ANAPHY%20LAB%20TOPIC%201.docx. .

Anaphy

1. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
Human Anatomy and Physiology
Laboratory
Prelim
LESSON 1: HUMAN ORGANISM
Anatomy
- the study of the structure or morphology of the body and how
the body parts
are organized
- means to cut the body parts to study
- means to dissect
1. Systemic Anatomy
2. Regional Anatomy
3. Surface Anatomy
-(3) Subdivisions of Gross Anatomy
Systemic Anatomy -Study of organs per system
Regional Anatomy -Study of organs per region
Surface Anatomy -Study of external features
Why is it important to
study anatomy?
- it is for students who plan to take up medical courses to have a
background knowledge on the human body
- basis to understand the diseases and pathologies
Physiology - is the study of the functions of body parts, what they do, and
how they do it.
- helps to understand and predict the body’ response to stim
Pathology
Anatomy is not changing,
rather it is improving
- is the study of the diseases of the body
- any changes in the body are called symptoms.
- to facilitate uniformity of terms, scientists have adopted the
four basic reference systems of bodily organization.
A. Directions
B. Planes
C. Cavities
D. Structural units
-(4) Basic reference systems
Anatomical Position- when describing the 4 basic reference systems, the human body
must be in its
1. Erect position of the
body
2. Face directed forward
3. Arms at the side
4. Palms of the hand
facing forward
5. Feet facing forward
-Anatomical Position
A. Terms of Direction
1.Superior -upper or above
- example: the head is superior to the neck
2.Inferior - lower or below
- example: the foot is inferior to the ankle
3.Anterior or Ventral - toward the front of the body
- example: the teeth are anterior to the throat
4.Posterior or Dorsal-Toward the back of the body
- example: the brain is posterior to the eyes
5.Superficial - towards the surface
- example: the skin is superficial to the muscle
6.Deep - away from the surface
- example: the lungs is deep to the ribs
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

2. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
7.Cephalad or Cranial- skull or head end
- cephalad is synonymous with superior
- example: the thoracic activity lies cephalad to the
abdominopelvic activity
8.Caudal - tail end
- caudal is synonymous with inferior
9.Medial - towards the middle or midline of the body
- example: the ulna is on the medial side of the forearm
10.Lateral - away from the midline of the body
- example: radius is lateral to the ulna
11.Proximal - closer or towards to the point of attachment
- example: the elbow is proximal to the wrist
12.Distal - farther from the point of attachment
- example: the wrist is distal to the elbow
Take note that:
1. Supine
2. Prone
- no body part is more superior than the head
- no body part is more inferior than the feet
- no body part is more lateral than the shoulder
- no body part is more proximal than the shoulders
- (2) Actions requiring directions
Supine - lying on your back
Prone - lying on your belly
Body Parts and Regions
Head
Frontal - forehead
Orbital - eye
Nasal - nose
Oral
Otic
Buccal
Mental
- mouth
- ear
- cheek
- chin
Cranial - skull
Neck
Cervical
Clavicular
- front of the neck or spine
- has 7 vertebrae (from C1 to C7)
- collarbone
Occipital - base of the skull
Nuchal - back of the neck
Trunk
Thoracic
- thorax
- has 12 vertebrae (from T1 to T12)
- comprises the pectoral, sternal, and mammary
1.Pectoral
2.Sternal
3.Mammary
- chest
- breastbone or sternum
- breast
Abdominal - abdomen
Umbilical - navel
Pelvic - pelvis
Inguinal - groin
Pubic - genital
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

3. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
Dorsal - back
- comprises the scapular, vertebral, and lumbar
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

4. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
1. Scapular - shoulder blade
2. Vertebral - spinal column
3. Lumbar - loin of lower back
- has 5 vertebrae (from L1 to L5)
Sacral
Gluteal
- between the hips
- buttocks
Perineal - perineum
Upper Limb
Axillary
Brachial
Antecubital
Antebrachial
- armpit
- arm
- front of elbow
- forearm
Carpal - wrist
Manual
1. Palmar
2. Digital
- hand
- comprises the palmar and digital
- palm
- fingers
Acromial - point of shoulder
Olecranon - point of elbow
Dorsum - back of the hand
Lower Limb
Coxal
Femoral
Patellar
- hip
- thigh or femur
- knee cap or patella
Crural - leg
Pedal
1. Talus
2. Dorsum
3. Digital
- foot
- comprises the talus, dorsum, and digital
- ankle
- top of the foot
- toes
Popliteal - hallow behind the knee
Sural - calf
Plantar
Calcaneal
- sole
- heel or calcaneus
Abdominal Subdivisions
1. Right upper quadrant
2. Left upper quadrant
3. Right Lower quadrant
4. Left lower quadrant
- (4) Abdominal Quadrants
Right upper quadrant- liver
Left upper quadrant- stomach
- pancreas
- spleen
Right lower quadrant- appendix
Left lower quadrant- intestine
1. Left hypochondriac
2. Right hypochondriac
3. Left Lumbar
4. Right Lumbar
5. Left Inguinal
6. Right Inguinal
- (9) Abdominal Regions
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

5. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
7. Epigastric
8. Umbilical
9. Hypogastric
B. Planes
1. Frontal or Coronal
Plane
- plane is one that divides the anterior (or ventral) and posterior
(or dorsal) portions of the body at the right angles to the sagittal
plane
2. Midsagittal or Sagittal
Plane
- vertically divides the body through the midline equally into
two left and right portions or halves
3. Transverse or
Horizontal Plane
- divides the body into superior and inferior portions
Sections
1.Longitudinal section
2.Transverse section
3.Oblique section
- cut through the long axis of the organ
- cut at the right angles to the long axis
- slant or diagonal
C. Cavities
1. Dorsal Cavity
2. Ventral Cavity
- (2) Major Cavities include:
Dorsal Cavity - Cranial Cavity: contains the brain
- Spinal Cavity: spinal cord
Ventral Cavity - Thoracic Cavity: it is divided by the mediastinum (pleural and
pericardium)
- Abdominopelvic cavity: it is not physically separated unlike
the thoracic cavity (abdominal and pelvic)
Pleural Cavity - lungs
Pericardial Cavity- heart
Abdominal Cavity
Pelvic Cavity
- comprises the liver, stomach, spleen, pancreas, and intestine
- comprises the urinary bladder, large intestine, and the internal
reproductive organs.
Mediastinum
Diaphragm muscle
- includes the heart, thymus gland, lymph and blood vessels,
trachea, esophagus and nerves.
- separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity
1. Parietal
2. Visceral - (2) Coverings
Parietal
Visceral
- covers the walls of a cavity (pleural and pericardium)
- covering of an organ
Mesentery - anchors all the organs in the abdominopelvic cavity to the wall
D. Structural Units
1. Atoms
2. Molecules
3. Cells
4. Tissues
5. Organs
6. Systems
7. Human Organism
- (7) Structural Levels of Organization of the Human Body
Atoms
Molecules
- are the smallest units of elements, such as carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen.
- are formed when atoms combine through chemical bonds to
form units such was water, sugars, and amino acids.
Cells - are the smallest living units of biologic organization made of
structures that perform the activities of life, such as the nucleus
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

6. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
that controls all the activities of the cell.
Tissues - are made up of similar cells that perform similar functions,
such as muscle tissues that cause contraction and movement.
Organs - there are four different kinds of tissues (epithelial, connective,
muscular and nervous) that group together in different
proportions to make an organ like the stomach, which mixes
our food with digestive enzymes.
Systems
Human Organism
- a group of organs makes up a body system like the nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs that makes up the
respiratory system whose function is to bring in oxygen to the
body cells and take away carbon dioxide gas.
- all of the organ systems together constitute a functioning
human being.
Organ Systems
Integumentary System- provides protection
- regulates temperature
- prevents water loss
- helps produce vitamin D
- consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands
Skeletal System- provides protection and support
- allows body movement
- produces blood cells
- stores minerals and adipose tissue
- consists bones, associated cartilages, ligaments and joints.
- produces body movements
- maintains posture
Muscular System - produces body heat
- consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons
Lymphatic System
- removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph
- combats disease
- maintains fluid balance
- absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract
- consists of lymphatic vessels, lymphatic nodes, and other
lymphatic organs
Respiratory System- exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and
air
- regulates blood pH
- consists of lungs and respiratory passages.
Digestive System- performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion
- absorption of nutrients
- elimination of wastes
- consists of mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and
accessory organs
Nervous System - a major regulatory system that detect sensation and control
movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions
- consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory
receptors.
Endocrine System
- a major regulatory system that influenced metabolism,
growth, reproduction, and many other functions
- consists of glands, such as pituitary, that secretes hormones
Cardiovascular System- transports nutrients, waste products, gases and hormones
throughout the body
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

7. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
- plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of
body temperature
- consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood
Urinary System - removes waste products from the blood
- regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance
- consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ducts that carry urine
Female Reproductive
System
- produces oocytes
- site of fertilization
- produces milk for the new born
- produces hormones that influence sexual function and
behaviors
- consists of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary
glands, and associated structures.
Male Reproductive
System
- produces and transfers sperm cells to the female
- produces hormones that influence sexual functions and
behaviors
- consists of testes, accessory structures, ducts and penis
Homeostasis
Homeostasis -maintenance of the body's internal environment: within
varying narrow limits
- most of homeostatic mechanisms are governed by endocrine
and nervous system.
1. Negative feedback loop
2. Positive Feedback loop- (2) body monitors deviations in homeostasis
Negative feedback loop- it is any homeostatic process that changes the direction of the
stimulus
- it may either increase or decrease the stimulus, but is not
allowed to continue as it did before the receptor sensed it.
Examples of negative
feedback loop
1. blood glucose levels’ increase or decrease
If a level is too low, the body does something to make it go up.
If a level is too high, the body does something to bring it
down.
2. Body temperature - hypothalamus detects increase in body
temperature. Sweating helps in regulating body temperature as
it promotes heat loss thorough evaporation.
Positive Feedback loop- it maintains the direction of the stimulus, possibly accelerating
it.
Examples of positive
feedback loop
- blood clotting or coagulation and uterine contractions during
childbirth.
The direction is maintained, not changed.
Prepared by:
Ronna Mae Bartolo Gavino, RN, MANCN
Clinical Instructor
Human Anatomy and Physiology
Laboratory
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

8. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
Prelim
LESSON 2: CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM, AND REPRODUCTION
Cell Structure
Cell - is the basic unit of biological organization - prokaryotic vs.
eukaryotic.
Prokaryote
Eukaryote
- has no nucleus
- has no membrane
– bound organelles
- has a circular DNA
- has a nucleus
- have membrane
– bound organelles
- has a linear DNA
1. Protoplasm
2. Cell membrane
3. Organelles
- Basic Composition of the Cell
History of the Cell Theory- proposed in 1830s by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann
Modern Cell Theory - cells are the smallest complete living things
- all organisms are composed of one or more cells
- cells arise only from other cells
- all existing cells are descendants of the first cells.
Functions of the Cell
1. Cell or Plasma
Membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
4. Ribosome
5. Mitochondria
6. Endoplasmic Reticulum
7. Golgi Apparatus
8. Lysosomes
9. Peroxisomes
10. Cytoskeleton
11. Centrioles
12. Cilia and Flagella
13. Microvilli
1. Cell metabolism
2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
- (13) Cell Organelles:
The Cell Membrane - outer boundary of the cell
- double phospholipid layer with embedded proteins “selective”
- also called plasma membrane or plasma lemma
- membrane transport: selectively permeable membrane
Extra cellular substances
Intra cellular substances
- substances outside the cell.
- substances inside the cell
PISO - potassium inside the cell
- sodium outside the cell
1. Proteins
2. Phospholipids
3. Cholesterol - other substances that are inside the cell membrane
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

9. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
4. Carbohydrates
Hydrophilic heads- attracts water (polar)
Hydrophobic tails
Fluid Mosaic Model
- repels water (non – polar)
- like tiles of mosaic but are embedded in a fluid and can move
slightly to allow passage of water molecules across the
membrane.
- neither rigid or static in structure but is highly flexible and
can change its shape and composition through time
- any damage to the membrane can be repaired because
phospholipids tend to reassemble.
MARKER MOLECULES
Glycoprotein
(cell surface marker)
- allow cells to identify other cells or other molecules
- example: sperm cell recognition to egg cells, immune cells
ability to recognize foreign bodies.
ATTACHMENT
PROTEINS
Extracellular molecule
Attachment proteins
(integrins)
Intracellular molecule
- anchor cells to other cells (cadherin’s) or to extracellular
molecules (integrins)
TRANSPORT PROTEINS
Channel Proteins
- from passageways through the plasma membrane, allowing
specific ions or molecules to enter and exit the cell
- may be gated (ligand and voltage) or non-gated (leaked ion)
Ligand – gated ion channel
Voltage – gated ion
channel
- needs chemical signals to open or close
- needs voltage to open or close
CARRIER PROTEINS
(Transporters)
- moves ions or molecules across the membrane - binding of
specific chemical to carrier proteins causes changes in shape of
the carrier proteins
- the carrier proteins then move the specific chemical across
the membrane
ATP-POWERED PUMPS - move specific ions or molecules across the membrane
- require ATP molecules to function
RECEPTOR PROTEINS - function as binding sites for chemical signals in the
extracellular fluid
- binding of chemical signals to receptors triggers cellular
responses
ENZYMES - catalyze chemical reactions either inside or outside cells
Selectively Permeable- it allows only certain substances to pass through it
Small, non-lipid-soluble
molecules
- diffuse between the phospholipid molecules of the plasma
membrane - example: urea
Large, non-lipid soluble
molecules (and ions)
- molecules and ions that cannot diffuse across the
phospholipid bilayer may move across the plasma membrane
with the help of transport proteins.
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated Diffusion
- (3) Passive Transport Mechanisms
Diffusion
- movement of molecules results in net movement from areas
of higher to lower concentration, moving the solutes towards
the concentration gradient.
- does not require ATP
Lipid – soluble molecules- dissolve and diffuse through the lipid bilayer
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

10. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
Ions and small molecules- diffuse through membrane channels
1. Temperature
2. Size of molecules
3. Viscosity
4. Magnitude
- (4) Factors that can affect diffusion
Osmosis - movement of water molecules ONLY
- water diffuses through the lipid layer
- does not require ATP
1. Isotonic
2. Hypertonic
3. Hypotonic
- (3) Types under Osmosis
Isotonic - balanced extracellular and intracellular concentration
Hypertonic - higher concentration of solute outside the cell
- cell tends to shrink
Hypotonic - lower concentration of solute outside the cell
- cell tends to swell
Facilitated Diffusion- carrier proteins combine with substances and move them
across the plasma membrane.
- no ATP is used
- some substances too large to pass through membrane
channels and too polar to dissolve in the lipid bilayer are
transported.
1. Active Transport
2. Secondary Active
Transport
- (2) Active Transport Mechanisms
Active Transport - ATP – powered pumps combine with substances and move
them across the plasma membrane
- requires ATP
Secondary Active
Transport
- ions are moved across the plasma membrane by active
transport, which establishes ion concentration gradient
- ATP is require
1. Endocytosis
2. Exocytosis
- (2) Vesicular Transport
Endocytosis - process by which molecules enter the cell by vesicles
- requires ATP
1. Phagocytosis
2. Pinocytosis - (2) Types of Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
- engulfs solid materials (cell eating)
- engulfs dissolved or liquid substances (cell drinking)
Exocytosis - process by which molecules exits the cell by vesicles
- requires ATP
Process of Exocytosis Secretions accumulate within the secretory vesicles

The vesicles will then migrate to the plasma membrane

Vesicles will fuse with the plasma membrane

Vesicle content will be released from the cell

Cytoplasm - mostly water with chemical compounds in solution or colloid
- polar (charged) compounds go into solution
- non polar (noncharged) compounds go into colloidal
suspension
Cytosol - fluid portion of the cytoplasm
Solution vs. Colloid- individual vs. clumped atoms or ions distributed in medium
Nucleus - control center of the cell
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

11. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
- all body cells have a nucleus at some point in their life cycle
(RBC lose their nuclei as they develop).
Nuclear Membrane - has pores to allow the passage of substances
Nucleoplasm - colloidal suspension of proteins, nucleic acids, and enzymes
Chromatin - contains the genetic material of the cell
Nucleolus - site of ribosome formation
Ribosomes - distributed throughout cytoplasm
- attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
- no membrane covering
- site of protein synthesis
Free Ribosomes - ribosomes that are not attached to any organelle
Deoxyribonucleic Acid or
DNA
- mostly found within the nucleus, although small amounts of
DNA are also found within the mitochondria.
- does not leave the nucleus but functions by means of an
intermediate called ribonucleic acid or RNA, which can leave
the nucleus through nuclear pores.
Gene - sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule that specifies
and RNA molecule.
The Anatomy of a DNA
Molecule
- Double helical chain of nucleotides.
- Gene: sequence of base pairs that codes for polypeptide or
protein.
- Human Genome Project
- Duplication of DNA Molecule
Components of DNA 1. Phosphate Group
2. Five-carbon sugars (deoxyribose)
3. Nitrogen-containing base
4. Pyrimidines pair with purines
5. Chains held together by hydrogen bonds
Mitochondria - powerhouse of the cell
- (outer) capsule shape, (inner) folds
- energy requirements of cell determine cristae number
- self replicative
- forms ATP or Adenosine triphosphate
Cristae
- found in the mitochondria
- inner folds where cellular respiration occurs
Endoplasmic Reticulum- system of membranes that makes up channels
- connects with outer nuclear and cell membranes
Cisternae - found in the endoplasmic reticulum
- sac like or channel like cavities
Rough ER (Granular)- for protein synthesis
- has attached ribosomes
- fat transport (lacteals in small intestine)
Smooth ER (Agranular)- responsible for sex hormones synthesis (gonads) and lipid
synthesis
- stores calcium ions
- collection of flat sac like cisternae
- concentration and collection of cellular compounds
Golgi Apparatus - packaging and distribution center because it modifies,
packages, and distributes proteins and lipids - storage
warehouses of the cell
- carbohydrate synthesis site
- digestive enzyme packages
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

12. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
Lysosomes - carries out intracellular digestion
- may be formed by rough endoplasmic reticulum and golgi
bodies
- digest stored food
Functions of Lysosomes- maintenance and repair organelles - suicide agents for old or
weak cells (autolysis)
Peroxisomes - contain enzymes that break down fatty acids and amino acids
- breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)- is a by – product of that breakdown which can be toxic to the
cell.
Cytoskeleton
- supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles
in place.
- responsible for the changes in cell shape and the movement
of cell organ.
1. Microtubules
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Actin filaments
- (3) three groups of proteins in the cytoskeleton (from thickest
to thinnest)
Centrioles - form spindle fibers during cell division (microtubules)
- guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells
Centrosomes - two centrioles at right angles to each other
- composed of nine sets of triplet fiber
Cilia and Flagella- hair – like protrusions from cell membrane
- nine double fibrils around two single central fibrils
Cilia - move materials across cell surface
- numerous in the respiratory and female reproductive tract
Flagellum - propels cell through a medium
- increase the cell surface area
- are only one tenth to one twentieth the size of the cilia
Microvilli - specialized extensions of cell membrane that support the cilia
- supported with actin filaments
- one of the important functions is absorption
Cell Metabolism and Reproduction
Metabolism - total cellular chemical changes
- set of chemical reactions in living organisms in order to
maintain life
1. Anabolism
2. Catabolism
- (2) Types of Metabolism
Anabolism - process of building up
- energy requiring process that builds larger molecules by
combining smaller molecules
Catabolism - process of breaking down
- energy releasing process that breaks down large molecules
into smaller ones
Calorie
Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP)
- measure of energy contained in the food
- most common energy source available to the cell
ATP Production - cellular respiration through aerobic process
Glucose (C6H12O6) - most common substance decomposed aerobically in cells to
produce ATP.
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Citric Acid Cycle
3. Electron Transfer
- (3) Steps in ATP production
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

13. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
Glycolysis - process by which glucose is turned into pyruvate
- occurs in the cytoplasm
- 2 ATP and 2 NADH are products of glycolysis
Krebs – Cycle - process by which pyruvate acid is turned into carbon dioxide
- occurs in the mitochondria
- 2 ATP and 6 NADH are products of
Electron Transfer- occurs in the mitochondria
- 34 ATP are products of electron transfer
Cellular Reproduction
Cell Divisions
Cell Replications
- process of cell duplication
Cell Cycle - all reproduction begins at cellular level
1. Interphase
2. Mitosis or Meiosis
3. Cytokinesis
- (3) Stages of Cell Cycle
Interphase - previously called resting stage
- time between divisions
- it is the longest and most dynamic part of cell life
1. GAP 1 (G1)
2. Synthesis Phase (S-phase)
3. GAP 2 (G2)
- (3) Stages under Interphase:
Gap 1 (G1) - primary growth phase
Synthesis Phase (S)- DNA duplication
Gap 2 (G2) - centrioles complete duplication
- mitochondria replicate
- chromosomes condense and coil
Mitosis - duplication of genetic material
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
- (4) Processes under Mitosis
Prophase - chromosomes become visible as chromatids are joined by
centromere
- two kinetochores at the centromere
- centrioles move to opposite poles
- nuclear membrane breaks down
- microtubules attach kinetochores to spindle
Metaphase - chromatids align at equator of cell
- centromere divides
Anaphase - divided centromere pulls chromatids to opposite pole
- cytokinesis begins
- appearance of cleavage furrow
Telophase - chromosomes uncoil and decondense
- spindle apparatus breaks down
- new nuclear membrane forms
- cytokinesis nearly complete
Cytokinesis - duplication of organelles
- cytoplasmic division
- the division of the cell’s cytoplasm to produce two new cells
- begins in anaphase and continues through telophase
Cytokinesis in animal cells- cleavage furrow forms
- cell is pinched into daughter cells
______________________________________________________________________________
An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)

14. SAINT TONIS COLLEGE, INC.
(Formerly: Kalinga Christian Learning Center)
United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Purok 4, Bulanao Centro, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Philippines 3800
Tel. No. [phone], Email Address: [email protected]
Cytokinesis in plant cells- cell plate forms at equator
- cell plate becomes new cell wall
Meiosis:
A Reduction Division
- occurs only in gonads
- reduces genetic material from diploid to haploid
- two divisions resulting in four cells
1. Prophase I
2. Metaphase I
3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I
5. Prophase II
6. Metaphase II
7. Anaphase II
8. Telophase II
- (8) Stages of Meiosis
Prophase I - homologous chromosomes pair and cross over
Metaphase I - chromosomes align along equator
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Prophase II
- centromeres pulled to poles
- one member to each pole
- one of each pair is at each pole
- spindle forms
- centrioles move to poles
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
- chromosomes line up at equator
- centromeres divide
- chromatids at each pole
- new nuclear membrane forms
Meiosis Mitosis
Two daughter (diploid) cells
each containing the full
complement of genetic
material
Four daughter (haploid) cells each containing only
half the genetic material
Asexual Sexual
One division Two divisions
No cross over There is cross over
Responsible for growth,
maintenance. repair
Responsible for reproduction
Most cells of our body Only in gonads
Gametogenesis -the formation of the sex cells
1. Spermatogenesis
2. Oogenesis
- (2) Forms of Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis - four cells produced
- develop into sperm
Oogenesis - four cells produced
- only one becomes functional egg
Prepared by:
Ronna Mae Bartolo Gavino, RN, MANCN
Clinical Instructor
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An institution of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP)
Member: Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
UCCP Church Related Educational Action Towards Empowerment (UCCP CREATE)
Cordillera Schools Group (CSG)