ANIMAL NUTRITION and feeding classification of nutrients

ANIMAL NUTRITION
JAY RONEL CONEJOS
Animal and Dairy Sciences Cluster
UPLB - CA

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Definition of Terms
■Nutrition
■Nutrients
■Digestion
■Absorption
■Metabolism
■Enzymes

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NUTRITION
The series of processes by which an
organism takes in and assimilates food for
promoting growth and replacing damaged
or injured tissues

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NUTRITION
“encompasses several fields of
discipline “

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Biochemistry

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Chemistry

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Endocrinology
Endocrinology

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Microbiology

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Genetics

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NUTRIENTS
Any feed constituent, or a group of feed
constituents that aids in the support of life

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synthetically produced vitamins

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Chemically produced inorganic salts

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Biogenically synthesized amino acids

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DIGESTION
Process of breaking down of feed particles
into suitable products for absorption

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Mechanical forces

Chemical Digestion

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Most people believe that the stomach's function is digestion. The true function
of the stomach is to store food, the stomach makes it possible for us to eat
meals through out the day. The stomach also disinfect anything that is not
suppose to come down with the food.

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HCl make the disinfection possible, with a ph of 2 it
kills bacteria and begins to break apart food.

Enzymatic Digestion

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The enzyme that digests protein is called pepsin. Luckily we have mucus that
is secreted to protect our stomach lining. If we didn't, then the pepsin would
digest our stomachs since the stomach is made out of protein.

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A Gastric ulcer is when ones
stomach begins to digest
itself. Gastric ulcers are
caused by a bacterial
infection known as
Helicobacter Pylori. Gastric
ulcers are cured with weeks
of antibiotics.

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Contrary to popular opinion, excessive secretion of gastric acid is
rarely the problem. In fact, patients with gastric ulcers tend to
secrete normal or even reduced levels of gastric acid. Problems only
arise when normal mucosal cell function is disrupted by factors such
as Helicobacter pylori infection

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Deep Gastric Ulcer

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Barry J. Marshall & J. Robin Warren

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ABSORPTION
Transfer of substance from
gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) to the
circulatory (blood or lymph) system

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Villi

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METABOLISM
Combination of anabolic and catabolic
reactions occurring in the body with the
liberation of energy

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Anabolism
■also called constructive metabolism; is all about
building and storing
■small molecules are changed into larger, more
complex molecules of carbohydrate, protein and
fats

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Catabolism
■also known as destructive metabolism; and is
the process that produces the energy required
for all activity in the cells
■cells break down large molecules (mostly
carbohydrates and fats) to release energy

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ENZYMES
■A complex protein produced in living cells that
causes changes in other substances within the
body without being changed itself (“organic
catalyst”)

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ENZYMES
The enzyme will catalyze the reaction
MOLECULE
Enzyme will bind in the active site of the molecule
Enzyme will dissociate again in the active
site without change in its components
The molecule will
be subdivided

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PROXIMATE COMPOSITION
Nutrient Animal Plant
Composition Composition

Water 60% almost the same
Proteins 16% “ “
Minerals 4% “ “
Carbohydrates <1% >20%
Fats <20% <1%

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Different Nutrient Sources

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Classes of Nutrients
■Water
■Carbohydrates
■Fats
■Proteins
■Minerals
■Vitamins

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General
■Cheapest and most abundant nutrient
■Percentage of body water varies
depending on age

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General
■Makes up to 65-85% of animal body
weight at birth and 45-60% of body
weight at maturity
■“Percentage of body water decreases with
animal age and has an inverse relationship
with body fat”

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General
■Accounts for 90-95% of blood and many
tissues contain 70-90% water
■Found in the animal body as:
1. Intracellular water – mainly muscles and skins
2. Extracellular water – mainly interstitial fluids,
blood plasma, lymph, synovial fluid and
cerebrospinal fluid
3. Water present in urinary and gastrointestinal
tract

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A. Drinking water
Sources of Water

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B. Water contained in feeds (8-30%)
C. Metabolic water (may account for 5-10%
of total water intake)
Sources of Water

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Production of Metabolic
Water

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Camels do not store water in their humps as is commonly believed; the humps
are actually a reservoir of fatty tissue. When this tissue is metabolized, it acts
as a source of energy, and would yield more than 1 g of water for each 1 g of
fat converted through reaction with oxygen from air

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Main Functions
■Transport of nutrients and excretion
■Chemical reactions and solvent properties
■Body temperature regulation

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Main Functions
■Maintain shape of body shells

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Main Functions
■Lubricates and cushion joints and organs
or the body cavity
Synovial fluid

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Deficiencies or Restrictions
■Reduced feed intake and reduced
palatability
■Weight loss due to dehydration
■Increased secretions of nitrogen and
electrolytes such as Na
+
and K
+

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Water Losses from the Animal Body
■Urine
■Feces
■Vaporization from lungs
■Sweat from the sweat glands

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Q & A
●Which of the following is an example of nutrient?
a. synthetically produced vitamins such as A, D,
E & K
b. chemically produced inorganic salts such as
ZnO and MgSO4
c. biogenically synthesized DL-methionine and
L-lysine
d. naturally occurring sugar, starch, cellulose and gums
e. all of the above

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Q & A
●Which of the following is true about water?
a. makes up to 65-85% of animal body weight at birth
and decreases with maturity
b. makes up to 40-50% of animal body weight at birth
and increases with maturity
c. has direct relationship with fat
d. all of the above

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Q & A
●Main source of water of the animals
a. drinking water b. water in feeds c. metabolic water

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Q & A
●Which of the following is not true?
a. It is found in the animal muscles and skin as
intracellular muscles
b. It is found in the blood plasma, lymph and
cerebrospinal as extracellular fluid
c. It is present in urinary and gastrointestinal tract
d. It is present in feeds as metabolic water

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True or False
●Digestion is the process of transferring
substances from the gastrointestinal tract to the
circulatory or lymph system

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True or False
●Anabolism or constructive metabolism is a
process wherein simple molecules are changed
into a larger, more complex molecules

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True or False
●Animals have the ability to store large amount of
fat while on the other hand, plants store
enormous amount of carbohydrates in the form
of starch and cellulose

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General
■made up of C,H & O
■include sugar, starch, cellulose & gums
■produced during photosynthesis
■limited storage in animal’s body
■make-up approximately ¾ of plant dry
weight

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The plant absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, draws
water up through its roots and uses light to photosynthesize
sugars, which it uses as food. It excretes oxygen as a by-product
of the process. Without water, photosynthesis cannot take place.

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Structure
■Structure consists of C atoms arranged in
chains to which H and O are attached

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Structure
■May contain an aldehyde or a ketone
group in their structure
Aldehyde Group

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Classification (based on number of
sugar molecules)
Carbohydrates are long chains of sugar molecules connected together. There are basically two kinds
of carbohydrates: Simple and Complex. Simple carbohydrates are made up of only 1 or 2 sugar
molecules. Complex carbohydrates are made up of many sugar molecules linked together.

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Classification (based on number of
sugar molecules)
A. MONOSACCHARIDES
● one sugar molecule
● produced during digestion of more
complex carbohydrate

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Examples:
1. HEXOSES – glucose, fructose, galactose,
mannose
2. PENTOSES – arabinose, xylose, ribose*
* Ribose – found in nucleic acids

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Hexose – six-carbon sugar
1
2
3
4
5
6

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Pentose – five-sugar molecule
1
2
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5

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HEXOSES
■GLUCOSE
→ moderately sweet
→ primary form of monosaccharide
circulating in the body
→ ex. Grape sugar
Glucose Tablets

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Honey
■FRUCTOSE
→ sweetest of all
→ found in fruits and honey
Honey

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• Fructose is generally regarded as being 1.73 times sweeter than sucrose
• Fructose is generally regarded as being 1.73 times sweeter than sucrose

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■GALACTOSE
→ came from hydrolysis of lactose (milk sugar)
→ lactose will yield 1 galactose + 1 glucose

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■MANNOSE
→ has bitter taste
→ found in pineapple and coconut (copra
meal)
→ found in mannans (a kind of polysaccharide)
Copra meal

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DISACCHARIDES
■two sugar molecules
■Example:
• sucrose
• lactose
• maltose
• cellobiose
Examples of disaccharides

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Granulated sucrose
A. SUCROSE
• known as “table sugar”
• composed of one glucose unit and one fructose
unit
• found in sugar cane
Granulated sucrose

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B. LACTOSE
• known as “milk sugar”
• 1 galactose + 1 glucose unit

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Malt syrup
C. MALTOSE
• known as “malt sugar”
• 2 glucose units linked by α-linkage
Malt syrup

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2 glucose units linked by β-units
D. CELLOBIOSE
• 2 glucose units linked by β-units
2 glucose units linked by β-units

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POLYSACCHARIDES
■many sugar molecules
■Ex. starch
glycogen
cellulose
lignin

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■STARCH
• glucose units linked by α-linkage
• composed of amylose (unbranched) and
amylopectin (branched)
• principal carbohydrate reserve of plants

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■GLYCOGEN
• major carbohydrate reserves in animals
• stored in liver and muscles
Glycogen in
liver cells

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1000x Scanning Electron Microscope Images of fiber strands
■CELLULOSE
• most abundant carbohydrate
• glucose units linked by β-linkage
• principal cell wall constituent of plants
1000x Scanning Electron Microscope Images of fiber strands

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Both lignin and cellulose are found in the rigid cell walls of the xylem cells (those that conduct water) in the primitive plant,
Selaginella.
■LIGNIN
• NOT a carbohydrate
• influences feed digestibility (indigestible)
Both lignin and cellulose are found in the rigid cell walls of the xylem cells (those that conduct
water) in the primitive plant, Selaginella.

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■GUMS
• obtained by incisions from trunk and branches
of Acacia senegal

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Functions and Deficiencies
■Functions in the Animal Body
• major source of energy
• source of heat

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Functions and Deficiencies
■Functions in the Animal Body
• building stores for other nutrients
• stored in animal body by converting to fats

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■Deficiencies
• ketosis – accumulation of ketone bodies
e.g. acetate, acetoacetate, β-hydroxybutyrate
• diabetes mellitus

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ketone
bodies

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Type 1 Diabetes
■Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease. An
autoimmune disease results when the body's
system for fighting infection (the immune
system) turns against a part of the body. In
diabetes, the immune system attacks the
insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas and
destroys them. The pancreas then produces little
or no insulin. A person who has type 1 diabetes
must take insulin daily to live.

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Type 2 Diabetes
■When type 2 diabetes is diagnosed, the
pancreas is usually producing enough insulin,
but for unknown reasons, the body cannot
use the insulin effectively, a condition called
insulin resistance. After several years, insulin
production decreases. The result is the same
as for type 1 diabetes--glucose builds up in
the blood and the body cannot make efficient
use of its main source of fuel.

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Overview of the most significant symptoms of diabetes.

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1.Among the monosaccharides below, which is not an
example of a hexose?
a. glucose
b. fructose
c. ribose
d. galactose

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2. A monosaccharide found in fruits and honey. It is
also considered as the sweetest sugar.
a. glucose
b. fructose
c. mannose
d. galactose

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3.A disaccharide also known as “milk sugar”.
a. sucrose
b. lactose
c. matose
d. cellobiose

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4. True or False

“ Cellobiose is a disaccharide connected by α-linkage”

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5.Among these polysaccharides, which is not actually
a carbohydrate?
a. starch
b. hemicellulose
c. cellulose
d. lignin

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6. Main carbohydrate source of ruminants.
a. starch
b. glycogen
c. cellulose
d. lignin

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7. Storage form of carbohydrate in animal’s body.
a. mannan
b. cellulose
c. starch
d. glycogen

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8. Main energy source of non-ruminants
a. mannan
b. starch
c. cellulose
d. lignin

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General
■Made up (mol wt) of C (77%) H (12%)
and O (11%)
■insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvent
■yield 2.25 times more energy than
carbohydrates or proteins

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Classification
■Simple Lipids
• only made-up of fatty acids and glycerol (basic
units of lipids)

■ Compound Lipids
• ex. phospholipids, glycolipids, lipoproteins

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Classification
■Derived Lipids
1. fatty acids
2. sterol

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Hormone tablets (Pills)

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Structure of Fats
■Glycerol and Fatty Acids
Fatty Acid
Glycerol

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Structure of Fats
■Saturated Fatty Acids
• no double bond
■ Unsaturated Fatty Acids
• contain double bonds

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Functions and Deficiencies
■Functions
• acts as stored energy

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Ruby-throated humming bird
Ruby-throated Hummingbirds fly non-stop between New England
and West Indies (approximately 2400 km) at a speed of 40 km/h for
60 hours. This is possible only due to the stored fat.

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There are two well-supported and complementary explanations for why birds fly in
formation. One is to conserve energy by taking advantage of the upwash vortex fields
created by the wings of the birds in front.

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• source of heat, insulation and protection of
animal body
• source of essential fatty acids
→ Linoleic acid
→ Linolenic acid
→ Arachidonic acid

● serve as a carrier for absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins
A typical fish
oil soft gel

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■Deficiencies
• Ketosis – catabolism of body fat
• Fatty Liver – abnormal metabolism of the liver

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Fatty Liver Picture
Fatty Liver is also known as steatosis. The initial change and the most
common hepatic abnormality in hospitalized alcoholics. The increased liver fat
is derived from the diet, from free fatty acids mobilized from adipose tissue,
and from lipid synthesized in the liver and inadequately degraded or excreted.

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Deficiencies
■Skin lesions, hair loss and reduced growth
rate

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Location and Natural Sources of Fat
■Animal Body
■Subcutaneous
■Surrounding internal organs
■Marbling and Milk

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■Natural Sources
■ most feeds have less than 10% fat except oil
seeds of 20%

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1.Fats yield more energy compared with
carbohydrates and fats by:
a. 1.25 timesc. 3.25 times
b. 2.25 timesd. 4.25 times

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2. Main basic unit of fats and oils
A. fatty acidC. hydrochloric acid
B. amino acidD. sulfuric acid

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3. Fats when hydrolyzed will yield:
a. glycolipids and fatty acids
b. glycerol and fatty acids
c. phospholipids and glycerol
d. phospholipids and fatty acids

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4. Fats function as source of essential fatty acids, such
as:
A. oleic and linoleic acid
B. linoleic and linolenic acid
C. oleic and arachidonic acid
D. none of the above

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GENERAL
■nutrient which contains nitrogen (N)
■some proteins also have sulfur and
phosphorus
■act as enzymes, hormones & structural
components
ENZYMES HORMONES COLLAGEN

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GENERAL
■Proteins are the principal constituents of
the organ and soft structures of the animal
body

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General
■Dietary requirement (%) is the highest in
the young growing animals and decline
gradually to maturity

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Group Age (yr) Safe protein level

(g/kg/day)
Infants 0.3-0.5
0.75-1.0
1.47
1.15
Children 3-4
9-10
1.09
0.99
Adolescents
•girls
•boys

•13-14
•13-14

0.94
0.97
Adults 19+ 0.75
Pregnant women
•2nd trimester
•3rd trimester

6+
11+
Lactating women
•0-6 mo
•6-12 mo

~16+
~11+

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General
■Proteins are basically large molecules

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Structure of Proteins
■All proteins have one common property,
their basic structure is made-up of single
unit, amino acids

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carboxylic acid group
amino group

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Structure of Proteins
■Twenty-two amino acids are commonly
found in proteins, they are linked together
by peptide bonds

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Peptide Bond
Release of
Water
Amino Acid 1 Amino Acid 2

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Structure of Proteins
■The arrangement of amino acids in the
chain helps determine the composition of
the protein

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Structure of Proteins
■The classification of amino acids depends
on the number of acidic and basic group
that are present

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Acidic (COOH group)
Basic (NH
3
Group)

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L-lysine
(basic amino acid)
Aspartic Acid
(acidic amino acid)

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Classification of Proteins
■Simple (globular proteins)
?????? those yielding only amino acids or their
derivatives upon hydrolysis

Albumin

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Human blood smear:
a – erythrocytesa – erythrocytes; b –
neutrophil;
c – eosinophilc – eosinophil; d –
lymphocyte.

Histones

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Core Histone

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■In biologyIn biology, histones are strongly alkaline
proteinsIn biology, histones are strongly alkaline
proteins found in eukaryoticIn biology, histones are
strongly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell
nuclei, which package and order the DNAIn biology,
histones are strongly alkaline proteins found in
eukaryotic cell nuclei, which package and order the
DNA into structural units called nucleosomesIn
biology, histones are strongly alkaline proteins found
in eukaryotic cell nuclei, which package and order the
DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. They are
the chief protein components of chromatinIn biology,
histones are strongly alkaline proteins found in
eukaryotic cell nuclei, which package and order the
DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. They are
the chief protein components of chromatin, act as
spools around which DNA winds, and play a role in
gene regulationIn biology, histones are strongly
alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei, which
package and order the DNA into structural units called
nucleosomes. They are the chief protein components
of chromatin, act as spools around which DNA winds,
and play a role in gene regulation. Without histones,
the unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very
long. For example, each human cell has about 1.8
meters of DNA, but wound on the histones it has about
90 millimeters of chromatin, which, when duplicated
and condensed during mitosisIn biology, histones are
strongly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell
nuclei, which package and order the DNA into
structural units called nucleosomes. They are the chief
protein components of chromatin, act as spools
around which DNA winds, and play a role in gene
regulation. Without histones, the unwound DNA in
chromosomes would be very long. For example, each
human cell has about 1.8 meters of DNA, but wound
on the histones it has about 90 millimeters of
chromatin, which, when duplicated and condensed
during mitosis, result in about 120 micrometers of
chromosomes

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Schematic representation of the assembly of the core
histones into the nucleosome.

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■Globulins – also found in blood serum
■Glutelin – proteins found in cereal like
wheat, barley and rye
■Prolamin – the protein found in the seeds
of cereal grains and has high proline
content

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Classification of Proteins
■Fibrous Protein
?????? constitute about 30% of total protein in
animal body
?????? usually found in connective tissues

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Collagen
■Collagen is a group of naturally occurring
proteins. In nature, it is found exclusively
in animals is a group of naturally occurring
proteins. In nature, it is found exclusively
in animals. It is the main protein of
connective tissue is a group of naturally
occurring proteins. In nature, it is found
exclusively in animals. It is the main
protein of connective tissue. It is the most
abundant protein in mammals, making up
about 25% to 35% of the whole-body
protein content.

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Elastin
■Elastin is a protein found in the skin and
tissue of the body. It helps to keep skin
flexible but tight, providing a bounce-back
reaction if skin is pulled.
■Elastin tends to deplete as people age,
resulting in wrinkled or stretched out skin.

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■One might note the “pregnancy pouch”
many women have many years after
having a baby. In part, the leftover skin is
a result of inadequate elastin, and also
overstretching of the skin covering the
abdomen during pregnancy.

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ELASTIN

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Keratin
■Keratin is an extremely strong protein which is a
major component in skin, hair, nails, hooves,
horns, and teeth.
■The amino acids which combine to form keratin
have several unique properties, and depending
on the levels of the various amino acids, keratin
can be inflexible and hard, like hooves, or soft,
as is the case with skin.

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Keratin
■Most of the keratin that people interact with is
actually dead; hair, skin, and nails are all formed
from dead cells which the body sheds as new
cells push up from underneath.

■If the dead cells are kept in good condition, they
will serve as an insulating layer to protect the
delicate new keratin below them.

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LAMININ
■Laminins are major proteins in the basal
lamina (formerly improperly called
"basement membrane"), a protein network
foundation for most cells and organs

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Protein Terminologies
■True protein
?????? composed of amino acids
▪Non-protein nitrogen (NPN)
?????? compounds that are not true protein in
nature

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Protein Terminologies
■Crude protein
?????? composed of true proteins and any
nitrogenous products
?????? % Crude Protein = %N x 6.25

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Protein Terminologies
■Essential Amino Acids
• must be supplied in the diet
• animals cannot synthesize them fast enough to
meet its requirement
Essential amino acids are supplied by a
healthy diet

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Essential Amino Acids
■Phenylalanine▪ Tryptophan
■Valine▪ Histidine
■Threonine▪ Isoleucine
■Methionine▪ Leucine
■Arginine▪ Lysine

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■P –
■V –
■T –

■M –
■A –
■T –

■H –
■I –
■L –
■L –
phenylalanine
valine
threonine
methionine
arginine
tryptophan
histidine
isoleucine
leucine
lysine

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Protein Terminologies
■Non-essential amino acids
?????? amino acids which are essential to the
animal but are normally synthesized or sufficient
in the diet
?????? need not be supplemented

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Non-Essential Amino Acids
■Alanine▪ Glutamine
■Asparagine▪ Glycine
■Aspartic Acid▪ Hydroxyproline
■Cysteine▪ Proline
■Cystine▪ Serine
■Glutamic Acid▪ Tyrosine

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Protein Terminologies
■Protein quality
?????? refers to the amount and ratio of
essential amino acids present in protein

“ The higher the amount of essential amino
acid in the protein, the better!!! “

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Functions and Deficiencies
■Functions
?????? basic structural unit of the animal body, i.e.,
collagen, elastin, contractile protein, keratin,
laminin, proteins, blood proteins
?????? body metabolism – enzymes, hormones,
immune antibodies, hereditary transmission

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Functions and Deficiencies
■Deficiencies and Abnormaities
?????? symptoms of protein deficiencies are
reduced growth rate and feed efficiency,
anorexia, infertility

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Deficiency
Kwashiorkor sufferers show signs of thinning hair,
edema, inadequate growth, and weight loss.
Kwashiorkor

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Many of the children in this photograph from a Nigerian orphanage in
the late 1960's show symptoms of malnutrition, with four in
particular illustrating the gray-blond hair symptomatic of
kwashiorkor.

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■Deficiencies and Abnormalities
?????? amino acid deficiency – a lack of
important amino acid which will result to
deamination

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Deficiency of one essential amino acid
will limit protein synthesis

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1.Among the given amino acids, which is considered
as non-essential?
A. phenylalanine
B. alanine
C. leucine
D. isoleucine

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2. An essential amino acid.
A. alanine
B. asparagine
C. arginine
D. aspartic acid

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GENERAL
■inorganic crystalline solid
■also called ash
■5% of animal body weight on dry matter
basis

184
Classification
■MACROMINERALS
• also called major minerals
• normally present at greater level in animal body
or needed in relatively large amounts in the diet
• e.g. Mg, S, Ca, Na, Cl, K, P

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■MICROMINERALS
• also called trace minerals
• normally present at low levels in animal body
or needed in very small amount in the diet
• toxic in large quantities
• e.g. F, Se, Co, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu, I

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General Functions
■Skeletal formation and maintenance -(Ca,P,Mg,Cu,Mn)
■Function in protein synthesis - (P,S,Zn)
■Oxygen transport - (Fe,Cu)
■Fluid balance (osmotic pressure) – (Na,Cl,K)
■Regulating the acid-base balance of the entire systems
(Ca,P,K,Mg,Fe,Cu,Mn,Zn)
■Mineral-vitamin relationship (Ca,P,Co,Se)

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MACROMINERALS

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Sodium (Na) & Chlorine (Cl) - SALT
■Functions
• formation of digestive juices
• control of body fluid concentration
• control of body fluid pH
● nerve and muscle activity

190
Na & Cl (SALT)
■Deficiency Symptoms
• Under ordinary feedlot conditions, there are no
specific deficiency symptoms – just unthrifty
appearance and impaired performance
● With heavily perspiring animals, an acute salt
deficiency may develop resulting in disrupted
nerve and muscle function

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CALCIUM (Ca)
■Major Functions
• bone & teeth formation

Calcium carbonate wetted with hydrochloric
acid (thus forming CaCl2) held at a flame
and showing red-orange flame color of Ca.

193
99% of body calcium is in the bones and teeth

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■Functions
● nerve and muscle function
● acid-base balance
● milk production and egg production

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Eggs with very thin shells, or no shell at all
around the shell membrane, look unattractive and
are highly susceptible to damage.

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CALCIUM (Ca)
■Deficiency Symptoms
• Rickets in young animals. Joints become
enlarged. Bones become soft and deformed

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A family with rickets

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Wrist deformity in rickets

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Radiograph of a rickets sufferer

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■Functions
● Osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older
animals
?????? bones become porous and weak

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PHOSPHORUS (P)
■Major Function
• Bone and teeth formation – about 80% of
body phosphorus is in the bones and teeth
● As a component of protein in the soft tissues
● Milk production – also egg production
● In various metabolic processes

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Sugar-phoshate
backbone

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Phosphorus
■Deficiency:
● Rickets in young animals similar to that
of calcium deficiency
● Osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older
animals similar to calcium deficiency

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MAGNESIUM (Mg)
■Major Functions
• Necessary for many enzyme systems
● Plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism
• Necessary for the proper functioning of the
nervous system

210
MAGNESIUM (Mg)
■Deficiency Symptom
• “Hypermagnesemic tetany” – hyperirritability
of the neuromuscular system producing
hyperexcitability and incoordination

211
HYPERMAGNESEMIC TETANY

212
POTASSIUM (K)
■Functions
• Required by livestock for a variety of body
functions

213
Osmotic relations and acid-base balance

214
RUMEN DIGESTION

215
■Primary intracellular cation in
neuromuscular activity

216
Action potentials arriving at the synapses of the upper right neuron stimulate currents in its dendritesAction
potentials arriving at the synapses of the upper right neuron stimulate currents in its dendrites; these currents
depolarize the membrane at its axon hillockAction potentials arriving at the synapses of the upper right neuron
stimulate currents in its dendrites; these currents depolarize the membrane at its axon hillock, provoking an
action potential that propagates down the axon to its synaptic knobs, releasing neurotransmitter and stimulating
the post-synaptic neuron (lower left).

217
SULFUR (S)
■Major Functions
• component of sufur-containing amino
acids, cystine and methionine
• important in energy metabolism as a
component of coenzyme A, biotin and
thiamine (Vit B1)
Sulfur crystal from Agrigento, Sicily.

218
Methionine Cystine

219
SULFUR (S)
■Defieciency
● Deficiency will express itself as a protein
deficiency – a general unthrifty condition
and poor performance

220

221

222
IRON (Fe)
■Major Functions
• Necessary for hemoglobin formation
• Essential for the formation of certain
enzymes related to oxygen transport and
utilization

223

224

225
■FUNCTIONS
● Enters into the formation of certain
compounds which serve as iron stores in
the body
?????? ferritin − found primarily in the liver
and spleen
?????? hemosiderin − found mainly in the
blood

226
IRON (Fe)
■Deficiency
• Most livestock rations are more than
adequate in iron content, and an iron
deficiency seldom occurs with older
animals

227
IRON DEFICIENCY ANEMIA

228 INCORRECT FEATHER PIGMENTATION???

229
IODINE (I)
■MAJOR FUNCTION
• Needed in the production of thyroxine by
the thyroid gland

230
IODINE (I)
■Deficiency Symptoms
• Goiter at birth or soon thereafter
• Dead or weak at birth
• Hairlessness at birth
● Infected navels – especially in foals

231
Open Navel (Incomplete abdominal closure)

232
GOITER
GOOFY GOOSE WITH A GOITER

233
COBALT (Co)
■FUNCTIONS
● As a component of the Vitamin B12
molecule
● Needed in the rumen synthesis of
Vitamin B12
Cobalt Oxide

234
Vitamin B12 - Cyanocobalamin
Cyanide group
Cobalt group
Amine group

235
COBALT (Co)
■DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS
● macrocytic anemia

236
COPPER (Cu)
■FUNCTIONS
● In iron absorption
● In hemoglobin formation
● In synthesis of keratin for hair and wool
growth
● In various enzyme systems

237
■DEFICIENCIES
● Symptoms not specific and may include any of
the following:
?????? low blood and liver copper
?????? bleaching of hair in cattle
?????? abnormal wool growth in sheep
?????? abnormal bone metabolism
?????? muscular incoordination
?????? weakness at birth
?????? anemia

238
Black Dexter calf with severe copper deficiency. The previous owner was
accustomed to horses, but not Dexters, and thought the calf was changing
colors - like a black foal turning grey.

239
Flourine
■FUNCTIONS
● Reduces incidence of dental carries in
humans and possibly other animals
● Possibly retards osteoporosis in mature
animals

240
■DEFICIENCY
● In children – excessive dental caries

241
MANGANESE (Mn)
■MAJOR FUNCTIONS
?????? In enzyme systems influencing
estrus, ovulation, fetal development,
udder development, milk production,
and growth and skeletal development

242
MANGANESE (Mn)
■Deficiency Symptoms
• Delayed estrus
• Reduced ovulation
• Reduced fertility
• Abortions
• Resorptions
• Deformed young
• Poor growth
● “knuckling over” in calves and “perosis” in chicks

243
PEROSIS

244
CHROMIUM (Cr)
■Major Function
• Insulin-like effect on glucose metabolism
Chromium sulphate

245
MOLYBDENUM (Mo)
■Major Function
• As a component of enzyme xanthine oxidase –
especially important to poultry for uric acid
formation
● Stimulates action of rumen organism

246
Uric acid
(white paste
material)

BUZZ!!!

247
SELENIUM (Se)
■Major Functions
• In Vitamin E absorption and utilization
• Essential component of enzymes – glutathione
peroxidase - which functions to destroy toxic
peroxides in the tissues thereby having a
sparing effect in the Vitamin E requirement

Selenium

248
SELENIUM (Se)
■Major Functions
• Other compounds of selenium seem to
work in concert with Vitamin E in the
maintenance of normal cell functions and
membrane health

Selenium

249
SELENIUM (Se)
■Deficiency Symptoms
?????? Nutritional Muscular Dystrophy (White
Muscle Disease) in lambs and calves

250 This is a view of the cardiac white muscle of a lamb that had White Muscle Disease.

251
The picture is heart muscle showing White Muscle Disease lesions.

252 The picture above is the pelvic girdle muscles of a weaner aged sheep with classical WMD.

253
A golden retriever, severely disabled by muscular
dystrophy, before stem-cell treatment.

254
Necrotic liver due to selenium deficiency

255
ZINC (Zn)
■Major Functions
● Prevents parakeratosis
● Promotes wound healing
● Related to hair and wool growth and
health
● Deficiency impairs testicular growth and
function

256
ZINC (Zn)
■Deficiency Symptoms
● Seldom occurs in cattle and sheep in
normal rations. Frequently experienced in
growing and fattening swine being fed
with excess amount of recommended
levels of calcium

257
ZINC (Zn)
■Deficiency Symptoms
● Deficiency symptoms include:
?????? parakeratosis
?????? unhealthy looking hair or wool
?????? slow wound healing

258
PARAKERATOSIS

259
1.Macromineral found in amino acids
cysteine and methionine, and in vitamins
like biotin and thiamine
a. calcium
b. magnesium
c. sulfur
d. phosphorus

260
2. Micromineral essential for the formation
of hemoglobin related to oxygen transport
and utilization.
a. manganese
b. iodine
c. iron
d. zinc

261
3. Trace mineral that is a component of
Vitamin B12 molecule.
A. copper
B. cobalt
C. manganese
D. magnesium

262
4. The mineral that causes ‘grass tetany’.
A. magnesium
B. manganese
C. potassium
D. phosphorus

263
5. A micromineral that causes parakeratosis
or a mode of keratinization characterized
by the retention of nuclei in stratum
corneum
A. Mn B. Zn C. Si D. Cu

264
6. Micromineral responsible for the
formation of uric acid.
A. Zn B. Si C. Mo D. Se

265

266
General
■Organic components of natural food but
distinct from carbohydrates, fats, protein
and water
■Present in foods in minute amount and
effective in the animal body in small
amounts
■Not a source of energy

267
General
■Essential for the development of normal
tissue necessary for metabolic activity but
do not enter into structural portion of the
body
■When absent from the diet or do not
properly absorbed or utilized, results in a
specific deficiency disease or syndrome

268
General
■Cannot be synthesized by the animal
■Related substances
1. Provitamins or precursors, i.e. carotene
2. Antivitamins, vitamin antogonists or
pseudovitamins

269
Classification
■FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
● Vitamin A
● Vitamin D
● Vitamin E
● Vitamin K

270
Classification
■WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
● Thiamine (Vit B
1
)
● Riboflavin (Vit B
2
)
● Pyridoxine (Vit B
6
)
● Cyanocobalamin (Vit B
12
)
● Niacin
● Panthothenic Acid
● Biotin
● Choline
● Folic Acid

271
Functions and Deficiencies
■Play role as regulators of metabolism;
necessary for growth and maintenance
■Vitamin requirement may also increase in
old age due to difficulties in absorption
and utilization

272

273
VITAMIN A (Retinol)
■Modes of Action
?????? promotes the development of visual
pigments
?????? indispensable for the formation and
protection of epithelial tissues
?????? improves resistance to infection

274

275
Vitamin A Deficiency. Note the abnormally small eye of the piglet

276
Still birth in chronic Vitamin A deficiency in sow

277
Keratinization of oesophageal mucosa in Vitamin A-deficient chicken,
with accumulation of dead cells around gland ducts

278
Kittens are always curious. They cannot utilize carotenes to
synthesize Vitamin A

279
VITAMIN D (Calciferol)
■Modes of Action
?????? Regulates the incorporation of Ca and P
into the bone matrix
?????? Very much needed in the absorption of
Ca in the intestinal lumen

280

281
Inactive form
Active form

282
Rickets in a calf caused by Vitamin D deficiency

283
VITAMIN E (Tocopherol)
■Works as a biological antioxidant, as a
detoxifying agent

284

285
Lamb with hindleg weakness reflecting nutritional muscular
dystrophy in Vitamin E and Selenium deficiency

286
Broiler chicks approximately 14-days old showing lateral recumbency
associated with nutritional encephalomalacia

287
VITAMIN E
■Comments
● Utilization of Vitamin E is dependent on
adequate selenium

288
VITAMIN K (Menadione)
■Function
?????? Functions in the blood coagulation
system
?????? Acts in the maturation of the bone
structure

289

290
Localized hemorrhages due to Vitamin K deficiency

291

292
VITAMIN B
1
(Thiamin)
■Function
?????? Involves in the process of carbohydrate
metabolism

293

294 Polyneuritis in chicks (retraction of the head)

295
Sheep with neurological disorder in the form of convulsions
(cerebrocortical necrosis) caused by thiamin deficiency

296
VITAMIN B
2
(Riboflavin)
■Function
?????? Acts in the respiratory chain as a
constituent of the flavin enzymes (FAD)
concerned with hydrogen transfer

FAD – Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide

297

298
Curled toe paralysis due to riboflavin deficiency

299
“Spradled leg paralysis” in riboflavin deficiency in pigs
Spradled Legs

300
VITAMIN B
6
(Pyridoxine)
■Function
?????? Active in amino acid metabolism as a
coenzyme of several enzyme systems

301

302
VITAMIN B
12
(Cyanocobalamin)
■Function
?????? Essential in the reduction of one-carbon
compounds in the fat and protein
metabolism

303

304
NICOTINIC ACID (Niacin or B
3
)
■Acts as an active group of different
coenzymes (NAD) which are related to the
citric acid cycle

NAD – Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide

305

306
back
Fatty Liver Syndrome

307
PANTOTHENIC ACID
■Function
?????? Part of coenzyme A, which occupies a
central position in the intermediary
metabolism by activating weakly active
acids

308
back
Hyperkeratosis (thickening of the skin) of the plantar surface of the
feet associated with panthothenic acid or biotin deficiency

309
Panthothenic Acid Deficiency. Note the “goose stepping” gait

310
BIOTIN
■Function
?????? Necessary for gluconeogenesis and
fatty acid synthesis where a it acts in
carboxylation reactions

311
Foot Lesions in biotin deficiency

312
CHOLINE
■Major Functions
● Involved in nerve impulses (acetylcholine)
● A component of phospholipids
(phosphatidylcholine)
● Donor of methyl groups
● Mobilization of body fat through the liver

313
FOLATE (Folic Acid)
■Acts in the one-carbon metabolism where
it is indispensable in the formation of
amino acid and nucleic acids

314

315
VITAMIN C (Ascorbic Acid)
■Functions
● Collagen Formation
● Formation of the intercellular substances
of the teeth, bones and soft tissue
● Increases resistance to infection

316

317
Major operations are stressful and increase ascorbic acid
requirements. Wound healing is encouraged by ascorbic acid

318
Manifestations of frank scurvy

319
1.Vitamin containing cyanide group attached to
the cobalt atom which is responsible for the
name cyanocobalamin
A. B1 B. B2 C. B6 D. B12

320
2. Water soluble vitamins include:
A. thiamine and riboflavin
B. vitamins A & D
C. vitamins E & K
D. all of the above

321
3. Examples of fat soluble vitamins:
A. vitamins A & E
B. thiamine and riboflavin
C. vitamins C & D
D. pantothenic acid & biotin

322
4. The vitamin necessary for the absorption
of calcium in the intestine
a. A b. D c. E d. K

323
5. This vitamin is responsible for blood
clotting:
a. A b. D c. E d. K

324
6. The function of this vitamin is dependent
upon the adequate amount of selenium
and resulted to encephalomalacia or crazy
chick disease when deficient
a. A b. D c. E d. K

325
7. The deficiency of this vitamin causes
polyneuritis in chicks
a. B1 b. B2 c. B6 d. B12

326
8. Niacin acts as an active group of different
coenzymes which are related to the citric
acid cycle as:
a. constituent of nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD)
b. constituent of flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
c. constituent of flavin adenine dinucleotide
(FAD)
d. all of the above

327
9. The deficiency of this vitamin resulted to
hyperkeratosis in chicken and
goose-stepping in swine
a. biotin
b. choline
c. pantothenic acid
d. folic acid

328

329
DIGESTION
■Involves the processes used to prepare
food for absorption

330
■Absorption
?????? includes the processes that move small
molecules through membranes of the
gastro-intestinal tract (GI tract) into blood
so the molecules may be used for their
specific function

331

332
■Digestion includes mechanical and
chemical processes

333
TYPES OF DIGESTION
A. MECHANICAL DIGESTION
● includes chewing (mastication) and
muscular contractions of the GI tract
MECHANICAL DIGESTION

334

335
The Effective Relief from Nausea and Heavy Bloated Stomach
INDUCES PERISTALSIS

Diarrhea Problem???

337

338

339
TYPES OF DIGESTION
B. CHEMICAL DIGESTION
?????? includes action of acids produced in the GI
tract
?????? activity from enzymes produced in the GI
tract
?????? enzymes produced by microorganisms located
in various parts of the GI tract

340

341

342

343

344
A. MONOGASTRICS
■also called “simple-stomach” animals
■animals with one-compartment stomach
■e.g. pigs and horses

345
B. MODIFIED SIMPLE STOMACH
■has crop (for storage of feed), proventriculus
(secretion of gastric enzymes for digestion), and
gizzard (for mixing and grinding feed)

346
C. RUMINANTS
■also called “compound stomach animals”
■have a “four-compartment stomach”
● rumen
● reticulum
● omasum
● abomasum

347

MOUTH

349
Mouth
■The mouth is composed of 3 accessory organs
• Tongue – grasping food
• Teeth – mastication of food
• Salivary glands – produce saliva that contains:
*water to moisten food
*mucin to lubricate food for easy swallowing
*bicarbonate salts to buffer (regulate pH)
*salivary amylase to start carbohydrate digestion

ESOPHAGUS

351
Esophagus
Pig’s Digestive System

352
Esophagus
■a muscular tube
■allows passage of food from mouth to
stomach

STOMACH

354
Esophagus
Stomach
Pig’s Digestive System

355
Stomach
■is a muscular digestive organ that has 3
major functions:
- storage of ingested feed
- mechanical breakdown
- production of HCl, enzymes and mucus

356
■The stomach has three major regions:

• Cardiac region
- cells produce mucus that protects the stomach
lining
• Peptic gland region
- cells produce HCl, pepsin (proteolytic
enzyme), and mucus
• Pyloric region
- primarily mucus producing cells

357

SMALL INTESTINE

359
Stomach
Esophagus
Duodenum
Pancreas
Pig’s Digestive System

360
Jejunum
Pig’s Digestive System

361
Jejunum
Ileum
Cecum
Pig’s Digestive System

362
Small Intestine
■The small intestine has 3 divisions:
• Duodenum
- an active site of digestion that receives secretions
from the pancreas, liver and intestinal walls
• Jejunum
- middle section that is involved in nutrient
absorption
•Ileum
- last section (also involved in nutrient absorption)

LARGE INTESTINE

364
Colon
Ileum
Cecum
Pig’s Digestive System

365
rectum
Pig’s Digestive System

366
Large Intestine
■The large intestine also has 3 sections:
• CECUM
- first section which is relatively large in the
horse and rabbit

Note: when well developed as in the horse
contains many bacteria which produced
enzymes that digest fiber (i.e. cellulase)

367

368
• COLON
- middle section which is involved in
re-absorption of water
- length is related to amount of water
re-absorption
- i.e. the colon is very long in the
desert rat

369
DESERT RAT

370
■RECTUM
?????? last section

371

MOUTH

373

374
Mouth
• does not contain teeth
• bird’s beak is used to collect particles of
feed and to break some large particles into
smaller pieces
• a tongue and salivary glands are present
and the saliva does contain salivary
amylase

ESOPHAGUS (Crop)

376
1
2
3
1 esophagus
2 crop
3 trachea
Bird’s Digestive System uga

377
1- trachea2-crop
uga
Bird’s Digestive System

378
Esophagus
■The esophagus of most birds include an
enlarged area called crop
■Functions of the crop include:
- temporary storage and moistening of food
- place for salivary amylase to work
- microbial fermentation in some species

PROVENTRICULUS

380 OSU
Bird’s Digestive System

381
Proventriculus
■The proventriculus corresponds to the true
stomach as described for the
non-ruminant and the abomasums for the
ruminant
■The site of HCl and pepsin production in
the bird

GIZZARD

383 Bird’s Digestive System

384
Gizzard
(ventriculus)
■A muscular area which contains grits (small
stones)
■Involuntary muscular contractions which aid in
the mechanical breakdown of food occurs here
- similar to the mastication by the teeth in
the non-ruminant and ruminant

385

386
SMALL INTESTINE

387
Small Intestines (jejunum)
uga
Bird’s Digestive System

388
Small intestine (ileum)
uga
Bird’s Digestive System

389
Small Intestine
■The small intestine of the bird is similar to
the small intestine of the non-ruminant
and ruminant

LARGE INTESTINE (Ceca)

391 OSU Bird’s Digestive System

392
Ileo-cecal colonic junction
uga
Bird’s Digestive System

393
Colon (large intestine)
uga
Bird’s Digestive System

394
Colon entering cloaca
uga
Bird’s Digestive System

395
Large Intestine
■The large intestine of the bird contains 2 areas
which are very similar in form and function to
the cecum of non-ruminants and ruminants
■In the bird these areas are called ceca

396

397
■RUMINANTS
?????? ruminants such as cattle and sheep,
also have only one true gastric stomach
(abomasum), but with additional
compartments which evolved for fiber
digestion

398
Ruminant’s Digestive System

RUMEN

400
Rumen
Ruminant’s Digestive System

401
RUMEN
■The rumen is a large muscular
compartment which fills the left side of the
body cavity
■The muscular walls secrete no enzymes
and are covered by projections called
papillae which are required for absorption
of nutrients

402
PAPILLAE

403
■Functions of the rumen include the
following:
?????? provide favorable environment for
protozoa and bacteria
?????? a mililiter of rumen fluid contains
25-50 billion bacteria

404
■Ruminal bacteria are responsible for a
significant pregastric fermentation which
produces:
?????? enzymes that breakdown fiber as well as,
starch and protein.
?????? the digestion which occurs produces
volatile fatty acid (propionic, butyric,
acetic) which are absorbed via the papillae
and used as a source of energy for the
animal
?????? water soluble vitamins and Vitamin K

405
● Bacterial synthesis of amino acids and protein.
● The bacteria will pass out of the rumen and
become a source of amino acids for the host
animal (microbial protein)
● Thus, low quality dietary protein (protein which
is low in the dietary essential amino acids) may
become high quality protein which is high in the
dietary essential amino acids during rumen
digestion
e.g. urea (high nitrogen content)

406
Favorable conditions which are
provided in the rumen include:
■anaerobic environment (no oxygen)
■constant warm temperature
■moisture
■constant food supply
■mixing
■removal of toxic end-products

407
Additional functions of the rumen include:
■Storage
■Soaking
■Physical mixing and breakdown

RETICULUM

409
Reticulum
Ruminant’s Digestive System

410
Reticulum
■The reticulum and the rumen are not completely
seperated; they are not 2 distinctly separate
compartments.
■But, they do have different functions

411
Functions of Reticulum
■To move food into the rumen or omasum
■Collection of dense particles of food and in
regurgitation of food and in regurgitation of
ingesta during rumination*

*Rumination is the process of movement of
ingesta back-up the esophagus to the mouth for
additional mechanical breakdown – “chewing the
cud”

OMASUM

413
Omasum
Ruminant’s Digestive System

414
Omasum
■The omasum is a round muscular organ which
contains many muscular laminae (sometimes
called manyplies)
■Possible functions included:
- controlling passage of ingesta to lower tract
i.e. acts as a pump
- reduce particle size of ingesta
- absorption

415
Abomasum

416
Abomasum
■Considered to be very similar to the true gastric
stomach which was described for non-ruminants
■In general, the characteristics of the abomasums
are identical to the gastric stomach of the
non-ruminant
i.e. gland regions of the abomasums
correspond to gland regions of the non-
ruminant stomach

417
Small Intestine and Large Intestine
■These areas in the ruminant are very similar
in form and functions as in the
non-ruminant

418
Additional unique features of the
ruminant include:
■Esophageal groove
- begins at the base of the esophagus
- when stimulated by sucking, forms a tube
which empties into the abomasums
- function is to direct milk obtained from sucking
to escape microbial digestion in the rumen

419

420
ESOPHAGEAL
GROOVE

421
■Rumination
- described as controlled vomiting
- in this process, a controlled set of contractions
of the esophagus, reticulum, and rumen allow
ingesta to be regurgitated back up to the
esophagus where fluids are swallowed again
and additional remastication and reswallowing
of solids occur

422
Eructation
■The process of belching of gas
■Allows for removal of large volume of gas
produced in the rumen
■In this process, contractions of the upper part
rumen force the gas up the esophagus and from
there, the gas penetrates into the trachea and
lungs

423
BLOAT

ENZYMES

425
Enzymes
■Following mechanical breakdown, the action of
enzymes is required to break nutrients down to
their basic units
■Organic catalysts which produce changes in the
structure of nutrients which result in the
reduction to basic units

426
A wrench is unchanged after 1,000's of uses, so an
enzyme keeps working after completing a reaction.

427
▪Saliva
*Salivary amylase – starch to maltose
▪Rumen
*Microbial cellulase – cellulose to volatile fatty acid
*Microbial amylase – starch to volatile fatty acids &
lactic acid
*Microbial proteases – protein to amino acids and NH3
*Microbial urease – urea to CO2 and NH3

428
Stomach, Abomasum and
Proventriculus
*Pepsin – protein to polypeptides

429
Pancreas (enzymes produced by pancreas
are secreted into the duodenum)
*Trypsin – protein to peptides and amino acids
*Chymotrypsin – protein to peptides and amino
acids
*Carboxypeptidase – protein to peptides and
amino acids

430
ABSORPTION
■Occurs primarily in the small intestine and
large intestine
■The villi (very small projections which line
the small intestine) are essential for
absorption

431

432 INTESTINAL VILLI

433
■Large amount of absorption of volatile fatty acids
occurs in the rumen and depends greatly on
many healthy papillae (projections which line the
rumen)
■In general, absorption occurs as the result of
diffusion or active transport
■Diffusion involves the movement of the basic
units from areas of high concentration (the GI
tract) to area of lower concentration (the blood)

434

435
Nutrient Digestion
NutrientsBasic Unit
●Protein
●Starch

●Cellulose
●Sucrose
●Lactose
●Lipids
●Minerals
●Vitamins

amino acid
glucose (non-ruminant)
VFA & lactic acid (ruminant)
Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA)
glucose & fructose
glucose & galactose
fatty acids & glycerol
any soluble form
any soluble form

436

■Digestion is the breaking down of feed particles into
suitable products for absorption. It may include:
A. mechanical forces such as mastication and muscular
contraction of the GI tract
B. chemical processes such as action of HCl produced
in the GI tract
C. enzymatic action of proteases
D. enzymatic actions produced by bacteria located in
the cecum
E. all of the above

437
2. Breakdown of feed nutrients to their basic units
A. absorption C. digestion
B. metabolism D. prehension

438
3. Farm animals are classified according to type of
GI tracts. Ruminants include:
A. cattle, carabaos and horses
B. cattle, carabaos and pigs
C. cattle, carabaos and sheep
D. cattle, pigs and chicken

439
4. Non-ruminants are simple stomach animals such
as:
A. pig, horse and rabbit
B. pig, horse and goat
C. pig, horse and sheep
D. pig, horse and cattle

440
5. Ruminants have only one true gastric stomach but with
additional compartments which evolved for fiber
digestion. The true gastric stomach equivalent in
non-ruminants is:
A. abomasum B. rumen C. reticulum D. omasum

441
6. Which of the following condition in the rumen is
not responsible for a significant pregastric
fermentation
A. constant warm temperature
B. constant food supply
C. aerobic environment
D. moisture

442
7. It is one of the compartments of stomach in ruminants
which is round muscular organ containing many
muscular laminae and sometimes called manyplies or
“libro”
A. rumen B. reticulum C. omasum D. abomasum

443
8. It corresponds to the true stomach in non-
ruminants and is the site of HCl and pepsin
production in the bird.
A. crop B. proventriculus C. gizzard D. small intestine

444
9. For absorption to occur, nutrients must be
broken down to very small molecules.
The basic unit of carbohydrate is:
A. amino acid
B. simple sugar
C. glycerol
D. fatty acids

445
10. After a mechanical breakdown, salivary
amylase hydrolyzes:
A. starch to maltose C. protein to amino acids
B. starch to volatile fatty acids D. cellulose to volatile fatty acids

446
11. Which of the following is not an end product of
fiber digestion in ruminants?
A. acetic acidC. butyric acid
B. palmitic acidD. propionic acid

447
12. End-product of carbohydrate digestion in
ruminants
A. essential fatty acids C. volatile fatty acids
B. non-essential fatty acids D. non-volatile fatty acids

448
13. One of the four compartments of stomach in
ruminants which functions in the regurgitation
of ingesta during rumination:
A. rumen B. reticulum C. omasum D. abomasum

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT

MAINTENANCE

451
MAINTENANCE
■Each animal has a maintenance requirement for
feed/ration on the various nutrients for the following
purposes:
a. To maintain body weight or size (no gain or loss)
b. To support the essential life processes, i.e. respiration,
circulation, normal muscular activity, etc.
c. To maintain body temperature
d. To maintain the different body secretions

452

453

454

455

456
Basal or Fasting Catabolism
■Refers to the minimum energy expenditure
to maintain essential life processes
■Starting point in determining the
maintenance requirement for energy of an
animal

457
Maintenance Energy
■Related to the body surface area or
metabolic body size
■It is made up of the net energy (for basal
metabolism) and a so-called “activity
increment”
■“Activity increment” refers to the energy
expenditure due to normal body
movements and associated activities

458

459
Protein Requirement
■Protein requirement for maintenance is
made up of two portions:
a.Endogenous Urinary Nitrogen (EUN)
?????? the normal wear and tear of the body
organs and tissues
b. The “adult growth” functions
?????? i.e. feathers, hairs, hoofs, nails, etc.

460

461

462

463

GROWTH

465
GROWTH
■Growth is the correlated increase in the mass of
the body to reach the size at maturity fixed by
heredity
■In practical terms, growth is reflected in
increased weight and size. It is characterized by:
?????? increase in the number of cells
?????? increase in size of the cells. It consists
primarily of the build-up of skeletal
structure, the muscles and organs, and fat
tissue

466
Bao Xishun
He Pingping

467
The world's tallest man, Bao Xishun today shook hands with He Pingping who
claims to be Earth's shortest.

468
■Nutritionally, growth means largely
increase in minerals (mainly Ca and P) and
protein

469
Protein Requirements for Growth
■High protein level and good protein quality
(essential amino acid make-up) are both
needed for optimum growth
■Protein requirement may gradually be
lowered with age

470
Group Age (yr)Safe protein level

(g/kg/day)
Infants 0.3-0.5
0.75-1.0
1.47
1.15
Children 3-4
9-10
1.09
0.99
Adolescents
•girls
•boys

•13-14
•13-14

0.94
0.97
Adults 19+ 0.75
Pregnant women
•2nd trimester
•3rd trimester

6+
11+
Lactating women
•0-6 mo
•6-12 mo

~16+
~11+

471
Protein Requirements for Growth
■For example, broiler starter and pig starter
feeds may require more than 20% protein
whereas;
■Hog finisher feeds may contain only 14%
protein

472
Energy Requirement for Growth
■Energy (coming mainly from carbohydrates;
provided also by fats and proteins) is the driving
force for tissue synthesis and anabolism
■Even with adequate amino acids, minerals and
vitamins, growth cannot take place at the
optimal rate without sufficient energy

473
Ways of Energy Restriction
■To limit the energy intake of an animal, either of
both of these ways may be followed:
?????? limit the total feed intake
?????? lower the energy content or density of the
ration – i.e. make the ration bulky

474

475
Growth Rates and Feed Efficiency
■The practical measures or growth performance
of farm animals are average daily gain (ADG)
and feed efficiency (F/G). The values are greatly
affected by two major factors:
a. hereditary (particularly the breed or strain of
the animal)
b. environment (particularly by the nutrition and
management)

476

REPRODUCTION

478
REPRODUCTION
■The nutrient requirements for reproduction
represent the additional amounts of the various
nutrients needed for:
a. the female’s coming into estrus, subsequent
conception and adequate development of the
fetus until birth
b. the male’s maintenance of the integrity of
the reproductive organs and its sperm cells and
sex hormones

479
REPRODUCTION
■The substantial requirement, especially of
energy, protein, calcium and phosphorus, is for
the development of the fetus (“pre-natal
growth”) especially during the last quarter of
the gestation
■Too severe nutrient deficiencies for a long
period can lead to permanent sterility

480

481
REPRODUCTION
■The usual cases are those of not too severe
nutrient deficiencies giving rise to low level of
fertility manifested by the following symptoms:
a. Cessation of estrus
b. Resorption of fetus
c. Abortion
d. Birth of dead or weak young

MILK PRODUCTION

483
MILK PRODUCTION
■Lactation in any species requires
substantial nutrients for synthesis of
adequate amount of milk to nourish the
young
■Dairy type animals produce milk for
human consumption and relatively very
much less for the nourishment of their
young

484

485
MILK PRODUCTION
■Good dairy cows in the temperate
countries such as the U.S. yield about
25-50 kg milk daily
■Relatively good dairy cows in the
Philippines and in most of the tropics
correspondingly yield only about 8-12 kg
daily

486

487
MILK PRODUCTION
■Genetics and climate (direct and indirect
effects) have very much to do with this
difference

488

489
MILK PRODUCTION
■Commercial dairying would generally need
intensive grazing management or intensive
forage production, compared with
extensive pasture or range grazing in
cattle ranching for beef production

490

491

492
MILK PRODUCTION
■Milk constituents and blood sources:
Caseinblood amino acids
Immune globulinsblood globulins
Fatfatty acids; acetate
Lactoseglucose
Mineralsminerals in blood
Vitaminsvitamins in blood

493

494
Different Classification of Feedstuffs

■Roughages
■Concentrates
■Supplements

495
■Feed materials containing more than
18% crude fiber and are generally low in
energy
■Ex. Grasses & legumes
ROUGHAGES
ROUGHAGES

496
CONCENTRATES
■Feeds that are high in energy (NFE and
TDN) and low in crude fiber (less than
18%)
■Two Types of Concentrates:
● Basal or Energy Feeds
● Protein Feeds

497
Basal or Energy Feeds / Bulk Feeds
● generally characterized by high in energy (TDN,ME)
● low in fiber (less than 18%)
● low in protein (less than 20%) – protein quality is
variable and generally quite low
● ex. Cereal grains (corn, sorghum, feed wheat)
Mill by-products (rice bran, wheat pollard, corn
bran, corn gluten feed, dried whey, molasses)
Fats/oils (vegetable oils & animal fats)

498
■Protein Feeds
● contain more than 20% protein
● have two origins:
→ Animal/Marine Origin
→ Plant Origin

499
Animal/ Marine Origin
Protein Feeds
■Generally high-quality protein feeds
■Derived from meat packing or rendering
plants, from surplus milk or milk products,
and from marine sources
■This group of feeds are usually employed
to improve the total protein of basal feeds

500

501
Plant Origin Protein Feeds
■Includes the common oil seed by-products
■Vary in protein content and feeding value
depending on the seed from which they
are produced, the amount of hull and/or
seed coat included, and the method of oil
extraction used.

502
■Ex. Soybean oil meal, peanut meal,
corn gluten meal, brewer’s dried
grain, copra meal, etc

503
COPRA MEAL
COPRA MEAL

504
SOYBEAN MEAL
SOYBEAN MEAL

505
FISH MEAL
FISH MEAL

506
SUPPLEMENTS
■Feedstuff that is mixed with a primary
grain and/or roughage to provide all the
nutrients required to support the form of
production for which it is intended

507
■Ex. Mineral Supplements
Vitamin Supplements
Amino Acid Supplements
Feed Additives

508
Mineral Supplements
■Rich sources of one or more of the inorganic
elements needed to perform certain essential
body function
■Ex. Limestone – source of calcium
Oyster Shell – source of calcium
Salt (table salt) – source of Na & Cl
Tricalcium Phosphate – source of calcium &
phosphorus

509
Oyster Shell
Oyster Shell

510
Tricalcium Phosphate
Tricalcium Phosphate

511
Vitamin Supplements
■Rich synthetic or natural feed sources of
one or more of the complex organic
compounds, called vitamins
■Ex. Fat Soluble Vitamins
B-Complex Vitamins
Vitamin C

512
VITAMIN PREMIX
VITAMIN PREMIX

513
Vitamin and Mineral Premixes
Vitamin and Mineral
Premixes

514

515
Feed Additives
■Substances of non-nutritive nature which
when added to feed will improve feed
efficiency and/or production of animals
■Ex. Antibiotics, drugs, antioxidants,
enzymes, flavoring agents, hormones,
mold inhibitors, toxin binders, probiotics

516

517
1.Roughages are plant materials which contain
greater than 18% CF. These feeds are suited
for animals such as:
A. chicken B. duck C. swine D. carabao

518
2. Which of the following is not a concentrated
source of mineral elements?
A. limestone
B. tricalcium phosphate
C. DL-methionine
D. oyster shell

519
3. Which of the following is not a concentrated
source of energy?
A. coconut oil
B. lard
C. corn oil
D. tallow
E. peanut meal

521
Ration Formulation
■Pointers in Feed Formulation
■Methods of Compounding Ration
→ Trial and Error Method
→ Pearson Square Method

Methods of Compounding
Ration

523
TRIAL & ERROR METHOD
■Although time consuming, consideration is
given to all nutrients

524
PEARSON SQUARE METHOD
■Simple & easy method of determining the
correct proportion of two feed ingredients
or two feed groups to obtain a desired
level of protein
■However, only the protein content of the
ration is given major consideration

525
Sample Problem (Pearson Square)
A farmer wishes to mix a ration containing
14% Crude Protein (CP). He decided to
use yellow corn with 8.5% CP and fish
meal with 65% CP. How much of each of
the feed ingredients should be used?

526
YC
8.9
FM
65
14
51
51
56.1
X100=
90.91%
YC
5.1
56.1
5.1
56.1
X
100=
9.09%
FM

527
INGREDIENTS
YC
FM
AMOUNT
90.91
9.09
100.00
% CP
8.90%
65.00%
% ACTUAL CP
8.09
5.91
14.00

528
Sample Problem (Pearson Square)
A farmer wishes to mix a ration containing
22% Crude Protein (CP). He decided to
use yellow corn with 8.5% CP and fish
meal with 65% CP. How much of each of
the feed ingredients should be used?

529
YC
8.9
FM
65
22
43
13.1
56.1
43
56.1
13.1
56.1
X100=
76.65%
YC
X
100
23.35%
FM
=

530
INGREDIENTS
YC
FM
TOTAL
AMOUNT
76.65
23.35
100.00
% CP
8.90%
65.00%
% ACTUAL CP
6.82
15.18
22.00

531

532

ANIMAL NUTRITION and feeding classification of nutrients

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