An Introduction to Yaksha Cult of ancient India

The Yakṣa cult was an important part of early Indian religious traditions, deeply rooted in indigenous beliefs before being assimilated into Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Yakṣas were considered nature spirits, fertility deities, and guardian figures, associated with forests, rivers, and wealth. Their worship dates back to the pre-Vedic period and continued through the Maurya, Śuṅga, and Gupta periods.

Yakṣas were both benevolent and malevolent. Some were seen as protectors of villages and sacred sites, while others were feared as supernatural beings. In early Indian art, massive Yakṣa statues from sites like Parkham, Didarganj, and Besnagar showcase their importance. These sculptures, often robust and elaborately adorned, symbolize strength and prosperity.

In Hinduism, Yakṣas became attendants of Kubera, the god of wealth. In Buddhism and Jainism, they served as guardian deities, protecting stupas and religious relics. Their depictions appear at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Amaravati, reflecting their protective role.

The Yakṣa cult represents the transition of local animistic traditions into organized religion, influencing temple architecture and iconography. Their worship continued in folk traditions, linking early beliefs with classical Indian religious practices.

1. An Introduction to Yakṣa Cult Gurvendra Kushwaha, UGC Research Fellow, Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute (Deemed to be University), Pune

2. Introduction The etymology of the word Yakṣa is controversial, and it is defined by various modern scholars: Saynacharya defined Yakṣa as masculine form. Majority of scholars accepted the meaning “to move quickly”. From this derivation, Yakṣa means “a movementry appearance of light flashing upon sight.” This sense, is eminently satisfies the English word ‘phantom’. Terms Meaning Scholar यक्ष opposite Hillebrandt √ यज् to worship with offering and honour Keith यक्ष यज्ञम् पूजा or पूजितम धानम् Sayanacharya यक्ष पूज्यदेव or पूजनीय Sayanacharya यक्ष To honour Coomaraswamy

3. Yakṣa Cult in Vedic tradition The earliest reference of Yakṣa (RV. VII. 61.5) Yakṣa has been explained as पूज्यम् स्वरुपम् ( AV. XI. 2.24). Yakṣa are called इतरजन , other folks (AV. VIII. 10.28) In the Paipallad branch of Atharvaveda the word पुण्यजन is defined as Sacred folks. The same idea is conveyed in the जैमिनीय ब्राह्मण and in the केन उपनिषद where ब्रह्म - यक्ष manifests itself to इंद्र , वायु and अग्नि शतपथ ब्राह्मण also refers the similar idea of यक्ष manifestation. Some individual Yakṣa appeared in the later Vedic texts, and probably the idea of pantheon came into existence later. The feminine nature of Yakṣa probably begins during this phase.

4. Origin of the concept of ‘Being’ of Yakṣas Yakṣa have been variously designated- पुण्यजन (AV VIII 10.28) वैश्रवणकायिक देव (Bhagvati Sutra) अमनुस्सा ( Yakṣa who have the spirit of Ghost) वाणमंतर (defined as देवता ) भूम्मदेव or रुक्खदेव देव ( दीर्घ निकाय of Buddhist literature)

5. Yakṣa Cult in the Epic and Purāṇic tradition Epics: Prajāpati ̄ Brahmā created the Yakṣa . S ometimes sage Pulatsya is also regarded as the creator of Yakṣa . Yakṣa : according to the Purāṇa , descendents of the sage कश्यप whose consort was विश्वा / ख़ासा वामन पुराण , descendents of the sage कपिल and केशिनी रामायण , Brahma created two entities. रक्ष म: ( let us guard), became राक्षस यक्षम : ( let us gobble) became Yakṣa करोधा , a daughter of दक्ष , who was the son of ब्रह्मा is also mentioned as creator of the Yakṣa . These concepts about origin of Yakṣa is contrary to the Vedic concept. Obviously, the epics and Purāṇas seek to explain the mystry of the origin authoritarian religious and mythological biasness.

6. Yakṣa Cult in the Epic and Purāṇic tradition Evil minded Yakṣa are known as तटा क । महाभारत ( आरण्यक पर्व, यक्ष युद्ध पर्व): refers the fight between Yakṣa and Bhima. Ultimetaly the fight was stopped when Kubera intervened. In the Ramayana, Yakṣa led by मणिभद्र , fought against रावण । In the Ramayana, there is concept of यक्षत्व and अमरत्व , and this is defined as boons of Gods. भीमसेन , killed countless Yakṣas . ताड़का , killed by Ram सूर्यभानु , the door keeper of Kuber was killed by रावण

7. Yakṣa Cult in the Buddhist tradition Buddhist Pali and Sanskrit texts defines Yakṣa as demi gods. आटानाटिय सुत्त – 41 Yakkha chiefs सुत्तनिपात – 28 Yakkha chiefs हेमवत and सातगिरी सूचिलोम and खरलोम पंडक and हरिता चेतिय and जुतींधर

8. Yakṣa Cult in the Buddhist tradition A Yakṣa namely सक्क is mentioned the the संयुक्त निकाय Other texts mentions Yakṣa in the category of भूम्मदेवता , अमनुस्सा , and नैवासिक In the जातक , Bodhisattvas are often born as a tree spirit, and often called देवता , and at some places देवता and Yakṣa are synonyms.

9. Yakṣa Cult in the Jain tradition According to the Jain works, Yakṣa assumed three types, 1. Banevolent , 2. Malevolent and 3. Converted. The class of the Yakṣa has been include in the व्यन्तर or वाणमंतर , पिशाच , भूत , राक्षस , किन्नर , किंपुरुष , महोरग and गंधर्व In that group there are 16 chiefs: पूर्णभद्र , मणिभद्र , श्वेतभद्र , हरिभद्र , सुमनोभद्र , व्यातिपतीकभद्र, सुभद्रा, सर्वतोभद्र, मनुष्ययक्ष, वनाधिपति, वनाहार, रूपयक्ष and यक्षोत्तम Kubera is considered lord but मणिभद्र and पूर्णभद्र are important in Jain works. Usually, Yakṣa were always obey the command and order of महावीर and Jain monks. The each 24 तीर्थंकर , had a pair of यक्ष and यक्षिणी pairs, and it is mentioned in the different texts such as: रूपमंडन , वास्तुसार , अपराजितपृच्छा and त्रिलोकपतंजलि

10. Yakṣa Standing Yakṣa , from Sanchi Stupa 1 (The Grea t Stupa), East Torana, North Pillar, South Face, Bottom panel. Date: 299-200 BCE Material: Sandstone Courtesy: AIIS (Wendy Holden)

11. सूचिलोम Yakṣa Standing सुलोचिमा Yakṣa , from Bharhuta Stupa, Vedika (Railing) Upright. Now kept in Indian Museum, Kolkata. Date: 100 BCE Material: Purple Sandstone Courtesy: AIIS (Somnath Chakraverty )

12. Parkham Yakṣa Yakṣa Manibhadhra standing, found from Parkham (Mathura), Now kept in Archaeological Museum, Mathura. Patron: Gomitaka Date: 199-100 BCE Material: Buff Sand stone Courtesy: AIIS

13. Kubera Seated Kubera found from Lohaban (Mathura), now kept in Archaeological Museum Mathura. Courtesy: AIIS

14. Jain Yakṣa Seated Jain Yakṣa , from Aihole , now kept in Aihole Govt. site Museum, Bijapur, Karnataka. Date: 900-999CE Material: Granite Courtesy: AIIS

15. दीदारगंज यक्षी दीदारगंज यक्षी holding chouri or fly-whisk , Found from Didarganj , Patna. Now kept in Bihar Museum, Patna. Discovered in 1917 by by Ghulam Rasul. Material: Chunar Sandstone Date: 3rd Century BCE Material: Terracotta Courtesy: Bihar Museum and Vaishanavi Patil respectively

16. References Misra, R. N. 1979. Yaksha Cult and Iconography . New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. 1993. Yakshas Eassays in the Water Cosmology . Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts.

17. Thank you!