allied heath science and technology or human health development

X-rays use invisible electromagnetic energy beams to produce images of internal tissues, bones, and organs on film or digital media. Standard X-rays are performed for many reasons, including diagnosing tumors or bone injuries.
X-rays are made by using external radiation to produce images of the body, its organs, and other internal structures for diagnostic purposes. X-rays pass through body structures onto specially-treated plates (similar to camera film) or digital media and a "negative" type picture is made (the more solid a structure is, the whiter it appears on the film).
When the body undergoes X-rays, different parts of the body allow varying amounts of the X-ray beams to pass through. The soft tissues in the body (such as blood, skin, fat, and muscle) allow most of the X-ray to pass through and appear dark gray on the film or digital media. A bone or a tumor, which is more dense than soft tissue, allows few of the X-rays to pass through and appears white on the X-ray. When a break in a bone has occurred, the X-ray beam passes through the broken area and appears as a dark line in the white bone.
X-ray technology is used in other types of diagnostic procedures, such as arteriograms, computed tomography (CT) scans, and fluoroscopy.
Radiation during pregnancy may lead to birth defects. Always tell your radiologist or doctor if you suspect you may be pregnant.
To create a radiograph, a patient is positioned so that the part of the body being imaged is located between an x-ray source and an x-ray detector. When the machine is turned on, x-ray travel through the body and are absorbed in different amounts by different tissues, depending on the radiological density of the tissues they pass through. Radiological density is determined by both the density and the atomic number (the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus) of the material being imaged. For example, our bones contain calcium, which has a higher atomic number than most other tissues. Because of this property, bones readily absorb x-rays and therefore produce high contrast on the x-ray detector. As a result, bony structures appear whiter than other tissues against the black background of a radiograph. Conversely, x-rays travel more easily through less radiologically dense tissues, such as fat, muscle, and air-filled cavities such as the lungs. These structures are displayed in shades of gray on a radiograph
Some X-rays use contrast material (also called contrast agent or dye). It makes certain structures in your body, like blood vessels easier to see.
The contrast material comes as a liquid, powder or pill. Your provider gives you the contrast material before the X-ray. Depending on the type of X-ray, you may receive the contrast material:
Orally (by mouth).
Through an injection into a vein (IV) or your cerebrospinal fluid.
By inserting it into your rectum enema.
Your provider may order an X-ray to:
Check for a broken bone (fracture).
Identify the cause of symptoms, such as pain and swell

1. X-RAY:- X-rays use invisible electromagnetic energy beams to produce images of internal tissues, bones, and organs on film or digital media. Standard X-rays are performed for many reasons, including diagnosing tumors or bone injuries. X-rays are made by using external radiation to produce images of the body, its organs, and other internal structures for diagnostic purposes. X-rays pass through body structures onto specially-treated plates (similar to camera film) or digital media and a "negative" type picture is made (the more solid a structure is, the whiter it appears on the film). When the body undergoes X-rays, different parts of the body allow varying amounts of the X-ray beams to pass through. The soft tissues in the body (such as blood, skin, fat, and muscle) allow most of the X-ray to pass through and appear dark gray on the film or digital media. A bone or a tumor, which is more dense than soft tissue, allows few of the X-rays to pass through and appears white on the X-ray. When a break in a bone has occurred, the X-ray beam passes through the broken area and appears as a dark line in the white bone. X-ray technology is used in other types of diagnostic procedures, such as arteriograms, computed tomography (CT) scans, and fluoroscopy. Radiation during pregnancy may lead to birth defects. Always tell your radiologist or doctor if you suspect you may be pregnant.

2. How do medical x-rays work? To create a radiograph, a patient is positioned so that the part of the body being imaged is located between an x-ray source and an x-ray detector. When the machine is turned on,  x-rays  travel through the body and are absorbed in different amounts by different tissues, depending on the radiological density of the tissues they pass through. Radiological density is determined by both the density and the atomic number (the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus) of the material being imaged. For example, our bones contain calcium, which has a higher atomic number than most other tissues. Because of this property, bones readily absorb x-rays and therefore produce high contrast on the x-ray detector. As a result, bony structures appear whiter than other tissues against the black background of a radiograph. Conversely, x-rays travel more easily through less radiologically dense tissues, such as fat, muscle, and air-filled cavities such as the lungs. These structures are displayed in shades of gray on a radiograph.

3. When are medical x-rays used? Listed below are examples of examinations and procedures that use x-ray technology to either diagnose or treat disease:- Diagnostic X-ray radiography:  Detects bone fractures, certain tumors and other abnormal masses, pneumonia, some types of injuries, calcifications, foreign objects, or dental problems.

4. What is an X-ray with contrast material? Some X-rays use contrast material (also called contrast agent or dye). It makes certain structures in your body, like blood vessels easier to see. The contrast material comes as a liquid, powder or pill. Your provider gives you the contrast material before the X-ray. Depending on the type of X-ray, you may receive the contrast material: Orally (by mouth). Through an injection into a vein (IV) or your cerebrospinal fluid. By inserting it into your rectum enema.

5. When do you need an X-ray? Your provider may order an X-ray to: Check for a broken bone (fracture). Identify the cause of symptoms, such as pain and swelling. Look for signs of infection in your lungs. Look for foreign objects in your body. Look for structural problems in your bones, joints or soft tissues. Plan and evaluate treatments.

6. What can an X-ray show? Issues that can show up on X-rays include: Broken bones. Bone changes or abnormalities. Herniated disc in your spine. Infections. Kidney stone. scoliosis  and other spine curvature conditions. Tooth cavities. Tumors. Keep in mind that while certain abnormalities can show up on X-rays, they don’t always. In other words, things like kidney stones and tumors aren’t always visible on an X-ray, even if they’re there.

7. Can an X-ray show cancer? X-rays can show cancer, but it’s not the primary way that providers look for or diagnose most cancers. This is because tumors in your organs can be small or hidden behind other structures in your body (like your ribs in the case of a chest X-ray) or blend in with normal tissues.

8. What are the types of X-rays? Several types of X-rays take pictures of different areas inside your body. Some of the most common types of X-rays include: Abdominal X-ray.  This X-ray helps providers evaluate parts of your digestive system and diagnose conditions like kidney stones and bladder stones. Bone X-ray.  You might get a bone X-ray if your provider suspects you have a broken bone, dislocated joints or arthritis. Images from bone X-rays can also show signs of bone cancer or infection. Chest x-ray:-  Your provider might order a chest X-ray if you have symptoms like chest pain, shortness of breath or a cough. Dental x-ray .  A dental provider takes regular X-rays of your mouth to look for issues with your teeth and gums.

9. Head X-ray . These can help providers see skull fractures from head injuries or conditions that affect how the bones in your skull form, like craniosynostosis. Spine x-ray  A provider can use a spine X-ray to look for spine curvatures, slipped discs and other spine issues. Other types of medical imaging use a series of X-rays interpreted by a computer to make detailed images. These include:-

10. Bone density (DEXA) scan. CT( computed t omography) Fluoroscopy. Mammogram. How do X-rays work? X-rays work by sending beams of radiation through your body to create images on an X-ray detector nearby. Radiation beams are invisible, and you can’t feel them. As the beams go through your body, bones, soft tissues and other structures absorb radiation in different ways. Solid or dense objects (such as bones) absorb radiation easily, so they appear bright white on the image. Soft tissues (such as organs) don’t absorb radiation as easily, so they appear in shades of gray on the X-ray. A radiologist interprets the image and writes a report for the physician who ordered the X-ray, noting if there’s anything in the image that’s abnormal or concerning.

11. How do I prepare for an X-ray? Preparation for an X-ray depends on the type of X-ray you’re getting. Your provider may ask you to:- Avoid using lotions, creams or perfume. These can cause shadows on your X-rays and make the results inaccurate. Remove metal objects like jewelry, hairpins or hearing aids. Metal can interfere with X-rays and make the results inaccurate. Stop eating or drinking several hours beforehand. Wear comfortable clothing or change into a gown before the X-ray. Tell your healthcare provider about your health history, allergies and any medications you’re taking. If you’re pregnant, think you might be pregnant or are breastfeeding tell your provider before getting an X-ray. If you’re getting an X-ray with contrast, let your provider know if you have a kidney condition.

12. What can I expect during an X-ray? The exact steps of an X-ray depend on what kind of X-ray you’re getting. In general, during an X-ray your provider will:- Give you contrast medium (if necessary) through an injection or enema, or have you swallow it. You may feel flushed or warm for a little while after an IV injection of dye. Some people get a metallic taste in their mouth. These side effects go away in a few minutes. Ask you to sit, stand or lie down on a table. In the past, your provider may have covered you with a heavy lead shield (apron), but new evidence suggests that they aren’t necessary. Position the camera near the body part that they’re getting a picture of. Move your body or limbs in different positions and ask you to hold still. They may also ask you to hold your breath for a few seconds so the images aren’t blurry. Sometimes children can’t stay still long enough to produce clear images. Your child’s provider may recommend using a restraint during an X-ray. The restraint (or immobilizer) helps your child stay still and reduces the need for retakes. The restraints don’t hurt and won’t harm your child.

13. What happens after an X-ray? Most of the time, there aren’t any restrictions on what you can do after an X-ray. If you received contrast medium, your provider might give you special instructions, like drinking plenty of water afterwards. What are the risks or side effects of X-rays? X-rays are generally safe and low-risk. Some people have side effects from contrast dye, which may include: - Nausea or vomiting. Stomach cramps or diarrhea . Headaches. There’s a small risk of an allergic reaction to the contrast material. People who have allergies or asthma are more likely to have an allergic reaction to contrast dye. Talk to your provider about your risk of a reaction, and call them right away if you have unusual symptoms after an X-ray with contrast. Although X-rays use radiation (which can cause cancer and other health problems), you’re exposed to a very small amount during a plain radiograph — usually not much more than you’d get just from naturally occurring radiation you’re exposed to in your daily life (background radiation). For instance, a chest X-ray exposes you to about 10 days’ worth of background radiation. A dental X-ray exposes you to about one day of background radiation.

14. X-rays in pregnancy:- While the amount of radiation exposure to an adult during an X-ray isn’t usually harmful, it can harm a fetus. If you’re pregnant, your provider may choose another imaging study, such as MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) or ultrasound. What type of results do you get from an X-ray? A radiologist will review your X-ray and note any findings. They may note if they recommend a follow-up. Your healthcare provider will receive both the images and the radiologist’s notes. They’ll review the images, too, and let you know if there’s anything concerning.

15. How long does it take to get X-ray results? Results from a bone X-ray are often ready right away, but the time it takes for a radiologist to look at them can vary. Your provider might share your results with you after the X-ray, or you might see them show up in your electronic health records. Results from other types of X-rays (such as a GI test) may take longer. Talk to your provider about when you can expect results. If the results are abnormal what are the next steps? Your provider will let you know if you need follow-up imaging or testing. Not all abnormal findings are concerning — in fact, many incidental findings are benign (not harmful). But check with your provider if you have any questions about the X-ray results.

16. When should I call my doctor? f you received contrast material before your X-ray, call your provider if you have:- Skin rash, hives or itching. Headaches. Nausea or vomiting. Trouble breathing or shortness of breath Symptoms can appear up to a day or two after the X-ray. A note from Cleveland Clinic :- X-rays are one of the oldest, most reliable medical technologies. And despite it being almost 130 years since their discovery, they’re still relevant thanks to research into new, better ways to use them. Modern X-rays are far more detailed and use less radiation than in the past, thanks to advances in imaging resolution. X-rays allow providers to quickly check what might be going on inside your body. This means you can know fast whether there’s something concerning that needs treatment or additional testing. Let your provider know if you have any questions about getting an X-ray or the findings.

17. November 8, 1895: Roentgen's Discovery of X-Rays:- Few scientific breakthroughs have had as immediate an impact as Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen's discovery of X-rays, a momentous event that instantly revolutionized the fields of physics and medicine. The X-ray emerged from the laboratory and into widespread use in a startlingly brief leap: within a year of Roentgen's announcement of his discovery, the application of X-rays to diagnosis and therapy was an established part of the medical profession. Roentgen's scientific career was one beset with difficulties. As a student in Holland, he was expelled from the Utrecht Technical School for a prank committed by another student. His lack of a diploma initially prevented him from obtaining a position at the University of Würzburg even after he received his doctorate, although he eventually was accepted. His experiments at Würzburg focused on light phenomena and other emissions generated by discharging electrical current in so-called "Crookes tubes," glass bulbs with positive and negative electrodes, evacuated of air, which display a fluorescent glow when a high voltage current is passed through it. He was particularly interested in cathode rays and in assessing their range outside of charged tubes.

18. On November 8, 1895, Roentgen noticed that when he shielded the tube with heavy black cardboard, the green fluorescent light caused a platinobarium screen nine feet at away to glow — too far away to be reacting to the cathode rays as he understood them. He determined the fluorescence was caused by invisible rays originating from the Crookes tube he was using to study cathode rays (later recognized as electrons), which penetrated the opaque black paper wrapped around the tube. Further experiments revealed that this new type of ray was capable of passing through most substances, including the soft tissues of the body, but left bones and metals visible. One of his earliest photographic plates from his experiments was a film of his wife Bertha's hand, with her wedding ring clearly visible. To test his observations and enhance his scientific data, Roentgen plunged into seven weeks of meticulous planned and executed experiments. On December 28, he submitted his first "provisional" communication, "On a New Kind of Rays," in the Proceedings of the Würzburg Physic-Medical Society. In January 1896 he made his first public presentation before the same society, following his lecture with a demonstration: he made a plate of the hand of an attending anatomist, who proposed the new discovery be named "Roentgen's Rays."

19. One of the earliest photographic plates from Roentgen's experiments was a film of his wife, Bertha's hand with a ring, produced on Friday, November 8, 1895.

20. The news spread rapidly throughout the world. Thomas Edison was among those eager to perfect Roentgen's discovery, developing a handheld fluoroscope, although he failed to make a commercial "X-ray lamp" for domestic use. The apparatus for producing X-rays was soon widely available, and studios opened to take "bone portraits," further fueling public interest and imagination. Poems about X-rays appeared in popular journals, and the metaphorical use of the rays popped up in political cartoons, short stories, and advertising. Detectives touted the use of Roentgen devices in following unfaithful spouses, and lead underwear was manufactured to foil attempts at peeking with "X-ray glasses.“ As frivolous as such reactions may seem, the medical community quickly recognized the importance of Roentgen's discovery. By February 1896, X-rays were finding their first clinical use in the US in Dartmouth, MA, when Edwin Brant Frost produced a plate of a patient's Colles fracture for his brother, a local doctor. Soon attempts were made to insert metal rods or inject radio-opaque substances to give clear pictures of organs and vessels, with mixed results. The first angiography, moving-picture X-rays, and military radiology, were performed in early 1896.

21. In addition to the diagnostic powers of X-rays, some experimentalists began applying the rays to treating disease. Since the early 19th century, electrotherapy had proved popular for the temporary relief of real and imagined pains. The same apparatus could generate X-rays. In January 1896, only a few days after the announcement of Roentgen's work, a Chicago electrotherapist named Emil Grubbe irradiated a woman with a recurrent cancer of the breast, and by the end of the year, several researchers had noted the palliative effects of the rays on cancers. Others found remarkable results in the treatment of surface lesions and skin problems while others investigated the possible bacterial action of the rays. X-rays even found cosmetic uses in depilatory clinics set up in the US and France.

22. oentgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize in physics in 1901 for his discovery. When asked what his thoughts were at the moment of discovery, he replied, true to form, "I didn't think, I investigated." Today, Roentgen is widely recognized as a brilliant experimentalist who never sought honors or financial profits for his research. He rejected a title that would have given him entry into the German nobility, and donated his Nobel Prize money to his university. While he accepted the honorary degree of doctor of medicine offered to him by his own university, he never took out any patents on X-rays, to ensure that the world could freely benefit from his work. His altruism came at considerable personal cost: at the time of his death in 1923, Roentgen was nearly bankrupt from the inflation following World War I.

23. Key facts An x-ray uses a small amount of radiation to create an image of body structures. X-rays are used to diagnose disease and injury. A contrast dye, such as iodine or gadolinium, can be used during an x-ray to help to improve images. Before an x-ray you should tell the doctor if you are pregnant or may be pregnant. Possible risks with x-rays:- An x-ray uses a small amount of radiation to create an image. Some types of x-rays, such as CT scanning and angiography, use higher doses of radiation than plain x-rays. The amount of radiation used is unlikely to cause any serious problems. Talk to your doctor if you are concerned. Generally, the benefit of the x-ray in diagnosing a health condition is greater than the risk of the radiation.

24. X-ray film:-  displays the radiographic image. It is made up of several layers. The emulsion layer is the layer that produces the latent image. The latent image later developed into a visible film during film processing. Layers:- base: cellulose triacetate or polyester for support substratum: an adhesive layer containing gelatin and solvents that bind emulsion and base emulsion: silver halide and gelatin. Gelatin is used to support the silver halide crystals  5 . Some hardening agents is the main layer where latent images are stored protective layer: gelatin, protects emulsion from damage The total thickness of the film is about 0.25 mm. Types:- screen type films: faster when used with intensifying screen conventional orthochromatic (green sensitive) direct exposure type: used for dental exposures

25. Latent image:- The emulsion layer consists of silver halide crystals where silver bromide (AgBr) is the most common type of crystal at 95% while silver iodide is at 5%  6 .   The silver iodide ions functioned to introduce defect within the silver bromide crystal because a perfect crystal does not have photographic sensitivity. A sensitivity speck is introduced into the silver halide crystal by silver sulfide in order to trap electrons. When exposed to light or X-rays, a bromide ion releases an electron that is attracted to a sensitivity speck. In this process, the bromide ion becomes a bromine atom and diffuses into the gelatin. The electron gets attached to the sensitivity speck and attracts a silver ion. The silver ion attaches to the sensitivity speck and forms a silver atom. The silver atom continues to attract other silver ions to form more silver atoms. At least two to six silver atoms are required for a latent image to be processed into a visible image. During film processing, more silver atoms are produced, thus metallic silver (black) image is formed.

26. Silver halide crystals are inherently sensitive to blue and ultraviolet light. Only with the addition of dyes, then the crystals can become more sensitive to other spectrums of light such as green and red

27. Handling:- Fogging is the development of unexposed silver halide crystals. In darkrooms, safelights are used that enable a radiographer to see the film he is working on but does not expose the film. For example, a red safelight is used during the processing of films that are sensitive to green lights. However, this does not totally protect the film from fogging, especially under prolonged exposure under safelight. The film is most sensitive to safelight after the latent image is formed and before it is processed. Silver recovery:- he silver can be reclaimed from old x-ray film, in a process known as silver recovery.

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