Purposes) in different fields of specialisation. At the same time, ICT
enables us to foster student-centred learning, individualisation and support building up a sense of
belonging to a community (Mullamaa, 2010).
2. The Use of ICT in Teaching Reading and Writing Skills
Reading involves the process of decoding words (Floyd et al., 2007) whereas writing on the
other hand, involves the reverse – encoding process. Both skills are important in the aspect of
language learning. Although ICT could be an important tool to enhance the teaching of ESL
reading and writing, there are pros and cons of using the tool. Thus, the following sub-sections
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using ICT in teaching reading and writing skills.
2.1 Advantages of Using ICT
2.1.1 General Benefits of ICT Usage in Teaching and Learning
One of the popular tools which is commonly adapted in the teaching of reading and writing is the
use of blogs. Blogging offers a real-world digital medium for communication. It is multi-
dimensional in that it does not just offer a ‘container’ for writing but has the possibility of

3. multiple audiences and access points. In a research conducted on the effectiveness of using the
‘online writing’ approach in teaching writing, Kelly & Safford (2009) drew upon data from a
research project undertaken in 2 Year 6 classrooms during the 2006 World Cup, to analyze how
children used complex sentence structures in their writing on a football web-log. They explore
how the confluence of a temporary, popular, global event and an online forum for
communication created a moment of linguistic empowerment where pupils began to use high-
level forms of language. This research shows positive findings in terms of the students’
interested in presenting ideas and responding to their classmates’ ideas by commenting on the
blog. Online blogs allow students to get feedback from more than one person, and this type of
peer feedback may be more effective than traditional self-editing (Holder, 2006). It gives the
implication towards the positive interactivity for the teaching and learning of sentence grammar,
by using blogs in the teaching of writing.
The researchers also concluded that it is perhaps the dialogic nature of the blog that
powered this language – perhaps it was the blog’s communicative network that enabled the
children to hypothesize and defend their reasoning and speculation using complex sentence
structures. Blogs are also popular forums for many teens to express themselves, and there is
growing evidence that teens having their own blogs tend to be prolific writers inside and outside
of school (Lenhart et al., 2008). Moreover, when students post their writing online, the audience
transforms from one person (i.e., the teacher) to a larger social community. This changes the
dynamic of writing from something that is done to receive a grade to place it in a social context
where form, style, and understanding of audience take on increased importance (Sweeny, 2010).
Besides the use of blogs in the teaching of reading and writing, in ‘Authoring With
Video’, Strassman & O’ Connell (2007) explored the advantages of using technology to motivate
students to apply knowledge in any content area to a writing task. Authoring With Video (AWV)
enables students to get started writing in a medium they know and love – video. It is similar to
writing text for a wordless picture book. The videos, like the pictures in a wordless book, serve
as the trigger for an organized text. Finding their voices as writers is less of a challenge for
students because they are comfortable with messages and visual images working together to
communicate meaning. AWV encourages students to formally recognize this ability as a skill

4. that has its roots in writing. It capitalizes on the sophisticated video-viewing and comprehension
abilities of learners and casts them as writers, publishers, and producers of content. Students
would revise more and spend more time on task when they are engaged in a project that has an
audience beyond their teacher. Students’ motivation to fully engage in writing and revising text
is sparked by their desire to communicate with the reader and by their individual pride of
authorship. All of these factors can increase student engagement with written language and
increase the quantity of writing produced. AWV also has the added incentive of producing
completed movies to share with classmates, friends, and family. The finished product looks
professional and can be easily posted to a website or blog.
The third advantage is seen from the use of e-learning or online education. Online
education is defined as an approach to teaching and learning that utilizes new technology to
communicate and collaborate in an educational context (Piezon & Donaldson, 2005 as cited in
Aksal, 2009). The process of online communication enables the learners to actively construct
their own perspectives which they can communicate to a small group. Learners engage in active,
constructive, intentional, authentic and collaborative learning. Enabling the groups to socially
construct knowledge through communicating and collaborating with others is an important
element of constructivist-based online learning and teaching (Meyer, 2002 as cited in Aksal,
2009). In this context, ICT is seen to provide a platform for active and meaningful learning to
occur.
A study was carried out by Blachowicz et al. (2009) to observe the technology in use by
the students, to observe the classroom dynamics and teacher choices centred on the technology
use, to look at student learning, and to learn about student and teacher perceptions and beliefs
about technology. A computer-assisted literacy programme is designed to aid reading instruction
in language classrooms. The findings suggested that students were motivated, on task, and
attentive when working on their literacy tasks. The management and approach to the centres was
more focused and required less teacher management than many other aspects of instructional
time, freeing the teacher to focus on other issues. Besides, the learning technology allowed
students to develop independent work habits and to build both their skills and confidence about
literacy and about using technology. Both teachers and students commented on the fact that they

5. saw skills, focus, attention, and confidence being built. Several teachers noted that students who
did not exhibit much attentional control at the start of the year were able to attend at the
technology centre and felt that the students then became more able to focus in class. Analyses of
student performance also suggest that student performance improved in the classes in which the
literacy technology was used (Blachowicz et al., 2009).
In another related study on the use of ICT in the teaching of reading specifically, Yuksel
& Tanriverdi (2009) explored the effects of watching captioned movie clip on vocabulary
development of EFL learners. When the findings of this study are interpreted, it can be argued
that viewing the movie clip has helped the participants of the study develop their vocabulary
knowledge, and this would facilitate the reading process.
The advantages of using technology are also being addressed by Considine, Horton &
Moorman (2009) in terms of using different media resources for different instruction. Some of
the media tried out include songs, editorial cartoons, video clips and internet resources to engage
students in the learning process. Strategies for engaging students in media literacy activities are
becoming more available as instructional frameworks or templates have been identified for
analyzing different types of media. The emergence of ICT has shown to intensify the impact of
media on culture and schooling. Connecting reading, writing, visual, and technological literacy
provided students with opportunities to write for wider audiences and to produce authentic texts
such as online book reviews (Lawrence, McNeal & Yildiz, 2009).
Moving on to an integral part of ICT, which is the internet. With the amount of
information up on the net, users are able to collaborate and broaden their experience. Students
could take responsibility for finding answers to suit their own learning needs (Choi & Ho, 2002
as cited in Sweeny, 2010). Another advantage is that it promotes collaborative learning. The
Internet allows like-minded people to communicate through websites, blogs, and social
networking sites. Many of these sites include an option that permits users to work collaboratively
and publish their writing. This type of writing is becoming more prevalent in the workplace, so
exposing students to this process may provide them with skills that will translate directly to their
future work as adults.

6. Besides that, research in the use of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in the
writing classroom has indicated that CALL creates a supportive and motivating environment for
learners conducive to students to work at their own pace and linguistic developmental level and
enhances their independent writing skills in terms of quality and quantity (Lam & Pennington,
1995; Bialo & Sivin-Kachala, 1996; Goldberg, Russell & Cook 2003; Stepp-Greany, 2002 as
cited in Fidaoui, Bahous & Bacha, 2010).
ICT supports the modern principles of learning and language acquisition.
Individualisation, interaction and student motivation, often considered paramount in modern
education theories, are necessarily a part of the process in ICT. Mullamaa (2010) discussed the
relationship between student motivation and e-learning. It is suggested that a well-balanced ICT
environment will enable students to feel the above and stay motivated throughout the learning
process (Yunus & Salehi, 2012). Motivation, individualisation, learning in context and the
activation of the learner - all buzzwords in modern education – are often a part and parcel of a
successful ICT support.
2.1.2 Motivating Factors of Using ICT in Teaching Reading and Writing Skills
Motivation in Reading
Reading is the construction of meaning. Without understanding, there is no reading in that
manner (Hassan, 2005). When we read, we pick up information and our minds work
continuously to connect that information to what we already know, remember what is important,
adjust our funds of knowledge to incorporate new ideas or interpret them in a different way, read
between the lines is to get at deeper meaning, and evaluate information and ideas. When teaching
reading, we teach students to develop phonological awareness, develop a strong phonics base,
integrate phonics and structure, and read for comprehension. There are various levels of these
definitions of reading at each grade level. As students progress through these levels, they ascend
toward the goal of becoming an expert reader (Norton & Wiburg, 2007).
Reading is a discipline in schools that is seen throughout all the other disciplines. With
reading being integrated so much into other content areas, it needs to actually be taught within

7. each area. Reading processes have been identified as critical for success in all content areas
(Norton & Wiburg, 2007). Teaching reading is an integral part of all content areas; therefore,
every teacher must be a reading teacher. Students are faced with reading problems within each
area of the curriculum. Every student begins their experience with books that are mainly
storybooks. Suddenly as they being to further their skills in reading, the reading becomes more
dominantly done in textbooks. This is a big reason why students struggle with textbooks
(McIntyre, 2006).
Students need to be taught about the specific vocabulary within each content area. They
need to understand how to understand language and symbols that are used with every subject.
We as teachers should help them understand “the features within the chapters, such as words in
italics or bold print, definitions, explanations, examples, margin notes, diagrams, and
summaries” (Norton & Wiburg, 2007, p. 35). This can be accomplished through teacher
modelling. The teachers can think aloud as they are reading to the class for students to see a great
way of interpreting what they are reading. This can go beyond textbooks to involve
understanding this same type of material being read off of a computer. As some research has
found, concern teachers expressed is that students do not have the skills to read and comprehend
context-based text. Content areas teachers need to be skilled in content-based reading strategies.
Teachers can teach these strategies through various whole-class and small-group activities.
Using technology to read text aloud is beginning to be used in the elementary classroom.
According to Brown & Augustine (2001), using screen reading software as an accommodation
for students with poor reading skills is effective. This is especially true when reading for content.
Students who read to learn content who lack reading proficiency may perform poorly due to their
reading skills. This causes them be assessed incorrectly. Several applications of software exist,
including talking word processors which can highlight, re-read text, and import text from other
programs. Students with learning disabilities find that having written material read aloud assists
them to better edit, comprehend and organize (Brown & Augustine, 2001). Once any file (story
from a book, assignment, article, typed information, etc.) is imported into a talking word
processor, the text can be read aloud to the student. These talking word processors programs
offer other adjustments such as enlarging the size of the text and changing the color of the

8. foreground, background and highlighting box to assist students in following along as the text is
read. Any products created by the teacher that are available in electronic format can be imported
to be read aloud. Therefore, quizzes, exams, outlines, directions and worksheets can be made
more accessible to students.
As students get older and work in multiple programs, including web browsers and e-mail,
these programs become more useful. Text Readers are software programs that read all the text in
any given document or application and often include other assistive features such as word
prediction and spell check. Those with a reading disability, but with adequate vision most often
use them (Brown & Augustine, 2001). Typically a floating tool bar is installed to work with any
Windows software program such as a word processor, spreadsheet, database, email or Internet
options. Its areas of support include speech feedback, screen reading, phonetic spell checker,
word prediction, and thesaurus. To use these programs, students and teachers would require an
introduction to allow them to become familiar with the software methods. Additionally, a set of
headphones would likely be desirable, as they would prevent the program from distracting other
students.
Teachers must teach their students to search for credible information on the web. This
typically takes place around third grade and later, when students independently search for
research material on the web. Skimming and scanning help to find the information needed,
without reading everything on a Web page (National Commission on Writing, 2004). Skimming
is glancing quickly over a text to get a general idea of the topic. When skimming, students
should quickly look over the entire page, focusing on any titles and headings, and look at the
illustrations, diagrams, and captions, and try to determine what they describe. Scanning is
looking for key words and phrases that will give them the specific information they need. When
scanning, students should look for key words, headings, and terms in bold or italics that refer to
information they need. They should read the first and last sentences of the paragraphs on the
page to see if they connect to information they need. Additionally the strategies described to help
with reading hypermedia also can be applied to help problem solve while researching. These
strategies can be used across linear and non-linear forms of reading.

9. Motivation in Writing
Writing is especially important for the instruction of second language learners for three reasons.
First, writing well is a vital skill for academic or occupational success (National Commission on
writing, 2004), but that is especially difficult for second language learners to master it. Second,
writing can be an effective tool for the development of academic language proficiency as learners
more readily explore advanced lexical or syntactic expression in their written work (Warschauer,
2010). Third, writing across the curriculum can be invaluable for mastering diverse subject
matter, as written expression allows learners to raise their awareness of knowledge gaps, abstract
problem-specific knowledge into schemas that can be applied to other relevant cases, and
elaborate mental representations of knowledge that can be more easily retrieved, while
simultaneously allowing teachers to better understand the students’ state of knowledge and
thinking process and thus adjust instruction as necessary (Reeves, 2002).
New digital media have played an important role in the teaching of writing, through both
the cognitive era that began in the 1980s, in which word processing was emphasized as a tool for
revision (Pennington, 1993), and the socio cognitive era that began in the 1990s, in which
computer-mediated communication was emphasized as a tool of social construction of meaning
(Kern & Warschauer, 2000; Ali & Yunus, 2004). Over the last decade, though, important new
tools have emerged for the teaching and learning of writing. To produce effective writing, it
requires the students to go through a complex process such as to express, restructure, and
organise ideas clearly, economically, and effectively way. For ESL learners, writing is made
more difficult, as they have to write in a language that is not their mother tongue. Many ESL
writing instructors, in general agreed that computer programmes such as the word processor
seems to facilitate individuals in completing their writing task.
The word processor is seen as an ideal tool to increase the ESL learner’s motivation and
help them during the various phases of the writing process (Yunus et al, 2009). In the studies the
word processor have reported positive changes in student attitudes toward writing the students
were reported to be increasingly independent and confident in writing. This was envisaged as an
important implication for students’ future education. In general, it appears that word processing
has had a positive impact on student attitudes toward writing. Peterson (1993) summarised that

10. generally, studies on student attitudes toward writing has come to the same conclusion, i.e. the
use of computer has made writing more enjoyable for people of different ages and disciplines.
2.2 Disadvantages of Using ICT
Besides having advantages, there are disadvantages of using ICT in the teaching of reading and
writing too. Two concerns that teachers have about using technology such as Instant Messaging
(IM) or blogs with their students is that students will not take the work seriously and will not use
what they have learned in school in their postings (Sweeny, 2010). Moreover, as Ward (2004)
pointed out, although students could be exposed to a variety of reading materials and genres of
writing, there is a danger that the reading skills that are developed from scrolling the computer
screen lead to an accelerated but superficial, and often inaccurate, understanding of the content.
There are also a number of disadvantages to using ICT in one’s writing. Kern (2000),
citing Haas (1989), argues that one such disadvantage is the ability to move chunks of
information around in a document. He claims the writer loses sight of the big picture, that by
focussing on small bits of text, the writer does not see the hole ideas of writing that the overall
message of the text gets lost when moving pieces of text around. However, an argument could be
made that word processing offers the tools for keeping track of these chunks of writing, in
contrast to writing by hand where moving bits of writing around would probably in most cases
make the rough draft illegible and unmanageable.
Writers can shift directly from an outline view to a full display of a word processing
document (Kern, 2000). They can use hidden text to write notes to themselves or to keep track of
deleted paragraphs that they might use elsewhere. They can use colour to visually indicate the
logical structure of their writing for example marking thesis statement in one colour and
supporting evidence in another, or using two colours to show contrasting points of view within a
paragraph. They can use different typefaces to convey a ‘formal’ or ‘casual’ or ‘playful’ feel to
the text (Warschauer, 2010).
Kern (2000) also agrees with Selfe (1989) who argues that it is more difficult finding
what one is looking for in an electronic text than a physical piece of writing. However, with

11. almost every word processing software containing an extensive search or find function which
can be used to find a specific word, line, paragraph or section, it would be difficult to agree with
Selfe (1989) line of argument. When trying to find something specific in an actual, physical text,
without knowing where to look, one would have to start reading from the very beginning until
the particular passage was found. When constantly having to go back to revise or add bits to
one’s writing, this seems arguably an arduous and time-consuming approach. However, writing
any extensive piece of text is hard work, even with all the functions of ICT designed to make the
process more manageable (Melor Md Yunus, 2007).
Another reason that computers in the classroom would prove to be a disadvantage is the
availability of computers in the classroom to each individual student. It is rare to find a school
that, in each classroom, has a computer supplied for each of the student. This then brings up the
problem of scheduling and rotating the students to the computers available. According to Thierer
(2001), this begins a whole new ball game in which you are now consuming a lot of time in
which could be used for more productive measures rather than scheduling computer time for
each student. If this is the case, and only a specific amount of students can be on the computer at
one time, then you are dividing your classroom, and not integrating it, as it should be. This may
causes many difficulties in teaching a whole group instruction, which leads to problems in skill
development, since the attention of some students is lacking (Thierer, 2001).
On the Colorado state education web site (2003) some teachers were asked by giving
their opinions such as, students have a tendency to come in a print out papers at the beginning of
class instead of coming into class with a hard copy and paste from others resource or even from
their friends. Other than that is the technological difficulty, when whole lesson could be shot for
the day if the computer would go down due to electrical problems. When the teachers were asked
about the difficulties they faced themselves and with the students due to computers in the
classroom, some said that it is hard to get the students attention when they are on the computers.
Some teachers fear of the computer in classroom by saying that students tend to do their own
work and do not pay attention to the lesson.
Another issue of disadvantages using ICT in the classrooms regards the child's health. If a
child was to be functioning on a computer for example for a long interlude of time or with

12. incorrect positioning they will accidentally get in the way of their own health, some problems
caused from this include muscular injuries and also their vision problems.
An additional issue concerning the use of ICT in classrooms is that a lot of teachers have
not been trained to use a computer, and many do not know how. An enormous amount of time
would have to be consumed for the teachers to learn both the ICT equipment of the computer.
They also would need time to collaborate with other teachers. Time is something that many
teachers spend planning lessons and the weekly events of their classroom (Fisher, 2006). The
other problem that was just mentioned was the training of the teachers. Some educators do not
have local training options available to them. Some do not have the time or money to spend on it.
Furthermore, the issue is that even if a teacher does go through training, there are always
unsuspected things that can go wrong with ICT equipment. If a teacher were to base their whole
lesson on a ICT based, and it were to crash, and the teacher just being minimally skilled in using
ICT facilities, would not be able to fix the system so that they could continue their lesson
(Thierer, 2001). Therefore, an on-site technology expert would be needed on site at all times in
case any of these incidences would happen, and quite honestly there are not many school districts
having looking for another expense for their school.
Another reason for ICT being a disadvantage in the classroom is that if the computer is
Internet accessible, if this is the case, then the children can be exposed to Internet content that is
not appropriate for their age level. They can also be exposed to child predators, which is a huge
concern in today's world. Though this may seem far-fetched it truly is not in an article published
on the guardian angel website in 2000 states, “The facts are plain. Children are being targeted,
solicited, and made victims by paedophiles. These predators range from the simple minded closet
paedophile who has surfaced because they believe they are safely anonymous behind their
account alias, to the highly organized and skilled child pornography rings that operate
predominantly off of US soil, behind quick discard web sites, and anonymous remailers, pushing
their shocking wares for big profit” (Fisher, 2006, p. 29). It would be hard for one teacher to
keep a close eye on each individual student in the classroom when they are all accessing the
Internet at the same time. Therefore, as a teacher, learning the latest technology is a necessity,
but by using computers for classes like reading and writing are difficult.

13. To sum it all up, ICT in the classroom may not provide the students with the proper
education that they need if the ICT being used is not sufficient manner. ICT may not be,
depending on the school, made available to each student. The attention of the students is harder
to get when they are on the computer. An inexperienced teacher in the technology area may
cause many problems in the classroom, and consume valuable time that could be used to educate
(Desimone, 2009). Most schools do not provide an onsite technician in case a difficulty may
arise. The children's health may be affected by long-term use of the computers, and probably the
most frightening one is that these children can be exposed to child predators and unfiltered
inappropriate content through the web while they are in school and in their classrooms presumed
to be receiving their education (Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007).
3. Conclusion
To sum up, the advantages of using ICT in the teaching of reading and writing found in the
literature include gaining students’ interest in presenting their ideas and responding to their
classmates’ ideas, allowing effective peer feedback, giving positive interactivity within the
teaching and learning, motivating students to apply knowledge in any content area to a writing
task, engaging students in different projects, increasing student engagement with the language,
allowing the utilization of new technology to communicate and collaborate in an educational
context, providing a platform for active and meaningful learning to occur, developing
independent work habits, improving learners’ vocabulary knowledge, allowing user
collaboration and the publishing of work such as writing. As for the disadvantages, the literature
suggests that the use of computer technology could cause the lackadaisical attitude among
students whereby they will not take their work seriously and that the students’ reading skills
developed from scrolling the computer screen could lead to an accelerated but superficial,
inaccurate understanding of the content.
References
Aksal, F. A. (2009). Action plan on communication practices: roles of tutors at EMU Distance
Education Institute to overcome social barriers in constructing knowledge. The Turkish Online
Journal of Educational Technology 8(2): 33-47.

14. Ali, Z., & Yunus, M. M. (2004). An ESL writing course: Unravelling students' needs and
concerns. Proceedings of 2004 Melta Conference, English Language Education: Focus on
Oracy. Retrieved from http://www.melta.org.my/ET/2004/2004-114.pdf [21 September, 2012]
Bialo, E. R., & Sivin-Kachala, J. (1996). The effectiveness of technology in schools: A summary
of recent research. School Library Media Quarterly, 25(1), 51-57.
Blachowicz, C., Bates, A., Berne, J., Bridgman, T., Chaney, J., & Perney, J. (2009). Technology
and at-risk young readers and their classrooms. Reading Psychology, 30(5), 387-411.
DOI:10.1080/02702710902733576.
Brown, P. J., & Augustine, A. (2001). Screen reading software as an assessment
accommodation: Implications for instruction and student performance. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle, WA.
Choi, C. C., & Ho, H. (2002). Exploring new literacies in online peer-learning environments.
Reading Online, 6(1). Retrieved September 10, 2012, from
readingonline.org/newliteracies/lit_index.asp?HREF=choi/index.html
Considine, D., Horton, J. & Moorman, G. (2009). Teaching and reading the millennial
generation through media literacy. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 52(6): 471-481.
Desimone, L. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers' professional development: Toward
better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181-199 DOI:
10.3102/0013189X08331140.
Fidaoui, D., Bahous, R. & Bacha, N. N. (2010). CALL in Lebanese elementary ESL writing
classrooms. Computer Assisted Language Learning 23 (2): 151-168.
Fisher, T. (2006). Educational transformation: Is it like 'beauty' in the eye of the beholder, or will
we know it when we see it? Education and Information Technologies, 11, 293-303.

15. Floyd, R.G., Keith, T.Z., Taub, G.E. & McGrew, K.S. (2007). Cattell–Horn–Carroll cognitive
abilities and their effects on reading decoding skills: g has indirect effects, more specific abilities
have direct effects. School Psychology Quarterly 22(2): 200-233.
Goldberg, A., Russell, M., & Cook, A. (2003). The effect of computers on student writing: A
metaanalysis of studies from 1992 to 2002. Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment,
2(1). Available from http://www.jtla.org.
Haas, C. (1989). Seeing it on the screen; Isn’t really seeing it: Computer writers’ reading
problems’ in Hawisher, Gayle E. and Selfe, Cynthia L. (eds), Perspectives on Computers and
Composition Instruction. New York: Teacher’s College Press. 16-29.
Hassan, S. (2005). Reading and writing skills for advanced students of business English in
Pakistan. NUML, Islamabad. Retrieved from www.eric.com [28 August, 2012].
Holder, C. R. (2006). New media and new literacies: Perspectives on change. EDUCAUSE
Review 41(6): 76–77.
Kelly, A. & Safford, K. (2009). Does teaching complex sentences have to be complicated?
Lessons from children’s online writing. Journal of Literacy 43(3): 118-122.
Kern, R. (2000). Literacy and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kern, R., & Warschauer, M. (2000). Theory and practice of network-based language teaching. In
M. Warschauer & R. Kern (Eds.), Network-based language teaching: Concepts and practice (pp.
1-19). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Lam, F. S., & Pennington, M. C. (1995). The computer vs. the pen: A comparative study of word
processing in a Hong Kong secondary classroom. Computer-Assisted Language Learning, 8, 75-
92.
Lawless, K. A., & Pellegrino, J. W. (2007). Professional development in integrating technology

16. into teaching and learning: Knowns, unknowns, and ways to pursue better questions and
answers. Review of Educational Research, 77, 575-614.
Lawrence, S. A., McNeal, K., & Yildiz, M. N. (2009). Summer program helps adolescents merge
technology, popular culture, reading, and writing for academic purposes. Journal of Adolescent
and Adult Literacy 52(6): 483-494.
Lenhart, A., Arafeh, S., Smith, A., and Macgill, A. R. (2008). Writing, Technology and Teens.
Washington, DC: The Pew Internet & American Life Project.
McIntyre, D. (2006). Partnership in ITE in Scotland and England: can we learn again from
research and from experience? Scottish Educational Review, Special Edition: Teacher Education
and Professional Development, Vol. 37.
Melor Md Yunus (2007). Malaysian ESL teachers’ use of ICT in their classrooms: Expectations
and realities. European Association for Computer Assisted Language Learning. ReCALL 19(1):
79-95.
Meyer, K. (2002). Quality in distance education. San Francisco: Wiley Periodicals.
Mullamaa, K. (2010). ICT in language learning - benefits and methodological implications.
International Education Studies, 3(1): 38-44.
Murray, D. E., Lloyd, R., & McPherson, P. (2006). Teacher and Learner Use of the New
Technologies in the AMEP. Sydney: NCELTR.
National Commission on Writing. (2004). Writing: A ticket to work…or a ticket out. New York:
The College Entrance Examination Board.
Norton, P. & Wiburg, K. M. (2003). Teaching with technology: Designing opportunities for
learning. Canada: Thompson-Wadsworth.

17. Pennington, M. (1993). Exploring the potential of word processing for non-native writers.
Computers and the Humanities, 27(3), 149-163. DOI:10.1007/BF01830068
Peterson, S.E. (1993). A comparison of student revisions when composing with pen and paper
versus word-processing. Computers in the Schools, 9 (3), 55-69
Piezon, S. L., Donaldson, R. L. (2005). Online groups and social loafing: Understanding student-
group interactions. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 8 (4).
Reeves, D. (2002). Accountability in action. Denver, Colorado: Advanced Learning Press.
Selfe, C. L. (1989). Redefining literacy: The multilayered grammars of computers’ in Hawisher,
Gayle E. and Selfe, Cynthia L. (eds), Critical Perspectives on Computers and Composition
Instruction. New York: Teachers College Press. 3-15.
Stepp-Greany, J. (2002). Student perceptions on language learning in a technological
environment: Implications for the new millennium. Language, Learning and Technology, 6,
165–180.
Strassman, B. K. & O’Connell, T. (2007). Authoring with video. The Reading Teacher 61(4):
330-333.
Sweeny, S. M. (2010). Writing for the instant messaging and text messaging generation: Using
new literacies to support writing instruction. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 54(2):
121-130. DOI: 10.1598/JAAL.54.2.4.
Thierer, A. D. (2001). How free computers are filling the “digital divide”. Washington, DC:
Heritage Foundation.
Ward, J. M. (2004). Blog assisted language earning (BALL): Push button publishing for the
pupils. TEFL Web Journal 3(1): 1-16.

18. Warschauer, M. (2010). Invited Commentary: New tools for teaching writing. Language
Learning & Technology, February, 14 (1).
Yuksel, D. & Tanriverdi, B. (2009). Effects of watching captioned movie clip on vocabulary
development of EFL learners. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 8(2): 33-
47.
Yunus, M. M., Lubis, M. A., Lin, C. P., & Wekke, I. S. (2009). Language learning via ICT:
Students’ experience. Proceedings of the 5th WSEAS/IASME International Conference on
Educational Technologies (EDUTE' 09), pp. 136-142.
Yunus, M. M., Chua, P. L., Maimun, A. L. & Rizauddin, R. (2010). Evaluation of ICT usage for
general or English learning purposes. WSEAS Transactions on Information Science and
Applications, pp. 205-211.
Yunus, M. M. & Salehi, H. (2012). The effectiveness of Facebook groups on Teaching and
Improving Writing: Students’ perceptions. Journal of Education and Information Technologies,
1(6), 87-96.