all livehood.pptx

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1. Course name Rural livelihood and social welfare Prepared by zena Befkadu ( Msc ) 1

2. Chapter one The concept of livelihood 2

3. the student At the end of this course, students will be able to: Explain major concepts of livelihoods To be know and understand the livelihood Asset Will define livelihood strategies Will be understand and define livelihood outcome 3

4. 1.1 . What is livelihood? Livelihood is a set of economic activities, involving self-employment and/or wage-employment by using one’s endowments (human and material ) to generate adequate resources (cash and non-cash) for meeting the requirements of self and the household usually carried out repeatedly and as such become a way of life . A livelihood comprises the capabilities ( ability ), assets (including both material and social resources, and store , claim and access ,resources ) and activities ( Attitude ) required for a means of living

5. continue livelihood as a means of support or subsistence where subsistence defined as the minimum  M eans of support or subsistence The villagers' main livelihood is fishing. obsolete the quality or state of being lively . not just the means to survive to but the capability to thrive

6. 1.2. Why Promote Livelihoods? In the current decade, more millions of people in the world seek work every year. Thus, to ensure full employment within a decade, more million new livelihoods will have to be generated every year. Given the magnitude of the problem, and the dearth of resources for livelihood promotion, the task of promoting livelihoods for the poor becomes all the more urgent. It calls for organizations to use their resources optimally to achieve maximum scale.

7. Continue …… The primary reason to promote livelihoods is the belief in the essential right of all human beings to equal opportunity. Poor people do not have life choices nor do they have opportunities. Ensuring that a poor household has a stable livelihood will substantially increase its income, and over a period of time, asset ownership, self-esteem and social participation

8. Continue …. The second reason for livelihood promotion is to promote economic growth. The ‘bottom of the pyramid’ comprising billion people in the world, who do not have the purchasing power to buy even the bare necessities of life – food, clothing and shelter. But as they get steadier incomes through livelihood promotion, they become customers of many goods and services, which then promote growth.

9. Continue….. The third reason for promoting livelihoods is to ensure social and political stability . When people are hungry, they tend to take to violence and crime. Thus, we see that there are idealistic, utilitarian and plain self-interest based arguments for livelihood promotion. But whatever be the reason, we need to worry about – how to promote livelihoods?

10. 1.3 Livelihoods as an integrating concept The importance of articulating economic, social and environmental policy dimensions into one decision-making framework is vital . Cohesion across each of the three dimensions is essential, since the livelihood decision-making domain of each person is facilitated and /or constrained by interacting factors in all three . Better `triangulation' of these disparate but mutually supportive aspects of public policy is at the heart of the sustainable livelihoods concept Social Dimension Economic Dimension Environmental Dimension

11. Continu …

12. Continue…… Two broad principles are at the core of the sustainable livelihoods approach. First and foremost is its integrative power. The concept can serve as `an integrating factor that allows policies to address issues of development, sustainable resource management and poverty eradication simultaneously. Second is its emphasis not just on jobs , but on the complexity of livelihood systems which need to be both understood and addressed in the context of families, local households and communities.

13. Continue … The policy objective must be therefore, identify the livelihood systems, survival strategies and self-help organizations of people living in poverty, and working with such organizations to develop programs for combating poverty ensuring the full participation of the people concerned

14. 1.4 Vulnerability Context What is the vulnerability ? R efers to exposure to contingencies and stress, and difficulty in coping with them. Vulnerability can be seen as resource-poor households’ exposure to external stresses and shocks which affect their ability to achieve the kind of livelihood outcomes they aim at . Vulnerability in itself means the state of defenselessness , insecurity and exposure to risk, shocks and stress.

15. Continue …. The Vulnerability Context frames the external environment in which people exist. People’s livelihoods and the wider availability of assets are fundamentally affected by critical trends as well as by shocks and seasonality – over which they have limited or no control. Trends Population trends Resource trends (including conflict) National/international economic trends Trends in governance (including politics) Technological trends

16. Continue …. Shocks Human health shocks Natural shocks Economic shocks Conflict Crop/livestock health shocks Seasonality of Prices Production Health Employment opportunities

17. Continue…. Households and individuals will have different and varying degrees of access to and thus different portfolios of assets. However not only do fewer assets equate to greater vulnerability, but also lower potential for substitution between assets and activities makes livelihoods more vulnerable, especially to shocks.

18. Continue… Assets that can readily be liquidated and used to purchase more appropriate assets provide for greater livelihood flexibility. Substitution within asset categories can also occur. One notable example relates to the re-allocation of labour between domestic and outside earning opportunities in response to changing circumstance . With access to different portfolios of diverse assets, individuals and households will consequently respond in different ways to given livelihood shocks or trends.

19. Continue….. Different types of conflict can have profound adverse effects on the livelihoods of the poor . In areas of civil conflict people suffer from lawlessness and physical damage. Conflicts over access to resources are of increasing importance as populations expand and resource use intensifies. If unaddressed, such conflicts may further marginalize already poor groups.

20. Continue ….. It is common for there to be a vicious circle in action. The inherent fragility of poor people’s livelihoods makes them unable to cope with stresses, whether predictable or not . It also makes them less able to manipulate or influence their environment to reduce those stresses; as a result they become increasingly vulnerable and even when trends move in the right direction, the poorest are often unable to benefit because they lack assets and strong institutions working in their favor.

21. What can be done to alter the vulnerability context ? Or coping strategies How do we reduce vulnerability ? Implementing building codes. Insurance and social protection (risk) Emphasizing economic diversity and resilient livelihoods . ( to help people to become more resilient and better able to capitalize on its positive aspects) … Core aim to SLA It can be achieved through supporting poor people to build up their assets Knowledge and awareness raising. Preparedness measures.

22. 1.5 Livelihood Assets

23. 1.7 Livelihood Strategies Livelihood strategies refer to the range of combination of activities that people undertake in order to achieve their livelihood objectives. The types of livelihood options that are available to people are thought to be influenced by the vulnerability context, the extent of livelihood assets and the nature of transforming structures and processes Crop production, livestock rearing, tourism and employment

24. Continue….. Within the sustainable livelihoods framework, three broad clusters of livelihood strategies are identified. there are agricultural Intensification/ extensification Livelihood diversification Migration .

25. Continue…. Broadly, these are seen to cover the range of options open to rural people. Either you gain more of your livelihood from agriculture (including livestock rearing, aquaculture, forestry etc.) through processes of intensification (more output per unit area through capital investment or increases in labour inputs) or extensification (more land under cultivation), or you diversify to a range of off-farm income earning activities, or you move away and seek a livelihood, either temporarily or permanently, elsewhere. Or , more commonly, you pursue a combination of strategies together or in sequence.

26. Continue….. Drawing on reviews of the wider literature, the following distinctions can be seen : Agricultural intensification/ extensification :– These strategies mainline continued or increasing dependence on agriculture, either by intensifying resource use through the application of greater quantities of labour or capital for a given land area, or by bringing more land into cultivation or grazing.

27. Continue…. Whether, households pursue these strategies depend on agro ecological potential and the implications for labour and capital. Technical developments in agriculture may also operate as a key determinant. The availability and the extent to which it is undertaken by the household, will determine in major part the need for, and the household resources available to, off-farm livelihood diversification. Off farm activitie means farmer practice with out agricultural activity Examples of off-farm income and enterprise include   extension services , processing, packaging , storage , transportation distribution , and retail sale . trading salary from off farm job

28. continue G ain more of your livelihood from agriculture (including livestock rearing, aquaculture, forestry etc.) I ntensification = more output per unit area through capital investment or increases in labour inputs E xtensification = more land under cultivation

29. Continue… 2 . Livelihood diversification : Diversification here may be to broaden the range of on-farm activities (e.g. adding value to primary products by processing or semi-processing them), or to diversify off-farm activities by taking up new jobs. It may be undertaken by choice for accumulation or reinvestment purposes, or of necessity either to cope with temporary adversity or as a more permanent adaptation to the failure of other livelihood options.

30. Continue… The former motivation might be associated with a wide income-earning portfolio to offset all future types of shocks or stress, whereas the latter would more likely be a narrower, rehearsed response to a particular type of common shocks or stress. Diversification therefore may involve developing a wide income earning portfolio to cover all types of shocks or stress jointly or the strategy may involve focusing on developing responses to handle a particular type of common shocks or stress through well developed coping mechanisms. on-farm activities consist of farming and agricultural production, including casual and seasonal labor. Viewed through a value chain lens, on-farm work occurs at the “beginning” of the value chain. Off-farm income encompasses all agriculture-related activities that occur beyond the farm

31. Continued livelihood strategies 3 . Migration Migration may be voluntary or involuntary. As a critical strategy to secure off-farm employment (i.e. needs driven), it may rely on and/or stimulate economic and social links between areas of origin and destination Kinship structures, social and cultural norms may strongly influence who migrates. Migration will have implications for the asset status of those left behind, for the role of women and for on-farm investments in productivity.

32. Continue …. key issue in the analysis of livelihood strategies is the scale at which an assessment takes place. Livelihood strategies, for example, can be described at an individual, household and village level, as well as at regional or even national levels. But there are differences evident between scale levels in terms of the net livelihood effects

33. 1.8 Livelihood Outcomes Livelihood outcomes are the achievements of livelihood strategies, such as M ore income (e.g. cash), I ncreased well-being (e.g. non material goods, like self-esteem, health status, access to services, sense of inclusion), R educed vulnerability (e.g. better resilience through increase in asset status), I mproved food security (e.g. increase in financial capital in order to buy food) and A more sustainable use of natural resources (e.g. appropriate property rights).

34. Continue… Outcomes help us to understand the 'output' of the current configuration of factors within the livelihood framework; they demonstrate what motivates stakeholders to act as they do and what their priorities are. General a livelihood outcome Health Food security Infrastructure Income Relationship of trust Sustainable use of natural resourse

35. Rural livelihoods: a framework for analysis The livelihood framework is a tool that helps to define the scope of and provide the analytical basis for livelihoods analysis, by identifying the main factors affecting livelihoods and the relationships between them; T o help those concerned with supporting the livelihoods of poor people to understand and manage their complexity

36. Continued ….. T o become a shared point of reference for all concerned with supporting livelihoods, enabling the complementarities of contributions and he trade-offs between outcomes to be assessed T o provide a basis for identifying appropriate objectives and interventions to support livelihoods

37. Continued The diagram also shows that the actions of people, households and communities themselves have an influence on these external forces Livelihood analysis refers to finding out the degree to which the pattern of life differs from one social class to another social class in terms of size of the family, type of house, technology adoption pattern, size of land holding, annual income, sources of income, food habits, expenditure pattern, appreciation, type .

38. Continued

39. 2. The Concept, Principles and Objectives of Sustainable Livelihoods Chapter Two

40. 2.1. What is sustainable livelihood? The sustainable livelihood is a way of linking socioeconomic and ecological considerations in a cohesive, policy-relevant structure . Sustainable livelihoods could serve as ‘an integrating factor that allows policies to address D evelopment, sustainable resource management, and poverty eradication simultaneously.

41. Continue A livelihood is sustainable  when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining natural resource bases . SL is the process by which the source of living of an individual is secured for now and future use .

42. Continue A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets including both material and social resources, and activities acquired for a means of living. Livelihoods are sustainable when they: are resilient in the face of external shocks and stresses; are not dependent upon external support (or if they are, this support itself should be economically and institutionally sustainable); maintain the long-term productivity of natural resources; and Do not undermine the livelihoods of, or compromise the livelihood options open to others.

43. 2.2. Sustainable livelihood and the concepts of capability, equity, and sustainability Capabilities, equity, and sustainability combine in the concept of sustainable livelihoods. A livelihood in its simplest sense is a means of gaining a living. Capability in its literal meaning is those things which enable a person to function as normal human being and hence are essential for human flourishing. Capabilities are both an end and a means of livelihood.

44. CONTINU A livelihood provides the support for enhancement and exercise of capabilities (an end) and capabilities (a means) enable a livelihood to be gained. Capability are the substantive freedoms a person enjoys to lead the kind of life he has reason to value. Amartya Sen's capability theory approach is a theoretical framework that involves two core normative statements/claim.

45. Continue First, the assumption that freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance . And second, that freedom to achieve well-being must be understood in terms of people with capabilities

46. CONTINUE The capabilities approach goes directly to the quality of life that people can actually achieve. This quality of life is analyzed in terms of the central concepts of “functioning” and “capability ”. Sen argues that the correct approach to assessing how well people are doing is their ability to live a life that we have reason to value, not their wealth of resources or subjective well-being

47. Continued Equity is both an end and a means: any minimum definition of equity must include adequate and decent livelihoods for all (an end), and equity in asset and access are preconditions (means) for gaining adequate and decent livelihoods. Equity refers to  social justice or fairness , and is one of the central pillars of many health, education and livelihood programs

48. Continue Sustainability , too, is both end and means: sustainable stewardship of resource is a value (or end) in itself . It provides conditions (a means) for livelihood to be sustainable for future generation Another way of conceptualizing the many dimensions of sustainability is to distinguish between environmental, economic, social and institutional aspects of sustainable systems. Sustainability has many dimensions, all of which are important to the sustainable livelihoods approach

49. Sustainability has many dimensions , all of which are important to the sustainable livelihoods approach. Environmental sustainability is achieved when the productivity of life-supporting natural resources is conserved or enhanced for use by future generations. Economic sustainability is achieved when a given level of expenditure can be maintained over time. In the context of the livelihoods of the poor, economic sustainability is achieved if a baseline level of economic welfare can be achieved and sustained .

50. Social sustainability is achieved when social exclusion is minimized and social equity maximized. Institutional sustainability is achieved when prevailing structures and processes have the capacity to continue to perform their functions over the long term

51. 2.3 . Sustainable livelihood approach principles and poverty reduction   The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach is a broader concept than the Framework. The Framework is a way of understanding what a livelihood is. The SLA is a broader concept of how we need to intervene in order to promote poverty eradication. It is thus very relevant in designing interventions.

52. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is still the most widely recognized and used SL framework . Different development agencies have produced variations with differing degrees of emphasis on different components of SLF, but all the models essentially share the same principles , components and interrelationships between the components

53. Sustainable livelihood Approach (SLA) has seven guiding principles, which are flexible and adaptable to diverse local conditions. The guiding principles are the following. People centered = a livelihoods approach puts people at the center of development. Holistic = people adopts many strategies to secure their livelihoods and that many actors are involved

54. 3. Dynamic :- SLA seeks to understand the dynamic nature of livelihoods and what influences them. 4 . Builds on strength :- SLA builds on people’s perceived strengths and opportunities. 5. Promote micro-macro links : 6. Encourage broad partnership 7. Aim for sustainability : - sustainability is important if poverty reduction is to be lasting

55. There are four key dimensions to sustainability: Economic I nstitutional , S ocial E nvironmental sustainability. All are important and a balance must be found between them

56. 2.4 . The Sustainable Livelihood approaches (SLA) The sustainable livelihoods approach is  a holistic approach that tries to capture, and provide a means of understanding, the fundamental causes and dimensions of poverty without collapsing the focus onto just a few factors  (e.g. economic issues, food security and etc ) The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) is a method of analyzing and changing the lives of people experiencing poverty and disadvantage.

57. Continue It is a participatory approach based on the recognition that all people have abilities and assets that can be developed to help them improve their lives.

58. 2.5. The Sustainable Livelihood framework: an analytical tool to implement SLA The sustainable livelihoods approach provides a framework to help understand the main factors that affect poor people’s livelihoods, and the relationships between these factors, and this in turn facilitates the planning and implementation of more effective development interventions By centering our thinking is around people rather than the technical inputs. Development might deliver to them so that the chances of achieving sustainable impacts on poverty reduction are significantly improved.

59. Continue The sustainable livelihood approach : Identifies existing assets and strategies available to poor women and men and uses these as a starting point; Helps keep the focus on poor people and their varied livelihood assets, strategies and outcomes Recognizes differences based on sex, gender, age, ethnicity, power and poverty status; Builds on strengths as a means to addressing needs and constraints ;

60. Continue Makes explicit the links between policy and institutional issues, and micro level realities; and Helps in understanding how individual, possibly sector-specific, development programmes and projects fit into the wider livelihoods agenda and objectives.

61. Continue SL analysis (the application of the SL approach) is likely to identify a number of different options for supporting livelihoods . But development programmes and projects should not attempt to tackle all aspects of livelihoods A key lesson from SL analysis is that holistic analysis is important but that does not imply that multi- sectoral and multi-level interventions are necessarily appropriate

62. 2.5.1 Analyzing Assets Analyzing Human Capital Analyzing physical Capital Analyzing Finical Capital Analyzing Social Capital

63. 2.6 . Planning for Sustainable Rural Livelihood Planning for what combination of interventions is most important in a particular site presents some major challenges . Planning for and implementing a sustainable livelihoods approach is therefore necessarily iterative and dynamic sustainable livelihood among the variety of stakeholders must therefore be a first task in any intervention process.

64. Chapter 3 3. Livelihoods Analysis Approach

65. 3.1. Framework analysis of Sustainable livelihoods The sustainable livelihoods framework  presents the main factors that affect people's livelihoods, and typical relationships between these . It can be used in both planning new development activities and assessing the contribution to livelihood sustainability made by existing activities.

66. Continue The framework shows how, in different contexts, sustainable livelihoods are achieved through access to a range of livelihood resources (natural, economic, human and social capitals) which are combined in the pursuit of different livelihood strategies (agricultural intensification or extensification , livelihood diversification and migration).

67. Central to the framework is the analysis of the range of formal and informal organizational and institutional factors that influence sustainable livelihood outcomes.

68. Continue Livelihood analysis refers to finding out the degree to which the pattern of life differs from one social class to another social class in terms of size of the family, type of house, technology adoption pattern, size of land holding, annual income, sources of income, food habits, expenditure pattern, indebtedness, type.

69. Continue Fig .  The DFID Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) (Source: redrawn from DFID 1999).

70. 3.2. Combing resource In the livelihoods approach, resources are referred to as 'assets' or 'capitals' and are often categorized between five or more different asset types owned or accessed by family members: human capital (skills, education, health), physical capital (produced investment goods), financial capital (money, savings, loan ). Different resources combining from Agriculture and none Agriculture resource for livelihood and use analysis it

71. 3.3. Institution and organization An organization is an assemblage of people who unite to undertake a common goal, led by a person or a group there on. An institution is described a form of organization, which is set up for an educational, religious, social or professional cause . Examples of institutions include   Church, marriage, family, Parliament etc.   Examples of organizations include the Army, businesses, charity organizations, schools, etc.

72. Institution  refers to both abstract and concrete entities . Organization  refers to a physical entity .

73. Discuss Operational implication of Livelihoods Analysis Approach

74. 3.5. Agriculture and Rural livelihoods Agriculture = the science or practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and the rearing of animals to provide food, wool, and other products. Best definition of Agriculture is the art and science of cultivating the soil, growing crops and raising livestock. It includes the preparation of plant and animal products for people to use and their distribution to market. Agriculture provides most of the world’s food and fabrics.

75. Rural livelihood = Rural livelihoods are a broad concept, which stretches across a number of domains and disciplines to capture the different ways in which ecological systems, socio-economic systems, and their governance contribute to determine income generation and distribution in rural areas.

76. Continue In the rural areas, predominant source of livelihood is agriculture. Agriculture is the cornerstone of human survival . Farmer use skills and knowledge of natural resources to grow food and support their livelihood.

77. Agriculture is the mainstay of livelihoods for the majority of the households . Salaried job, skilled non-farm job, and remittances are more remunerative livelihood sources; however only a few households adopt these activities due to lack of education, assets, investment capital, and skills

78. Chapter 4 Rural Social welfare and Development

79. 4.1. What is social welfare and development? The Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) is mandated by law to develop, administer and implement comprehensive social welfare programs designed to uplift the living conditions and empower the disadvantaged children, youth, women, older persons , person with disabilities, families in crisis or at-risk .

80. Continue Social welfare is  T he condition or well-being of a society . It can be considered as a state or condition of human. Well-being that exists when social problems are managed, when human needs are met and when social opportunities are maximized. Social welfare includes   healthcare, empowerment , housing and other programs geared towards assisting the poor, unemployed and marginalized in society.

81. Continue Such programs include Medicaid, AFDC (Aid for families with dependent children), WIC (women, infants and children) programs, veteran programs and others. Social welfare as amoral concept reflecting the value preferences as social policy , as program and services, as income transfer and as study of functions outsides market forces to meet human needs.

82. Continue Social welfare is also a nations system of programs , benefits, and services that help people meet those social, economic, educational health needs that are fundamental to the maintenance of society.

83. Social welfare Psychology Sociology Psychiatry Political sciences Cultural Anthropology Economics

84. Social Development Social development is about  improving the well-being of every individual in society so they can reach their full potential. The success of society is linked to the well-being of each and every citizen. Social development means investing or advancing in people.

85. Continued Social development means finger pointing of the ability to behave in accordance with social with expectation

86. Why is social Development Important? Healthy social development can help your child: Develop language skills. An ability to interact with other children allows for more opportunities to practice and learn speech and language skills. ... Build self-esteem. Strengthen learning skills. Resolve conflicts. Establish positive attitude Its important of Social development is about  improving the well-being of every individual in society so they can reach their full potential . The success of society is linked to the well-being of each and every citizen. Social development means investing in people

87.   What are elements of social Development ? Overall, societal development is human, society, culture, politic, administration, and economic development.

88. 4.2. Discourses of social problems/ philosophical roots underlying welfare practice Discourse, which includes the knowledge, myths and received ideas as well as language, circulating within the professional world of the social worker . There are a number of examples to illustrate these themes in social work debate. Discourses  delineate what can be said within a given set of ideas so that critical practice is exercised when we try to look at what is excluded by a particular discourse in order to alternative viewpoints.

89. Continue Social discourse - ማህበራዊ ንግግር - includes casual conversation between people when they go out. Other forms of social communication and discourse are not related to technology. There are many examples of this, from  the “town hall meeting” of modern politics, to interactive public events related to communities, corporations, or both .

90. Continue It philosophical root in the second, broader, sense social welfare has to do with all the members and institutions of a society. This sense derives from the concerns of moral and political philosophers about the structure of society and the production and distribution of basic values (such as wealth, power, liberty, equality and happiness). Social problems  are part of the climate of opinion in society which centers on expressed needs for public policies and anticipated requirements for social.

91. 4.3. Social and economic perspectives of social welfare Economic perspective of social welfare = Welfare economics is  the study of how the allocation of resources and goods affects social welfare . This relates directly to the study of economic efficiency and income distribution , as well as how these two factors affect the overall well-being of people in the economy .

92. Continue Social perspectives of social welfare = Three theoretical perspectives guide sociological thinking on social problems:  functionalist theory, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionist theory . These perspectives look at the same social problems, but they do so in different ways

93. 4.4. The goals and principles of social welfare Social welfare development strategies and activities are all undertaken by governments, businesses, and civil society to improve the quality of human life through policies and programs that oriented to social services, social healing, social protection and empowerment

94. The goal of social Development The realization of more balanced approaches to social and economic development T he assignment of the highest priority to the fullest possible human development T he fullest possible participation of people everywhere in determining both the means and outcomes of development the elimination of absolute poverty everywhere in the world

95. Continue The realization of new social arrangements that accelerate the pace of development and assure the satisfaction of basic needs of people everywhere The transformation of societies toward more humanistic values based on social justice, the promotion of peace, and the attainment of the fullest possible human development However, development of social welfare still has strategic significance for regional development. 

96. Continue There are at least four important functions of social welfare development 1. Reinforce the role of state officials in implementing the mandates ‘obligation of the state’ (state obligation) to protect its citizens in the face of risks of social-economic unexpected (illness, natural disasters, crises) and meet their basic needs in order to improve the standard of living better and quality.

97. Continue Realize the ideals of social justice in practice :-   Development of social welfare which is based on principles of solidarity, and social solidarity is basically a means of redistribution of wealth of a region of strong income groups to low-income communities 3. Encouraging economic growth :- social welfare development contributed to the preparation of the workforce, social stability, resilience, and social order, which in essence is an important prerequisite for economic growth. 

98. Continue function of social Development 4. Improving Human Development Index (HDI):- the focus is on the development of social welfare and human development of human resources quality through education and public health need.

99. 4.5. Concepts and Measurement of social development What is the concept of social Development ? Social development is about  improving the well-being of every individual in society so they can reach their full potential . The success of society is linked to the well-being of each and every citizen. Social development means investing in people

100. Continue As with economic development, it is necessary to be able to measure the degree or level of social development in a particular area or society at a given point in time, so that one can make comparisons between areas or societies and record changes over time . In order to do this, one must select appropriate social indicators - that is, things that can be measured in order to give a good indication of the degree or level of social development .

101. Continue When selecting appropriate social indicators, there are three main requirements which need to be considered Social indicators:- the indicators should provide an adequate reflection of the type of social development one is trying to measure. This means that they should cover all relevant aspects of social development (social characteristics, quality of life, social services, social justice) and that they should reflect what is generally agreed as being a positive change in these characteristics.

102. Continue 2. Availability and collection of data:- it must be possible to obtain the data needed to actually measure the variables selected as indicators, either from secondary sources ( ie . data already collected and available for use) or by cost-effective data collection exercises. This is often a major problem

103. Continue The problems are particularly great at district level, especially if one requires information for a particular project or programme , rather than merely to give a general impression of the level of social development. Any secondary data available is likely to have been collected for national planning purposes, and thus to be of limited value for this particular project or programme , and one seldom has the resources necessary to carry out a comprehensive data collection exercise of one's own

104. Continue 3. Data to enable comparisons :- the data must be available in a form which enables comparisons to be made between different areas or societies and over time. This means that the data must be expressed in a comparative or 'scalable' form.

105. Continue This is easy to do when the data is in quantitative ( ie . numerical) form, but it is more difficult when, as is often the case with social data, it is qualitative in nature . In the latter case, one can either use some sort of qualitative scale ( eg . 'high', 'medium', 'low'; 'very good', 'good', 'fair ', 'poor', 'very poor') or give brief written descriptions which indicate the main points of similarity and/or difference.

106. Continue It also means that the data must be collected at regular intervals, so that comparisons can be made over time, and that it must be disaggregated (or broken down) on the basis of the areas or groups that one wishes to compare

107. Choice of few key indicators Because of the problems of obtaining accurate, comprehensive data, one often has to rely on a few key indicators of social development, for which information is readily available and which are correlated with other factors which it is not possible to measure For example, per capita income, infant mortality, life expectancy at birth and adult literacy are generally recognized as useful key indicators of the general quality of life. Sometimes a number of key indicators are combined to form a composite index.

108. Continue Notwithstanding the importance of per capita national income in assessing a country’s development, the factors outside the monetary sphere are neglected by such a measure . The ranks of countries according to their per capita, national income also contracts with a ‘common sense’ ranking of their development . It was critical against the use of per capita national income for measuring standards and levels of living. This position has generally been endorsed by others .

109. Continue Development, particularly the social development, embodies enhancement of desired aspects of human life. It is in this context important to note that different authors used different measurements to social development.

110. Continue 1. The physical quality of life index (PQLI) combined three physical indicators (life expectancy at birth, infant mortality and adult literacy) for a cross-country comparison. 2. HDI :- UNDP has introduced human development index (HDI) for a large number of countries in 1990 and has been bringing out HDI every year since then.

111. Continue HDI is based on three indicators, namely, life expectancy at birth, educational attainment, as measured by a combination of adult literacy and the combined first, second- and third-level gross enrolment ratio; and standard of living measured by real GDP per capita (PPP). HDI is by far the most popular measure of development.

112. Continue 3 . Social Development Index The proposed social development index takes a drastic view to the extent to remove GDP per capita index, though it is expressed in PPP terms. There are three reasons for replacing GDP index from our proposal. The first reason is that even though it is counted as PPP measure of GDP, the income measure is not at all relevant for the purpose of international comparison of capability, freedom, and ‘development’ index. People do not go to other countries. Individuals do not go to the US, to China, or to Kenya to buy their daily necessities. The second reason is

113. Continue that there are lots more things than money for flourishing human capability, and that the scope of the opportunity of other things (non- monetary) would be wider in low income countries, in particular. That may depend on the degree of marketing and commercialization of the economy. The third reason is that money in itself may be regarded as the source of trouble beyond certain amount of holding

114. Continue In this respect, GDP per capita express in PPP is nothing to do with capability, individuals’ sense of achievement, human relationship, relative position in the society, participation in the social activities, concerns to other people, particularly to those whose living condition faces various hardships. There are additional dimensions; poverty reduction, equality, and sustainable environment.

115. Continue By adding these three dimensions, it is designed to make the index to reflect the social opportunity, nature of the society in which individuals live, and the social environment under, which people actualize their real functioning.

116. Continue Thus, new social development index has the following six dimensions : A long and healthy life (2) Knowledge (3) A decent standard of living (4) Poverty reduction (5) Equality (6) Environment

117. Continue For the construction of SDI, the simple average of the six indicators from each dimension is taken. Six dimensional indices are explained next; Life expectancy index is simply life expectancy at birth, same as in HDI, to represent the dimension 1 (A long and healthy life). Education index is composed of adult literacy rate and gross enrolment ratio, this is the same as in HDI too, to represent the dimension 2 (Knowledge).

118. Continue For a decent standard of living , the percentage of children underweight for age, under age 5, is adopted in place of GDP per capita index . The percentage is taken from the indicator used in HPI-1, but the formula is reversed in the sense it is subtracted from number 1. It is taken as that a society cannot be said having a decent standard of living so long as it has high percentage of children under weight.

119. Continue The data for the first three indices are taken from human poverty index. Human Poverty Index-1 (HPI-1) is applied to developing countries especially designed to indicate human deprivation in developing countries. Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40 is used for the dimension of a long and health life . Adult illiteracy rate is used for the dimension of knowledge.

120. Continue Percentage of population without sustainable access to an improved water source and percentage of children under weight for age are together used for the dimension of a decent standard of living, as representing deprivation in a decent standard of living.

121. Continue For poverty reduction , low absolute poverty is desirable. So , the indicator is constructed by subtracting the percentage of people whose livelihood is less than $1 a day fro, number 1. For equality , (1 – Gini Index) is used because the higher the Gini coefficient the bigger the dispersion or inequality in the society.

122. Continue For the sixth and the last dimension ( environment ), the percentage of urban population with access to improved sanitation is used in the SDI formula Finally, all these 6 dimension indices, as shown in the number between 0 and 1, are taken to simple average, which means that each index has 1/6 equal weight in SDI. This weight system may be controversial because each society values different dimensions quite differently

123. Continue In addition to the reason of no strong weighting system available internationally, the fact that the first three currently HDI related dimensions and the last three rather society related dimension have equal weights of one half each seems rather reasonable.

124. 4.5.1 Characteristics of social development Some of the characteristics of social development are, thus, socialization the ability to take interest in others to share to co-operate to work as a member of a group to develop certain group loyalties, to develop friendships to interact, to compete, to enter into healthy combat with others to develop social.

125. 4.5.2. Social Protection issues Social protection can be defined as  policies and programs that help individuals and societies to manage risk and volatility, protect them from poverty and inequality, and help them to access economic opportunity . Examples include: health insurance exemptions, reduced medical fees; education fee waivers; food subsidies; housing subsidies and allowances; utility and electricity subsidies and allowances; agricultural inputs subsidies; and transportation benefits.

126. Social differences and social problems Social difference means difference in a set of people due to difference in their race, religion, language or culture. But these differences are more than an accident of nature. A person does not choose his community where he would be born . He just happens to be born in a particular community

127. Continue Social differences refer to  situations where people are discriminated on the basis of social, economic and racial inequality . In other words, one class, group or culture is given preference over another on the basis of their social, economic, cultural or racial inequality. A social problem is  any condition or behavior that has negative consequences for large numbers of people and that is generally recognized as a condition or behavior that needs to be addressed . This definition has both an objective component and a subjective component.

128. Continue A social problem is  any condition or behavior that has negative consequences for large numbers of people and that is generally recognized as a condition or behavior that needs to be addressed . This definition has both an objective component and a subjective component. Social problems are dis functional phenomena relating to a group of individuals within a society. Crime, poverty, teen pregnancy, racism, etc.

129. Continue A social problem has objective and subjective realities.   A social condition does not have to be personally experienced by every individual to be considered a social problem . The objective reality of a social problem comes from acknowledging that a particular social condition exists.

130. Continue Example of social problem Poverty, unemployment, unequal opportunity, racism, and malnutrition  are examples of social problems. So are substandard housing, employment discrimination, and child abuse and neglect. Crime and substance abuse are also examples of social problems

131. Mapping social problems Social mapping is a visual method of showing the relative location of households and the distribution of different people (such as male, female, adult, child, landed, landless, literate, and illiterate) together with the social structure, groups and organizations of an area.

132. Continue What is social mapping and it’s important? Social mapping is making visible what has been invisible for a very long time (i.e. the cultural and indigenous landscapes).  It helps us understand histories and our sense of connection with them, and provides perspectives on the future .

133. Continue Type of social mapping Social mapping is the most popular method in participatory action research. The focus is on the depiction of living conditions and the nature of housing and social infrastructure:  roads, drainage system, schools, railway tracks, religious buildings, post office, well, community hall etc.

134. Describing societal responses to social problems Ways of Solving Social Problems in the Society Guidance and Counseling Good Governance Creation of jobs and other Social Infrastructure Enforcement of Film Censorship and National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control (NAFDAC) Rules Adequate Punishment for Defaulters

135. Social Justice for Marginalized and Disadvantaged Groups: Issues and Challenges for Social Policies in Ethiopia Marginalized groups are those sections of the society which have remained ignored in the past due to several social and economic causes . The chief groups among these include the scheduled castes, the scheduled tribes, other backward classes and the minorities. The low social status of marginalized communities usually translates into  low economic status . They are less educated, have less access to facilities such as schools, hospitals, housing, piped water and electric supply .

136. There are Five Principles of Social Justice, viz.  Access, Equity, Diversity, Participation, and Human Rights .

137. The Policy focuses on 4 main areas  (1) social safety net; (2) livelihood and employment schemes; (3) social insurance; and (4) addressing inequalities of access to basic services . The human rights and humanitarian situation in Ethiopia deteriorated further in 2021, with civilians impacted by  a devastating conflict in Tigray , security force abuses, attacks by armed groups, and deadly ethnic violence  in other regions.

138. Social development planning in rural areas What is social Development Planning? Social Development planning is  a process that involves local governments and community members working together to address social issues and build healthy communities . Integrated with other types of planning, social planning focuses on the people themselves in a community planning context .

139. Continue What is the important of social development planning? A Social Development Plan is a comprehensive plan that focuses on  enhancing the quality of life for the citizens of a community and helps provide a direction for future decisions in the key areas identifies by its community members .

140. The social dimension of sustainable development Sustainable development aims to provide a long-term vision for the society. Activities to meet present needs may still have short-term horizons, but they must in addition always include a long term perspective. Sustainable development is an integrated concept involving all human actions down to the local level, and:

141. Continue A ims to improve the quality of life of both current and future generations, while safeguarding the earth’s capacity to support life in all its diversity; I s based on democracy, the rule of law and respect for fundamental rights including freedom, equal opportunities and cultural diversity; Promotes high levels of employment in an economy whose strength is based on education, innovation, social and territorial cohesion and the protection of human health and the environment.

142. Continue The many elements of sustainable development are often organized into three dimensions or pillars: environmental, economic and social . There are different approaches to how they relate to each other, whether they are pillars on the same level or three closely linked dimensions of sustainable development.

143. Continue the environment is the necessary basis for sustainable development the economy is the tool to achieve sustainable development the good life for all (the social dimension) is the target of sustainable development

144. Continue The very essence of the sustainable development idea is to shift the focus from the present needs to also include the future generations as well. A sufficiently good life for all humans, within present and future generations, is therefore the target of sustainable development

145. CONTINUE The social dimension is also important because sustainable development can only be achieved by people who feel that they have a fair share of wealth, safety and influence . The underlying assumption is not individual gain, but the provision for, and involvement in equitable growth for all in the society.

146. Therefore the social dimension of sustainable development includes support of the civil society, its involvement in solving various types of issues and its participation in decision processes on different levels . The social dimension also includes the fight against poverty through employment, support to sustainable livelihoods, antidiscrimination work, and social security for all.

147. CHAPTER FIVE Poverty, Wellbeing and Social Equity

148. What is the concept of poverty? What is the concept of poverty? Poverty, the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions. Poverty is said to exist when people lack the means to satisfy their basic needs.

149. Continue Three major points of view may be distinguished in the way poverty is defined in these definitions: 1)   being poor is lacking some basic necessities 2 ) being poor is having less than others in society, and 3 ) being poor is feeling you do not have enough to get along

150. Type of poverty There are two types of poverty:  absolute poverty and relative poverty . Both of these kinds of poverty are concerned with money and consumption . Poverty is mostly seen in rural regions and among young people; 80 percent of the extreme poor and 75 percent of the moderate poor reside in rural areas.

151. Continue Absolute poverty Condition where household income is insufficient to afford basic necessity of life (Food, Shelter, clothing). Criteria not change by economic growth. When people do not have enough money or resource to meet their basic human need such as lacking of food, shelter and cloth. Relative Poverty When household receive 50 % less income than average median income . Criteria well change with economic growth. When people don’t have enough money or resource to live up to normal standard in a society often defined as living below the median (mid-point income).

152. Continue

153. What is the measurement of poverty? This way of measuring poverty includes the consideration that expenditure on food in households is a constant proportion of total expenditure. The poverty line is fixed by  multiplying the value of the basic food products by the reverse of the proportion that food expenditure signifies for total expenditure .

154. Poverty is measured in the United States by comparing a person's or family's income to a set poverty threshold or minimum amount of income needed to cover basic needs. People whose income falls under their threshold are considered poor.

155. Important concept ( terminology) in the measurement of Incidence of poverty , head count index , poverty ratio

156. Continue

157. Continue The U.S. Census Bureau is the government agency in charge of measuring poverty . Four approaches to the definition and measurement of poverty are reviewed in this paper: the  monetary, capability, social exclusion and participatory approaches . The theoretical underpinnings of the various measures and problems of operationalizing them are pointed out.

158. 5.2. Poverty as the effect of economic or political causes Poverty creates many economic costs in terms of the opportunity cost of lost output, the cost of welfare provision, and the private and external costs associated with exclusion from normal economic activity. These costs include the costs of unemployment, crime, and poor health . Issues like  hunger, illness, and poor sanitation  are all causes and effects of poverty. That is to say, that not having food means being poor, but being poor also means being unable to afford food or clean water

159. The effects of poverty are often interrelated so that one problem rarely occurs alone. But first, we need to understand what poverty is – and what causes it. Lack of access to clean water and nutritious food. Lack of access to basic healthcare. Inequality or social injustice. Lack of education. Poor basic infrastructure. Climate change. Lack of government support

160. Continue

161. 5.3. Wellbeing and its measurement Concepts of well being Many different terms used to refer to whatever is assessed in an evaluation of a person’s life situation or ‘being’. In short, it is a description of the state of individuals’ life situation. An array of different terms has appeared in the literature to label this situation

162. Continue Along with well-being, the most common ones include the quality of life, living standards and human development . Others include welfare, social welfare, well-living, utility, life satisfaction, prosperity, needs fulfillment, development, empowerment, capability expansion, poverty, human poverty and, more recently, happiness

163. Continue Some have distinct meanings, but there is usually a high degree of overlap in underlying meanings. To define what well-being means a multidimensional definition has to be used . At least in principle, these dimensions should consider simultaneously

164. Continue Material living standards (income, consumption and wealth); Health Education Personal activities including work: political voice and governance, social connections and relationships Environment (present and future conditions) Insecurity, of an economic as well as a physical nature. All these dimensions shape people’s well-being, and yet many of them are missed by conventional income measures.

165. Continue Others include welfare, social welfare, well-living, utility, life satisfaction, prosperity, needs fulfillment, development, empowerment, capability expansion, poverty, human poverty and, more recently, happiness. Some have distinct meanings, but there is usually a high degree of overlap in underlying meanings.

166. 5.1.2. Measures of well being In general, wellbeing measures can be classified into two broad categories: Objective measures :- This category measures wellbeing through certain observable facts such as economic, social and environmental statistics . People’s wellbeing is assessed indirectly using cardinal-basic measures. Objective Subjective measure

167. I. Objective Measures: One-dimensional Wellbeing GDP as a Measure of Utility While it is often asserted that economists are primarily concerned with GDP levels and growth, it is important to step back a little and remember that what matters most as an “objective function” is people’s wellbeing. A fundamental assumption of standard economic analysis is that people’s wellbeing increases with consumption (of food, clothing, housing, entertainment, and many other goods and services).

168. Continue It is primarily due to this assumption that GDP (all that is produced, and therefore either consumed or invested by a country in a year) is so often taken as the yardstick of wellbeing and progress . The fact that GDP is the sum of consumption and investment should, by itself, give an indication that GDP may not be the ideal yardstick of wellbeing . If large increases in GDP take the form of growth in investment rather than consumption, then GDP itself does not necessarily mean improved wellbeing.

169. Continue In more technical language, consumption is the most important (often, the only) argument in the utility function used by economists in order to capture the extent to which consumption translates into the wellbeing of an individual. The distinction between consumption and utility may seem like a technicality, but it is important for reasons that will become apparent later.

170. Continue Is it valid to assume that more consumption leads to more utility? More systematic evidence on the limitations of using GDP as a yardstick for wellbeing come from more direct indicators of quality of life. Some of these indicators are objective (increases in nutrition or life expectancy increase quality of life, while increases in crime rates or congestion decrease it), others subjective (self-reported status of wellbeing by people in surveys of happiness, life satisfaction, or prevalence of positive moods).

171. Continue GDP Measurement Flaws GDP has several measurement flaws . Some activities that are included in the GDP estimates are difficult to calculate government services. As these services are given to consumers at a subsidized price, their output cannot be valued at market prices.

172. B. Objective Measures: Multidimensional Wellbeing Despite GDP’s flaws, given that its data is readily available and reliable, it is still widely used as a proxy for wellbeing. However , there is widespread agreement that wellbeing is multidimensional , that it encompasses all aspects of human life . Thus, different approaches have been taken to go beyond the GDP measure, conceptualizing wellbeing in a more holistic way

173. One approach has been to construct objective measures to complement GDP, offering social and environmental information beyond the economic stance. Since the 1970s many non-economic indicators have been created to complement GDP. Indicators in areas such as education, health and nutrition, environment and empowerment and participation have been elaborated to complement GDP. However , the quality and availability of this data makes inter-country comparisons difficult.

174. Continue A second approach is to adjust GDP by monetizing different aspects that are not counted in the GDP measurement: social and environmental factors . The problem with some of these adjustments is that it is difficult to quantify and monetize some of these additional factors . One adjustment to GDP is to allow purchasing power parity among countries

175. Continue Another further adjustment to GDP is to include differences in income distribution by providing weighted shares of growth by population groups.

176. Continue Another further adjustment to GDP is to include differences in income distribution by providing weighted shares of growth by population groups . As income per capita is a national average, it does not provide the real income picture of the different population subgroups or regions . A third more complex adjustment is to take into account social and environmental factors such as the value of leisure or the damage of pollution

177. Continue Nordhaus and Tobin (1973) elaborated a Measure of Economic Welfare (MEW) which had three adjustments to GNP: they classified GNP expenditures into consumption, investment and intermediate added the services of consumer capital, leisure and household work and corrected for “ disamenities of urbanization subtracting for negative externalities such as pollution and congestion

178. Continue A more recent adjustment has been made by the World Bank with its estimates of wealth and adjusted net saving (or genuine savings). Adjusted net savings measures the savings rate in an economy after taking into account investments in human capital, depletion of natural resources and damage caused by pollution.

179. Continue Yet a third approach to go beyond GDP is to replace GDP by constructing composite measures that would capture the multidimensional aspect of wellbeing. These measures are usually constructed using different components, weighted in some way to form a single index

180. Continue One of the first attempts to construct a composite index of wellbeing is the Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI). This index combined infant mortality, life expectancy and adult literacy

181. Continue Another example is the well-known and debated Human Development Index (HDI) created in 1990, combining income per capita (in PPP terms), life expectancy at birth, adult literacy and education enrollment ratios. Although far from a perfect measure of welfare, some of the HDI’s strengths lie on its simplicity and transparency

182. Continue Furthermore, indices can be subject to manipulation by politicians, becoming more of “creative accounting” exercises than objective measures. Finally , indices’ ranks tend to “glorify” the same countries year after year and then are used to “name and shame”

183. II. Subjective Wellbeing Measures (SWB) Another approach to measuring multidimensional wellbeing is through subjective measures: self-reported happiness and life satisfaction . For many centuries the subject of happiness was the realm of theologians and philosophers but recently it transcended into social sciences, first in psychiatry and since 1950 into mainstream social sciences and economics

184. A. The Meaning of Subjective Wellbeing Subjective wellbeing involves a multidimensional evaluation of life, including cognitive judgments of life satisfaction and affective evaluations of emotions and moods.” Some economists use the phrase “ subjective wellbeing” as a synonym for “happiness” but in psychology, happiness is a narrower concept than SWB

185. In this approach, SWB is a synonym of “being happy” whereas concepts such as “satisfaction” and “happiness” are considered “feeling happy” (a hedonic approach) Despite these differences, economists have used the terms “happiness” and “life satisfaction” interchangeably as measures of subjective wellbeing.

186. Continue There is no clear consensus on what “happiness” means. Therefore , instead of trying to define happiness from an outside perspective, economists try to capture it through other means. There are two extreme concepts of happiness (subjective and objective happiness) and ways to capture them and one in the middle experience sampling measures. Subjective happiness asks people how happy they feel themselves to be.

187. They result from surveys where people are asked to self-report about how happy they feel all things considered. Today there are several surveys that evaluate happiness . One type of question asks “Taken all together, how would you say things are these days: would you say that you are very happy, pretty happy or not too happy ?” The second type of question asks people to rate their life satisfaction, on a scale from 0 to 10.

188. Continue Objective happiness is a physiological approach which aims to capture happiness through the measurement of brain waves. Yet a third way to capture happiness (experience sampling measures) is through sampling people’s moods and emotions several times a day for a prolonged time

189. 5.4. Rural Poverty in developing countries: the case of Ethiopia While poverty has decreased remarkably in general, poverty is still a challenge in Ethiopia as over 22 million people are living below the national poverty line, with  80 percent  in rural areas. The rate of decrease in recent years is slower in rural areas as compared to urban areas. Agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy, and the agricultural sector is dominated by smallholder farming systems. The farming systems are facing constraints such as  small land size, lack of resources, and increasing degradation of soil quality  that hamper sustainable crop production and food security

190. 5.5. Social Equity and Poverty Reduction Inequality has to be brought to the fore in the discussion on poverty reduction. The traditional thinking was that only rapid growth mattered and that changes in inequality could make only a minor difference in outcomes . However, there is now increasing recognition that high inequality within and between countries imposes obstacles to poverty reduction . Inequality is a roadblock to rapid and sustained growth.

191. Continue Moreover, a country with a high degree of inequality requires much higher growth in order to achieve significant progress in reducing poverty. Equity is more than the distribution of income and wealth. The distribution of productive assets is important; conventionally, it is described as physical or financial capital such as land, productive inputs, savings and credit

192. Continue Equity is also about the distribution of human capital such as health and education. Income inequality reflects deeper inequalities in access to opportunities for health, education and production. Equity , therefore, is also about the creation of opportunities for development of human capital such as health, education and production

193. Continue Improved access to education and better health enable poor people to contribute more fully to the growth process and to participate more equitably in the opportunities which growth creates and the benefits it offers . In short, policies which are good for equity are good for growth, and good for converting growth into poverty reduction.

194. Continue The positive linkage between equity, growth and poverty reduction is clearly demonstrated in a study of the experience of China, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Republic of Korea, Thailand and Viet Nam in the decades from the 1970s to the 1990s . These countries pursued policies that combined growth with equity through a three-pronged strategy, which contributed to their rapid progress in income and human poverty reduction.

195. Continue The first strand was public investment in health and education that served to raise productivity and extend opportunities among the poor The second strand was policies for labour -intensive growth, with economic expansion closely correlated with the development of opportunities for employment at rising real wage levels. The third strand was redistributive rural development policies, which created opportunities for people to respond to market opportunities.

196. Chapter six Rural Education and Health

197. 6.1. Social Development and Rural Education Social development is element of a high quality of life that aren’t captured by GDP growth Equity and distribution (issue of in equality who is included and who is excluded from benefit of growth. Provision of public services (Education, health, and infrastructure).

198. Continue Education is a path to Social Development. The development strategy of the Ethiopian government is based on increasing the productive capacity of the people. By doing so the expansion of educational and health services play a crucial role. As such one of the government’s development tasks in accelerating rural development is to expand these services.

199. 6.2. Role of Rural Education in Society Education is central to development.   It empowers people and strengthens nations.  It is a powerful “equalizer”, opening doors to all to lift themselves out of poverty.  It is critical to the world’s attainment of the  Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) .

200. Continue Two of the eight MDGs pertain to education namely, universal primary completion and gender parity in primary and secondary schooling.  Moreover, education especially girls’ education has a direct and proven impact on the goals related to child and reproductive health and environmental sustainability.  Education also promotes economic growth, national productivity and innovation, and values of democracy and social cohesion.

201. 6.3. Challenges of Rural Education Many factors contribute to lower educational participation in rural areas . On the demand side, rural children may be less interested in attending school First, the opportunity costs of attending schools are often higher in rural areas. Many rural households are dependent on their children for help at busy times of the agricultural year such as harvest time.

202. Continue Second , parents in rural areas often have a lower level of education, and may attach a lower value to schooling. Third, even where parents place a value on schooling, they may be less able to help their children learning. Parents in rural areas are less likely to be educated themselves, and so have less ability to provide support for their children.

203. Continue Further, homes in rural areas are often ill-equipped to meet the needs of children to study, and often lack facilities like electricity. They are likely to have less parental encouragement to go to school.

204. Continue They are likely to have less parental encouragement to go to school . 1. Physical distance The most direct solution would be to build more schools in order to shrink ride times, but in reality, rural schools are being shut down. Not only do these walking times hurt grades and after-school activities, they also make it harder to get extra help.

205. Continued 2. Teacher hiring In many urban areas, there is a glut (excess) of talented teachers but not enough jobs available to employ them . In rural areas, though, it can be extremely difficult to attract great teachers. Indeed hiring in general is tougher in rural areas, for fields extending far beyond education.

206. Continue 3 . Spotty Internet access People in big cities take broadband Internet access for granted. Not only is it fairly easy to sign up for fast access, people in cities are frequently spoiled for choice. However, is still experiencing of rural residents lacking access to broadband Internet. This can drastically affect education.

207. Continue 4. Poverty Nowhere is free of poverty, but rates of unemployment, malnutrition and poverty are markedly higher in rural areas than in urban areas. Unlike cities, though, where high population density tends to make poverty more visible, it can be much harder to see in rural areas, which makes it harder to cope with. Poverty is proven to affect educational outcomes, and frequently leads to increased absenteeism.

208. 6.4. Rural Health Status What is rural health? Rural health is  the health of people living in rural areas, who generally are located farther from health care facilities and other services than people living in urban areas . Health is influenced by many factors, which may generally be organized into five broad categories known as determinants of health:  genetics, behavior, environmental and physical influences, medical care and social factors . These five categories are interconnected.

209. Challenges of Rural Health Workforce Shortages Healthcare workforce shortages have an impact on access to care in rural communities. One measure of healthcare access is having a usual source of care Having an adequate health workforce is necessary to providing that usual source of care. Some health researchers have argued that determining access by simply measuring provider availability is not adequate to fully understand healthcare access

210. 2. Distance and Transportation People in rural areas are more likely to have to travel long distances to access healthcare services, particularly specialist services. This can be a significant burden in terms of both time and money. In addition, the lack of reliable transportation is a barrier to care.

211. Continued In urban areas, public transit is generally an option for patients to get to medical appointments; however, these transportation services are often lacking in rural areas. Rural communities also have more elderly residents who have chronic conditions requiring multiple visits to outpatient healthcare facilities.

212. 3 . Poor Health Literacy Health literacy, which impacts a patient's ability to understand health information and instructions from their healthcare providers, is also a barrier to accessing healthcare. This is a particular concern in rural communities, where lower educational levels and higher incidents of poverty often impact residents. generally in rural area Access to Healthcare is limited by -Dysfunctional Physical Infrastructure -Lack of adequate human capital -Poor healthcare financing, Buildings in a dilapidated condition • Lack of proper roads . Lack of electricity • Lack of drugs and essential supplies • Non-functional equipment.

213. Tackling Rural Health Problems ( የገጠር የጤና ችግሮችን መፍታት ) Government could also  initiate schemes to ensure fulfillment of basic necessities . Higher budgetary provisions for rural education could help to overcome the problem of illiteracy in these areas. Education could help in changing conservative mindset of rural people. Increasing access to  health  care in  rural  areas is through tele health . Tele health can include video conferencing and etc.

214. 6.7. Rural Health in Ethiopia For the 82% of the population living in rural areas, screening and treatment of NCDs is severely lacking, resulting in needless death and suffering . Rural healthcare  has been noted as a particular problem in  Ethiopia . Generally in Ethiopia health care is very poor. More than half the world's population lives in rural areas; however, we have limited evidence about how to strengthen  rural healthcare  services.

215. 6.8. Water, hygiene and sanitation Safe drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are  crucial to human health and well-being . Safe WASH is not only a prerequisite to health, but contributes to livelihoods, school attendance and dignity and helps to create resilient communities living in healthy environments. Ethiopia is  one of the countries in the world with the worst of all water quality problems . It has the lowest water supply and sanitation coverage in Sub-Saharan countries with only 42% and 28% for water supply and sanitation, respectively

216. Continue Hygiene Core Community Hygiene and Sanitation Practices Include: Keeping dishes and utensils clean and off the ground. Using a toilet to keep faces separate from people. Sweeping the home and keeping rubbish off the floor to prevent environmental contamination . Keeping livestock separate from the home

217. Continue Sanitation Basic sanitation is defined as having access to facilities for the safe disposal of human waste (feces and urine), as well as having the ability to maintain hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection, industrial/hazardous waste management, and wastewater treatment and disposal.

218. Continue Sanitation refers to  public health conditions related to clean drinking water and adequate treatment and disposal of human excreta and sewage . A sanitation system includes the capture, storage, transport, treatment and disposal or reuse of human excreta and wastewater.

219. Rural water supply: problems, challenges and prospects in Ethiopia Supplying enough potable water to the rural population is one of the primary development tasks that should be carried out in order to ensure health services based on prevention an, thereby, create healthy and productive citizens . Ensuring supply of drinking water means reducing significantly health related expenditures, in addition to the promotion of the general happiness and wellbeing of the population derived from being healthy, and the improvement of the standard of living of the people.

220. Continue Further, the availability of the clean water helps to promote personal and domestic hygiene, to expand various types of local service rendering institutions and in general to foster regional and local development. Also, availability of clean water at close quarters greatly reduces the work burden on women . The supply of clean water to the rural population should be high on the list of government development priorities

221. Continue Chapter seven Rural Livelihoods in Ethiopia

222. 7.1. Poverty and Vulnerability Rural livelihood in Ethiopia and elsewhere in developing countries can have similar characteristics; to mention these: Based on subsistence farm household Unchanged mode of life and work; the mix of activities and way of life and production systems are not dynamic/not changing; Very high proportion, almost all labor force engaged in agriculture; No diversified economy.

223. Continue Individuals or households engaged in only one job (mixed-farming or pastoralism); Limited stream of income (only from farming or animal raising) Land based cultures are predominant Food insecurity at the household level; Poverty as a dominant feature of life Malnutrition ; High birth and death rate

224. 7.2. Livelihood strategies and Food insecurity The major causes of food insecurity in Ethiopia basically are (include): land degradation and soil loss; recurrent drought; population pressure; subsistence agricultural practices; and land tenure system . As Grain constitutes the major staple food for the majority of Ethiopians, grain production therefore, indicates the level of food security in the country .

225. Continue According to renowned researchers, the prerequisites for sustainable agricultural development are: appropriate policies; appropriate technologies; rural infrastructure; and management of the environment.

226. Sedentary Farming Cultivation of crops on the same piece of land is called as sedentary farming. It is opposite to primitive farming where after every 3-4 years the land was left and new land was prepared for cultivation. Sedentary primitive agriculture is confined to plateaus and high land areas in the tropics and to small, scattered patches in tropical lowlands. In the hot humid lowlands. The farmers, in the areas of dense population, have become sedentary and have permanently settled near ponds, lakes and streams.

227. Continue Farmers have draft animals so as to relieve the strain on human muscle. Obstacles standing in the way of developing agriculture are the interior location of most of the areas, poor transport facilities and dry season . In the low latitude highlands . In the subtropical plateaus and temperate highlands of the tropics, in Americas, Africa, Southeast Asia, sedentary farming is practiced

228. Continue Farmers grow their own foodstuffs on small plots near the commercial plantation areas. Plateau and highlands often support a larger population . The climate is comfortable on the highlands. Diseases are not common. Naturally the farmers have developed sedentary farming. The kinds of crops vary with altitude. Cereals and roots are staples. Temperate vegetable like tomatoes, beans and peas are also grown.

229. 7.4. Pastoralism Pastoralism is the branch of agriculture concerned with the raising of livestock It is animal husbandry : the care, tending and use of animals such as camels , goats , cattle , yaks ,and sheep . " Pastoralism" generally has a mobile aspect, moving the herds in search of fresh pasture and water (in contrast to pastoral farming , in which non-nomadic farmers grow crops and improve pastures for their livestock ). Pastoralism is found in many variations throughout the world.

230. Continue Composition of herds, management practices, social organization and all other aspects of pastoralism vary between areas and between social groups . Many traditional practices have also had to adapt to the changing circumstance of the modern world, including climatic conditions affecting the availability of grasses. Ranches of the United States and sheep stations and cattle stations of Australia are seen by some as modern variations.

231. 7.5. Infrastructure and service provision in rural areas What is Infrastructure? Infrastructure refers to the assets that support an economy, such as road , water supply , power supply , communication facilities, school/education services, flood management , recreational, and other assets. Infrastructure is the network of assets "where the system as a whole is intended to be maintained indefinitely at a specified standard of service by the continuing replacement and refurbishment of its components."

232. Continued Infrastructure may refer to information technology , informal and formal channels of communication, software development tools, political and social networks , or beliefs held by members of particular groups . Economically, infrastructure could be seen to be the structural elements of an economy which allow for production of goods and services without themselves being part of the production process, e.g. roads allow the transport of raw materials and finished products.

233. Continued The reduction in the public infrastructure investment could be attributable to the following reasons: in earlier investments in infrastructure, failed cases outnumbered successful cases, especially in rural areas; D isappointingly low participation in infrastructure investments by the private sector; fiscal adjustment programs; and Decentralization resulting in mismatches between resources and needs.

234. Challenges of rural infrastructure in Ethiopia Institutional problems: include policy, guidelines, procedure and organizational or structural set up issues that can exist from the national to local level in a given country Financial constraints: In developing countries, financial problems make the base of other problems