Anthropology Lecture Notes 1 (Chapters 1–5).pdf

Social Anthropology guide book

1. Anthropology
•Course Information:
✓Course Name: Social Anthropology
✓Course Code: Anth1002
✓Credit Hours: 2Cr. Hrs.
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2. Course Description:
•Thecourseisexpectedtoacquaint/familiarize,inform/youwithessentialconceptof
anthropologycoveringawidearrayofquestionsrevolvingaroundourveryexistence.
•Itcoversissuessuchas:
✓What makes human beings similar to each other?
✓How do we differ one another?
✓What do anthropologist mean when they talk about diversity, multiculturalism, marginalization,
inclusion and exclusion?
✓The course will enable learners grasp the different ways of being human by dealing with themes
such as:
oculture, kinship(relationship, association) ,
omarriage,
ocultural relativism, ethnocentrism,
ohumanity, human origins, cosmologies ( the study of the origin and structure of universe),
orace, ethnicity, ethnic relations, ethnic boundaries,
omarginalization, minorities,
olocal systems of governance, legal pluralism,
oindigenous knowledge systems, and indigenous practices and development.
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3. Course Objectives:
Uponthesuccessfulcompletionofthecourse,studentswillbeableto:
•Developanunderstandingofthenatureofanthropologyanditsbroaderscopein
makingsenseofhumanityinaglobalperspective;
•Understandtheculturalandbiologicaldiversityofhumanityandunityindiversityacross
theworldandinEthiopia;
•Analyzetheproblemsofethnocentrismagainstthebackdropofculturalrelativism;
•Realizethesociallyconstructednatureofidentities&socialcategoriessuchasgender,
ethnicity,raceandsexuality;
•ExplorethevariouspeoplesandculturesofEthiopia;
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4. •Understandthesocial,cultural,political,religious&economiclifeofdifferent
ethno-linguistic&culturalgroupsofEthiopia;
•Understanddifferentformsmarginalizationanddevelopskillsinclusiveness;
•Appreciatethecustomarysystemsofgovernanceandconflictresolution
institutionsofthevariouspeoplesofEthiopia;
•Knowaboutvalues,normsandculturalpracticesthatmaintainsociety
together;
•RecognizethecultureareaofpeoplesofEthiopiaandtheformsof
interactiondevelopedovertimeamongthemselves;and
•Developbroaderviewsandskillstodealwithpeoplefromawidevarietyof
socio-economicandculturalbackgrounds.
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5. Unit One: Introducing Anthropology and its Subject Matter
ChapterIntroduction:
▪Thisunitdealswithanthropology'sessence.
▪Inthisunit,youwillbeintroducedtodefineconceptscrucialforgrasping
themeaningofanthropology.
▪Italsoexplainsanthropology'shistoricaldevelopment,scope,subject
matter,subfields,uniquefeaturesandcontributions.
▪Induecourse,studentsarerequiredtoassumeactiveroleinclass
activitiesanddiscussions;sharingofexperiences,undertakedifferent
debatesandargumentsandtake-homeassignments.
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6. 1. Definition of Anthropology
•Tobeginwiththeetymologyoftheterm,thetermanthropologyisa
compoundoftwoGreekwords,‘anthropos’and‘logos’,whichcanbe
translatedas‘humanbeing/mankind’and‘reason/study/science’,
respectively.
•So,anthropologymeans‘reasonabouthumans’or‘thestudyor
scienceofhumankindorhumanity’.
•Moreover,manhastwoimportantcharacteristics:biologicaland
cultural:Itisveryimportanttounderstandthatthebiologicalandthe
culturalcharacteristicsareinseparableelements.
•Cultureinfluenceshumanphysicalstructuresandthevise-versa.
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7. •Yetthisliteraldefinitionisnotparticularlyilluminating;becausea
numberofotheracademicdisciplines—includingsociology,biology,
psychology,politicalscience,economics,andhistory—alsostudy
humanbeings.
•Whatisitthatdistinguishesanthropologyfromalloftheseother
disciplines?
•Anthropologyisthestudyofpeople—theirorigins,their
development,andcontemporaryvariations,whereverand
whenevertheyhavebeenfound.
•Itisabroadscientificdisciplinededicatedtothecomparativestudy
ofhumansasagroup,fromitsfirstappearanceonearthtoits
presentstageofdevelopment.
•Ofallthedisciplinesthatstudyhumans,anthropologyisbyfarthe
broadestinscope.
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8. ❑Inmorespecificterms,anthropologyisasciencewhich:
•Investigatesthestrategiesforlivingthatarelearnedandsharedbypeopleasmembersof
humansocialgroups;
•Examinesthecharacteristicsthathumanbeingsshareasmembersofonespecies(homo
sapiens)andthediversewaysthatpeopleliveindifferentenvironments;
•Analysestheproductsofsocialgroups-materialobjects(materialcultures)andnon-material
creations(religion/beliefs,socialvalues,institutions,practices,etc).
•Anthropologyis an intellectually challenging, theoretically ambitious subject, which tries to
achieve an understanding of culture, society and humanity through detailed studies of
community life, supplemented by comparison.
•At the deepest level, it raises philosophical questions, which it tries to respond to by exploring
human lives under different conditions.
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9. •Itseekstoexplainhowandwhypeoplearebothsimilaranddifferentthrough
examinationofourbiologicalandculturalpastandcomparativestudyof
contemporaryhumansocieties.
•Itsultimategoalistodevelopanintegratedpictureofhumankind—agoalthat
encompassesanalmostinfinitenumberofquestionsaboutallaspectsofour
existence.
•Weask,forexample,whatmakesushuman?Whydosomegroupsofpeople
tendtobetallandlanky,whileotherstendtobeshortandstocky?Whydosome
groupsofpeoplepracticeagriculture,whileothershuntforaliving?
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10. •Asamatterofsimplicityandbrevity,anthropologyprimarilyoffers
twokindsofinsight:
1.First,thedisciplineproducesknowledgeabouttheactualbiological
andculturalvariationsintheworld;
2.Second,anthropologyoffersmethodsandtheoreticalperspectives
enablingthepractitionertoexplore,compare,understandand
solvethesevariedexpressionsofthehumancondition.
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11. 2. The Historical Development of Anthropology
•Liketheothersocialsciences,anthropologyisafairlyrecentdiscipline.
•Itwasgivenitspresentshapeduringthetwentiethcentury,butithasimportant
forerunnersinthehistoriography,geography,travelwriting,philosophyand
jurisprudence(thescienceorphilosophyoflaw)ofearliertimes.
•Ifwerestrictourselvestoanthropologyasascientificdiscipline,somewould
traceitsrootsbacktotheEuropeanEnlightenment,duringtheeighteenth
century;
•Otherswouldclaimthatanthropologydidnotariseasascienceuntilthe1850s,
•Yetotherswouldarguethatanthropologicalresearchinitspresent-daysense
onlycommencedaftertheFirstWorldWar.Norcanweavoidsuchambiguities.
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12. •Anthropology,consideredasthescienceofhumanity,originatedintheregionwe
commonlybutinaccuratelycall‘theWest’,notablyinthreeorfour‘Western’countries:
France,GreatBritain,theUSAand,untiltheSecondWorldWar,Germany(Erikson,2001).
•Thepresentacademicanthropologyhasitsrootsintheworksandideasofthegreat
ancientandMedievalGreek,Roman,andHebrewphilosophersandsocialthinkers.
Thesepeoplewereinterestedinthenature,originanddestiny/intention/ofman,and
themoralityandethicsofhumanrelationships.
•Whiletherootsofanthropologycanbegenerallytracedthroughthehistoryofwestern
cultureasfarbackasancientGreeksocialphilosophicalthinking,thedisciplinedidnot
emergeasdistinctfieldofstudyuntilthemid-nineteenthcentury.
•Generallyspeaking,anthropologyasanacademicdisciplinewasbornduringthe19th
century,outoftheintellectualatmosphereofEnlightenment,whichistheeighteenth
centurysocialphilosophicalmovement.
•Bythelate1870s,anthropologywasbeginningtoemergeasaprofession.Amajor
impetusforitsgrowthwastheexpansionofwesterncolonialpowersandtheir
consequentdesiretobetterunderstandthepeopleslivingundercolonialdomination.
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13. •Duringitsformativeyears,anthropologybecameaprofessionprimarilyin
museums.Inthisregard,inthe1870sand1880smanymuseumsdevotedtothe
studyofhumankindwerefoundinEurope,NorthAmericaandSouthAmerica.
•Earlyanthropologistsmainlystudiedsmallcommunitiesintechnologicallysimple
societies.Suchsocietiesareoftencalledbyvariousnames,suchas,“traditional”,
“non-industrializedand/orsimplesocieties”.
•Anthropologistsoftheearly1900semphasizedthestudyofsocialandcultural
differencesamonghumangroups.Here,manyoftheindigenouspeoplesofnon-
westernworldandtheirsocialandculturalfeatureswerestudiedindetailand
documented.Thisapproachiscalledethnography.
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14. •Bythemid-1900,however,anthropologistsattemptedtodiscover
universalhumanpatternsandthecommonbio-psychologicaltraitsthat
bindallhumanbeings.Thisapproachiscalledethnology.Ethnology
aimsatthecomparativeunderstandingandanalysisofdifferentethnic
groupsacrosstimeandspace.
•InEthiopia,professionalanthropologistshavebeenstudyingculture
andsocietyonamoreintensivelevelonlysincethelate1950s.Almost
inevitably,theinitialemphasiswasonethnography,thedescriptionof
specificcustoms,culturesandwaysoflife.
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15. Scope and subject matter of Anthropology
•The breadth and depth of anthropology is immense/vast.
•There no time and space left as far as man exists.
•It is so wide as an ocean.
•In other words, the temporal dimension covers the past, the present and even the
future.
•In terms of the spatial dimension, anthropology studies from Arctic to Desert, from Mega
polis to hunting gathering areas.
•The discipline covers all aspects of human ways of life experiences and existence, as
humans live in a social group.
•It touches all aspect of human conditions as far as there is a relation between human
beings and natural environment and man and man.
•Anthropology studies humanity with its all aspects of existence, and in its all means of
differences (diversity) and similarities (commonality).
•Where every human, there is always anthropology.
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16. •Theareascoveredbyanthropologyisdiverseandenormous.
•Anthropologistsstriveforanunderstandingofthebiologicaland
culturaloriginsandevolutionarydevelopmentofthespecies.
•Theyareconcernedwithallhumans,bothpastandpresent,aswell
astheirbehaviorpatterns,thoughtsystems,andmaterial
possessions.
•Inshort,anthropologyaimstodescribe,inthebroadestsense,what
itmeanstobehuman(Peacock,1986).
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17. Sub-fields of Anthropology
•Thereisnotime,spaceandcharacteristicslefttostudyhumanbeings.Itisso
wideasanocean.
•Accordingly,itisrequiredtodivideandunderstandin-depth.Accordingly,
anthropologyhasoftencategorizedintofourmajorsubfields:
✓Physical/BiologicalAnthropology,
✓Archeology,
✓LinguisticAnthropologyand
✓Socio-CulturalAnthropology.
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18. 1. Physical/Biological Anthropology
•Isthebranchofanthropologymostcloselyrelatedtothenaturalsciences,
particularlybiology;thatiswhyitisoftencalledbiologicalanthropology.
•Physicalanthropologistsstudyhowcultureandenvironmenthave
influencedthesetwoareasofbiologicalevolutionandcontemporary
variations.
•Humanbiologyaffectsorevenexplainssomeaspectsofbehavior,society,
andculturelikemarriagepatterns,sexualdivisionoflabor,genderideology
etc.
•Thefeaturesofcultureinturnhavebiologicaleffectslikethestandardsof
attractiveness,foodpreferences,andhumansexuality.
•Biologicalvariationssuchasmorphology/structure,color,andsizeare
reflectionsofchangesinlivingorganism.Sincechangeoccursinthe
universe,italsoappliesinhumanbeings.
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19. •Human biological variations are the result of the cumulative
processes of invisible changes occurring in every fraction of second in
human life.
•These changes have been accumulated and passed through genes.
Genes are characteristics that carry biological traits of an organism,
including human beings.
•The major sources of biological variations are derived from the
interrelated effects of natural selection, geographical isolation,
genetic mutations/changes.
•Physical anthropology is essentially concerned with two broad areas
of investigation: human evolution and genetics.
•Human evolution is the study of the gradual processes of simple
forms into more differentiated structures in hominid. It is interested
in reconstructing the evolutionary record of the human species using
fossils/bones.
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20. •Human evolution is further divided into twospecialties: Paleoanthropology and
Primatology.
•Paleoanthropology(paleo meaning “old”) is the study of human biological
evolution through the analysis of fossil remains from prehistoric times to
determine the missing link that connect modern human with its biological
ancestors.
•Primatologystudies about primates or recent human ancestors to explain human
evolution. Primatologists study the anatomy/ structure, composition/ and social
behavior of such non-human primate species as gorillas and chimpanzees in an
effort to gain clues about our own evolution as a species.
•Human genetics concerns to investigate how and why the physical traits of
contemporary human populations varythroughout the world. It focuses to
examine the genetic materials of an organism such as DNA and RNA.
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21. 2. Archaeological Anthropology
▪Archaeologicalanthropologyorsimplyarchaeologystudiesthewaysoflivesof
pastpeoplesbyexcavatingandanalyzingthematerialculture/physicalremains
(artefact(objects),featuresandeco-facts)theyleftbehind.
▪Artefactsarematerialremainsmadeandusedbythepastpeoplesandthatcan
beremovedfromthesiteandtakentothelaboratoryforfurtheranalysis.Tools,
ornaments,arrowheads,coins,andfragmentsofpotteryareexamplesof
artifacts.
▪Featuresarelikeartifacts,aremadeormodifiedbypastpeople,buttheycannot
bereadilycarriedawayfromthesite.Archaeologicalfeaturesincludesuchthings
ashousefoundations,ancientbuildings,fireplaces,steles,andpostholes.
▪Eco-factsarenon-artefactual,organicandenvironmentalremainssuchassoil,
animalbones,andplantremainsthatwerenotmadeoralteredbyhumans;but
wereusedbythem.Eco-factsprovidearchaeologistswithimportantdata
concerningtheenvironmentandhowpeopleusednaturalresourcesinthepast.
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22. ▪Archaeologyhasalsoitsownsubfieldsorareasofspecialties.
▪Themostimportantonesare-PrehistoricArchaeologyandHistoricalArchaeology.
▪Prehistoricarchaeologyinvestigateshumanprehistoryandprehistoriccultures.It
focusesonentireperiodbetween6,000yearsagoandthetimeofthefirststonetools
(thefirstartifacts),around2.5millionyearsago,iscalledprehistory.
▪Historicarchaeologistshelptoreconstructtheculturesofpeoplewhousedwritingand
aboutwhomhistoricaldocumentshavebeenwritten.
▪Historicarchaeologytakesadvantageofthefactthatabout6,000yearsago,some
humangroupsinventedlanguageandbegantowritedownthingsthatcantellaboutthe
past.
▪WeEthiopianhaveverygloriouspast.ArealogicalfindingsinNorth,south,eastand
westernpartofthecountryhaveshownourcountybelongedtothosecountrieswhich
haveoldcivilization.
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23. 3 . LinguisticAnthropology
•Linguistic anthropologygenerally focuses on the evolution of
languages.
•It tries to understand languages variation in their structures,
units/components/, and grammatical formations. It gives special
attention to the study of unwritten languages.
•Language is a key to explore a culture.
•Indeed, linguistic anthropology or anthropological linguistics studies
human language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural
practice in its social and cultural context, across space and time.
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24. •Languageisbasicallyasystemofinformationtransmissionand
reception.Humanscommunicatemessagesbysound(speech),by
gesture(bodylanguage),andinothervisualwayssuchaswriting.
•Analogoustogenesthatcarryandtransmitgeneticmaterialsto
offspring,languageshanddownculturaltraitsfromonegenerationto
another.
•Infact,somewouldarguethatlanguageisthemostdistinctive
featureofbeinghuman.Althoughanimalscoulddevelopcertain
behaviorsthroughconditioningthatmimictohumans,theydonot
haveacapacitytopassontheirownoffspring.Thisistheboundary
betweenhumanbeingsandotheranimalsincludinghigherprimates.
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25. ▪Linguistic anthropology, which studies contemporary human languages as well as those of the
past, is divided into fourdistinct branches or areas of research:
✓Structural or Descriptive Linguistics,
✓Historical Linguistics,
✓Ethno-Linguistics, and
✓Socio-linguistics.
A.Structural /DescriptiveLinguistics: -
▪Studies the structure of linguistic patterns.
▪It examines sound systems, grammatical systems, and the meanings attached to words in specific
languages to understand the structure and set of rules of given language.
▪Every culture has a distinctive language with its own logical structure and set of rules for putting
words and sounds together for the purpose of communicating.
▪In its simplest form, the task of the descriptive linguist is to compile dictionaries and grammar
books for previously unwritten languages.
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26. B.Ethno-linguistics(culturallinguistics):-
▪Examinestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture.
▪Inanylanguage,certainculturalaspectsthatareemphasized(suchas
typesofsnowamongtheInuit,cowsamongthepastoralMaasai,or
automobilesinU.S.culture)arereflectedinthevocabulary.
▪Moreover,culturallinguistsexplorehowdifferentlinguisticcategories
canaffecthowpeoplecategorizetheirexperiences,howtheythink,
andhowtheyperceivetheworldaroundthem.
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27. C.Historicallinguistics:-
▪Dealswiththeemergenceoflanguageingeneralandhowspecificlanguages
havedivergedovertime.
▪Itfocusesonthecomparisonandclassificationsofdifferentlanguagesto
differentiatethehistoricallinksbetweenthem.
D.Socio-linguistics:-
▪Investigateslinguisticvariationwithinagivenlanguage.
▪Nolanguageisahomogeneoussysteminwhicheveryonespeaksjustlike
everyoneelse.
▪Onereasonforvariationisgeography,asinregionaldialectsandaccents.
▪Linguisticvariationalsoisexpressedinthebilingualismofethnicgroups.
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28. D.Socio-CulturalAnthropology
▪Itisalsooftencalledsocialanthropologyorculturalanthropology.Socio-cultural
anthropologyisthelargestsub-fieldsofanthropology.Itdealswithhuman
societyandculture.
▪Societyisthegroupofpeoplewhohavesimilarwaysoflife,butcultureisaway
oflifeofagroupofpeople.Societyandculturearetwosidesofthesamecoin.
Socio-culturalanthropologydescribes,analyzes,interprets,andexplainssocial,
culturalandmateriallifeofcontemporaryhumansocieties.
▪Itstudiesthesocial(humanrelations),symbolicornonmaterial(religious,
language,andanyothersymbols)andmaterial(allman-madeobjects)livesof
livingpeoples.
•Socio-culturalanthropologistsengageintwoaspectsofstudy:Ethnography
(basedonfieldwork)andEthnology(basedoncross-culturalcomparison).
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29. A.Ethnographyprovidesacomprehensiveaccount/explanation,interpretation/of
aparticularcommunity,society,orculture.
▪Itdescribesthefeaturesofspecificculturesinasmuchdetailaspossible
includinglocalbehavior,beliefs,customs,sociallife,economicactivities,politics,
andreligion.
▪Thesedetaileddescriptions(ethnographies)aretheresultofextensivefield
studies(usuallyayearortwo,induration)inwhichtheanthropologistobserves,
talksto,andliveswiththepeopleheorsheisstudying.
▪Duringethnographicfieldwork,theanthropologist(ethnographer)gathersdata
thatheorsheorganizes,describes,analyzes,andinterpretstobuildandpresent
thataccount,whichmaybeintheformofabook,article,orfilm.
B.Ethnologyisthecomparativestudyofcontemporary/presentday,modernday/
culturesandsocieties,wherevertheymaybefound.
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30. ▪Itexamines,interprets,analyzes,andcomparestheresultsofethnography
thedatagatheredindifferentsocieties.Itusessuchdatatocompareand
contrastandtomakegeneralizationsaboutsocietyandculture.
▪Inotherwords,Ethnologistsseektounderstandbothwhypeopletoday
andintherecentpastdifferintermsofideasandbehaviorpatternsand
whatallculturesintheworldhaveincommonwithoneanother.
▪Lookingbeyondtheparticulartothemoregeneral,ethnologistsattemptto
identifyandexplainculturaldifferencesandsimilarities,totest
hypotheses/ideaortheorythatisnotproven,butthatleadstofurther
studyordiscussion/,andtobuildtheory/anideaorasetofideasthatis
intendedtoexplainfactsorevents/toenhanceourunderstandingofhow
socialandculturalsystemswork.
▪Indeed,theprimaryobjectiveofethnologyistouncovergeneralcultural
principles,the“rules”thatgovernhumanbehavior.
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31. ❑Ethnography:
•Requires field work to collect data
•Often descriptive
•Group/community specific
❑Ethnology:
•Uses data collected by a series of researchers
•Usually synthetic (copied, unreal, made by combining different substances or not
natural)
•Comparative/cross-cultural
❑Socio-culturalanthropologyusesethnographicalandethnologicalapproachesto
answerallsort/kind/ofquestionsrelatedtocultureandhumansocieties.
❑Toproperlyaddressemergingquestionsrelatedtocultureandsocieties,ithas
beensub-dividedintomanyotherspecializedfields.
❑Allofthemareconsideredtobetheappliedareasofanthropology.
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32. Unique (Basic) Features of Anthropology
▪Severaldistinguishingcharacteristicsthatidentifyanthropologyfromother
discipline.Anthropologyisuniqueinitsscope,approach,focusandmethodof
study.
A.Scope:Anthropologyhasabroadscope.
▪Itisinterestedinallhumanbeings,whethercontemporaryorpast,''primitive''or
''civilized''andthattheyareinterestedinmanydifferentaspectsofhumans,
includingtheirphenotypiccharacteristics,familylives,marriages,political
systems,economiclives,technology,belief,healthcaresystems,personality
types,andlanguages.
▪Noplaceortimeistooremotetoescapetheanthropologist'snotice.
▪Nodimensionofhumankind,fromgenestoartstyles,isoutsidethe
anthropologist'sattention.Indeed,Anthropologyisthebroadstudyofhuman
kind,aroundtheworldandthroughouttime.
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33. B.Thesecondimportantfeatureisitsapproach.
▪Initsapproachanthropologyisholistic,relativistic,andfocusedone.
▪Holisticinasensethatitlooksanyphenomenafromdifferentvantagepoints.
▪Accordingly,anthropologyconsidersculture,history,languageandbiology
essentialtoacompleteunderstandingofsociety.
▪Anthropologyseekstounderstandhumanbeingsaswholeorganismswhoadapt
totheirenvironmentsthroughacomplexinteractionofbiologyandculture.
▪Theconceptofrelativityishighlyappreciatedinanthologicalstudies.
Anthropologytriestostudyandexplainacertainbelief,practiceorinstitutionofa
groupofpeopleinitsowncontext.Itdoesnotmakevaluejudgment,i.e.,
declaringthatthisbelieforpracticeis‘good’or‘bad’.
▪Anthropology'scomparativeperspectivehelpstounderstanddifferencesand
similaritiesacrosstimeandplace.Anotherimportantperspectiveisawayof
lookingatpeople'sideas.
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34. C.Focus:Itconsidersinsiders'viewsasaprimaryfocusofanyanthropological
inquiry.
▪Anthropologicalstudiesgiveattentiontohowpeopleperceivethemselvesand
understandtheirworld;howaparticulargroupofpeopleexplainabouttheir
action,orgivemeaningtotheirbehaviororculturalpractices.
▪Thisiswhatanthropologistscallemicperspective.Ithelpstounderstandthe
logicandjustificationbehindgroupbehaviorandculturalpractices.
D.Anotherimportantuniquefeatureisitsresearchapproach.
▪Anthropologyishighlydependentonqualitativeresearchtounderstandthe
meaningbehindanyhumanactivity.
▪Extendedfieldwork,participantobservation,in-depthandkeyinformant
interviewsandfocus-groupdiscussionarequalitativeresearchinstrumentsto
exploreinformationchangeandcontinuitiesinhumansocieties.
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35. Misconceptions about Anthropology
❑Duetolackofappropriateawarenessaboutthenature,scopeandsubjectmatter
ofthediscipline,differentmisconceptionsareheldaboutanthropology:
▪Onemisconceptionaboutanthropologyisrelatedtotheareaofitsstudy.Itissaid
thatanthropologyislimitedtothestudyof"primitive"societies.Indeed,most
oftheworksdonebyanthropologistsduringearlyperiodsfocusedonisolated,so
called"primitive",smallscalesocieties.However,anthropologistsnowadays
studymostadvancedandmostcomplexsocietiesaswell.
▪Anothermisconceptionisthatanthropologistsonlystudytheruralpeopleand
ruralareas.Asamatteroffact,mostofthestudiesconductedduringthe
formativeyears(whenitundergoneaprocessofdevelopmenttobedevelopedas
aseparatefieldsofstudy)ofthedisciplinefocusedonruralareas.Butnow,
anthropologistsarealsointerestedinthestudyofurbanpeopleandurbanareas.
ExampleUrbanAnthropology-whichfocusesonurbanareasandincomplex
cities.
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36. ▪ItisalsowronglymisconceivedthatAnthropologyisthestudy/analysisof
fossilevidencesoftheproto-humanslikethatofLucy/Dinkeneshe.Itis
truethatanthropologyisinterestedinthequestionoftheoriginofmodern
humanbeings.However,thisdoesn’tmeanthatanthropologyisallabout
thestudyofhumanevolution.Itstudiesboththebiologicalandthe
culturalaspectsofhumansandexaminestheexistinghumanphysical
andbiologicalvariationsandculturaldiversity.
▪Itisalsomisconceivedthatthepurposeofanthropologyistostudyin
ordertokeepandpreservecommunitiesfarfromdevelopmentand
obsolete(outdated)culturalpracticesinmuseums.Rather,anthropologists’
dutiesaretosupportthosecommunities'capacitytoempower
themselvesindevelopmentprocesses.Theyassistpeoples'initiatives
insteadofimposedpoliciesandideascomingfromoutsideandplayactive
rolesinbringingaboutpositivechangeanddevelopmentintheirownlives.
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37. The Relationship between Anthropology and Other Disciplines
▪Anthropology is similar with other social sciences such as sociology, psychology,
political sciences, economics, history, etc.
▪Anthropology greatly overlaps with these disciplines that study human society.
▪However, anthropology differs from other social sciences and the humanities by
its broad scope, unique approach, perspective, unit of analysis and methods
used.
▪In its scope, anthropology studies humankind in its entirety.
▪In its approach, anthropology studies and analyzes human ways of life holistically,
comparatively and in a relativistic manner.
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38. ▪Initsperspective,accordingtoRichardWilk,anthropology
approachesandlocatesdimensionsofpeople’sindividualand
communallivedexperiences,theirthoughtsandtheirfeelingsin
termsofhowthesedimensionsareinterconnectedandinterrelated
tooneanother,yetnotnecessarilyconstrainedorveryorderly,whole.
Theperspectiveisalsofundamentallyempirical,naturalisticand
ideographic[particularizing]thannomothetic[universalizing]one.
▪Initsmethodofresearch,itisuniqueinthatitundertakesextended
fieldworkamongthestudiedcommunityanddevelopsintimate
knowledgeofthelifeandsocialworldsofitsstudygroup/society
throughemployingthoseethnographicdatacollectiontechniques
suchasparticipantobservation,Keyinformantinterviewandfocus
groupdiscussions.
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39. The Contributions of anthropology
▪Thephilosophicalunderpinningisthatsincewearehumanbeings,wehaveto
knowourcivilization.Anthropologyhasestablishedforitselfthetaskof
examiningallaspectsofhumanityforallperiodsoftimeandforallpartsofthe
globe.
▪Bystudyinganthropology,wegetthefollowingbenefits,amongothers:
▪First,theanthropologicalperspective,withitsemphasisonthecomparativestudy
ofcultures,shouldleadustotheconclusionthatourcultureisjustonewayof
lifeamongmanyfoundintheworldandthatitrepresentsoneway(among
manypossibleways)toadapttoaparticularsetofenvironmentalconditions.
Throughtheprocessofcontrastingandcomparing,wegainafuller
understandingofotherculturesandourown.
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40. ▪Anthropologyalsohelpsusbetterunderstandourselvesorourownwaysoflife.
Asamirrorofhumanlife,bystudyingothers,wecanbetterunderstand
ourselves.Hence,itgivesopportunitytounderstandandtobecriticalaboutthe
waysoflivesofourowncommunity.
▪Anthropologygivesusaninsightintodifferentwaysandmodesoflifeofhuman
society(socialandculturaldiversity),whichhelpstounderstandthelogicand
justificationbehindgroupbehaviorandculturalpractices.Knowledgeaboutthe
restoftheworldisparticularlyimportanttodaybecausetheworldhasbecome
increasinglyinterconnected.So,todayitisimportantthatwenotonlyknow
somethingaboutotherpeoplesoftheworld,butalsograsphowoureveryday
decisionsareinfluencingtheminamultitudeofwaysandhowothers’decisions
arealsoinfluencingours.
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41. ▪Through its distinctive (distinguishing, individual) methodology of long-term,
intensive, participant-observation research, cultural anthropology offers a unique
perspective on how local cultural groups are engaging with the process of
globalization.
▪Because of its relativistic approach, anthropology helps us to be more sensitive to
and appreciative of cultural diversity and variability.
▪It helps us to avoid some of the misunderstandings that commonly arise when
individuals of different cultural traditions come into contact.
▪Anthropology helps us fight against prejudice (bias) and discriminations. It helps
us fight against ethnocentrism; the belief that one's own culture and one's own
way of life is superior to others cultural, social and material life. This arises from
ignorance about other ethnic groups and their ways of lives.
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42. •Anthropology is also used as a tool for development. Paying attention to local
conditions, is crucial to solve community problems.
•The application of anthropological knowledge and research results have become
important element to ensure people’s rights in development and able to sustain
projects' life.
•Anthropologists are better equipped with the knowledge, skills and methods of
identifying the needs and interests of local people for the betterment and change
of their lived experiences. It recognizes the advantages of consulting local people
to design a culturally appropriate and socially sensitive change, and protect local
people from harmful policies and projects that threaten them.
•In general, anthropology is able to suggest sound solutions to all things human.
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43. Unit Two: Human Culture and Ties that Connect
Chapter Introduction:
▪Thisunitexaminestheanthropologicalconceptofcultureandhelpsstudentsto
increasetheirunderstandingtheroleandimpactofcultureinhumanlife,
▪Therefore,thisunitconsiders,thedistinctqualities/characteristicsfeatures
humancultureshave,
▪Itexploresthekeycomponentsofculturethatgovernhumanbehavior,
▪Explainsculturaltraitswhichareconsidereduniversals,generalities,and
particularities,
▪Discusstheideaofethnocentrism,culturalrelativismanduniversalhumanrights,
▪Discussthechangingnatureofculture,
▪Finally,thissectiondealswithmarriage,familyandkinship.
11/15/2021 Anthropology: Chapter 2 1

44. 2.1. Conceptualizing Culture: What Culture is and What Culture isn't?
❑DefinitionofCulture
▪Thetermcultureisnotusedwithconsistentmeanings.
▪Itisusedwithvariousmeaningsincommon-sense.
▪Anthropologistsandsociologistsdefinecultureindifferentways.
▪Someoftheirdefinitionhavebeenquotedbelow:
▪Awidelyacceptedandthemorecomprehensivedefinitionofculturewas
providedbytheBritishanthropologistEdwardB.Tylor.Hedefinedcultureas“a
complexwholewhichincludesknowledge,belief,art,morals,law,custom,and
anyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety”.
11/15/2021 Anthropology: Chapter 2 2

45. ▪Malinowskihasdefinedculture“ascumulativecreationofman".Heregardedcultureas
thehandwork(achievement)ofmanandthemediumthroughwhichheachieveshis
ends.
▪RobertBierstedtsays,“Cultureisthecomplexwholethatconsistsofeverythingwe
thinkanddoandhaveasmembersofsociety.”
▪Culturetherefore,ismoral,intellectualandspiritualdisciplineforadvancement,in
accordancewiththenormsandvaluesbasedonaccumulatedheritage(tradition,
inheritance).
▪Cultureisasystemoflearnedbehaviorsharedbyandtransmittedamongthemembers
ofthegroup.
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46. ▪Cultureisacollectiveheritage(inheritance)learnedbyindividualsandpassed
fromonegenerationtoanother.
▪Theindividualreceivescultureaspartofsocialheritage(tradition,inheritance)
andinturn,mayreshapethecultureandintroducechangeswhichthenbecome
partoftheheritageofsucceedinggenerations.
▪Combiningseveralofthesedefinitions,wemaydefinecultureasthecommon
wayoflifesharedbyagroupofpeople.
▪Itincludesallthingsbeyondnatureandbiology.
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47. 2.2. Characteristic Features of Culture
1.CultureisLearned:
▪Cultureisnottransmittedgeneticallyrather;itisacquiredthroughtheprocessof
learningorinteractingwithone’senvironment.
▪Morethananyotherspecies,humanreliesfortheirsurvivalonbehaviorpatterns
thatarelearned.
▪Humanhavenoinstinct(nature,predisposition),whichgeneticallyprogrammed
todirecttobehaveinaparticularway.
▪Thisprocessofacquiringcultureafterweborniscalledenculturation.
▪Enculturationisspecificallydefinedastheprocessbywhichanindividuallearns
therulesandvaluesofone’sculture.
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48. 2.CultureisShared:
▪Forathing,idea,orbehaviorpatterntoqualifyasbeing“cultural”itmusthaveasharedmeaning
byatleasttwopeoplewithinasociety.
▪Inorderforasocietytooperateeffectively,theguidelinesmustbesharedbyitsmembers.
▪Withoutsharedculturemembersofasocietywouldbeunabletocommunicateandcooperates
andconfusionanddisorderworldresult.
3.CultureisSymbolic:
▪Symbolicthoughtisuniqueandcrucialtohumansandtoculturallearning.
▪Asymbolissomethingverbalornonverbal,withinaparticularlanguageorculturethatcomesto
standforsomethingelse.
▪Thereneedbenoobvious,natural,ornecessaryconnectionbetweenthesymbolandwhatit
symbolizes.
▪Asymbol’smeaningisnotalwaysobvious.However,manysymbolsarepowerfulandoftentrigger
(activate)behaviorsoremotionalstates.Forexample,thedesignsandcolorsoftheflagsof
differentcountriesrepresentsymbolicassociationswithabstractideasandconcepts.
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49. 4.Cultureisall-Encompassing:
▪Cultureencompassesallaspects,whichaffectpeopleintheireverydaylives.
▪Culturecomprisescountlessmaterialandnon-materialaspectsofhumanlives.
▪Thus,whenwetalkaboutaparticularpeople’sculture,wearereferringtoallofitsman-
madeobjects,ideas,activitieswhetherthoseoftraditional,oldtimethingsofthepastor
thosecreatedlately.
▪Cultureisthesumtotalofhumancreation:intellectual,technical,artistic,physical,and
moral;
▪Itisthecomplexpatternoflivingthatdirectshumansociallife,andwhicheachnew
generationmustlearnandtowhichtheyeventuallyaddwiththedynamicsofthesocial
worldandthechangingenvironmentalconditions.
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50. 5.CultureisIntegrated:
▪Culturesarenothaphazard/disorganized/collectionsofcustomsandbeliefs.
▪Instead,cultureshouldbethoughtasofintegratedwholes,thepartsofwhich,tosomedegree,
areinterconnectedwithoneanother.
▪Whenweviewculturesasintegratedsystems,wecanbegintoseehowparticularculturetraitsfit
intothewholesystemand,consequently,howtheytendtomakesensewithinthatcontext.
▪Acultureisasystem,changeinoneaspectwilllikelygeneratechangesinotheraspects.Agood
wayofdescribingthisintegratednatureofcultureisbyusingtheanalogybetweenacultureanda
livingorganism.
▪Thephysicalhumanbodycomprisesanumberofsystems,allfunctioningtomaintaintheoverall
healthoftheorganisms,includingamongothers,suchsystemastherespiratorysystem,the
digestivesystem,theskeletalsystem,excretorysystem,thereproductivesystem,andlymphatic
system.
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51. 6.CultureCanBeAdaptiveandMaladaptive:
▪Humanshavebothbiologicalandculturalwaysofcopingwithenvironmentalstresses.
▪Besidesourbiologicalmeansofadaptation,wealsouse"culturaladaptivekits,"whichcontaincustomaryactivities
andtoolsthataidus.
▪Peopleadaptthemselvestotheenvironmentusingculture.Theabilitytoadaptthemselvestopracticallyany
ecologicalcondition,unlikeotheranimals,makeshumansunique.Culturehasallowedtheglobalhuman
populationtogrowfromlessthan10millionpeopleshortlyaftertheendofthelasticeagetomorethan7
billionpeopletoday,amere10,000yearslater.Thisabilityisattributedtohuman’scapacityforcreatingandusing
culture.
▪Sometimes,adaptivebehaviorthatoffersshort-termbenefitstoparticularsubgroupsorindividualsmay
harmtheenvironmentandthreatenthegroup'slong-termsurvival.Example:Automobilespermitustomakea
livingbygettingusfromhometoworkplace.Buttheby-productsofsuch"beneficial"technologyoftencreate
newproblems.Chemicalemissionsincreaseairpollution,depletetheozonelayer,andcontributetoglobal
warming.
▪Manyculturalpatternssuchasoverconsumptionandpollutionappeartobemaladaptiveinthelongrun.
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52. 7.CultureisDynamic:
▪Therearenoculturesthatremaincompletelystaticyearafteryear.
▪Cultureischangingconstantlyasnewideasandnewtechniquesareaddedas
timepassesmodifyingorchangingtheoldways.
▪Thisisthecharacteristicsofculturethatstemsfromtheculture’scumulative
quality.
11/15/2021 Anthropology: Chapter 2 10

53. 2.3 Aspects/Elements of Culture
▪Cultureisreflectedthroughthevariouscomponentsthatitcomprises,viz.,values,
language,myths,customs,ritualsandlaws.
▪Twoofthemostbasicaspectsofculturearematerialandnonmaterialculture.
▪Thesearebrieflyexplainedasfollows:
A.Materialculture:
▪Materialcultureconsistofman-madeobjectssuchastools,implements,furniture,
automobiles,buildings,dams,roads,bridges,andinfact,thephysicalsubstancewhich
hasbeenchangedandusedbyman.
▪Itisconcernedwiththeexternal,mechanicalandutilitarian(useful)objects.
▪Itincludestechnicalandmaterialequipment.
▪Itisreferredtoascivilization.
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54. B.Non–Materialculture
▪Theterm‘culture’whenusedintheordinarysense,means‘non-materialculture’.
▪Itissomethinginternalandintrinsically(essentially,basically)valuable,reflects
theinwardnatureofman.
▪Non-materialcultureconsistsofthewordsthepeopleuseorthelanguagethey
speak,thebeliefstheyhold,valuesandvirtues/qualities,assets/theycherish
(appreciate),habitstheyfollow,ritualsandpracticesthattheydoandthe
ceremoniestheyobserve.
▪Italsoincludesourcustomsandtastes,attitudesandoutlook,inbrief,ourways
ofacting,feelingandthinking.
11/15/2021 Anthropology: Chapter 2 12

55. ▪Someoftheaspectsofnon-materialculturelistedasfollows:
❑Values:Valuesarethestandardsbywhichmemberofasocietydefinewhatisgoodor
bad,beautifulorugly.
▪Everysocietydevelopsbothvaluesandexpectationsregardingtherightwaytoreflect
them.
▪Valuesareacentralaspectofthenonmaterialcultureofasocietyandareimportant
becausetheyinfluencethebehaviorofthemembersofasociety.
❑Beliefs:Beliefsareculturalconventionsthatconcerntrueorfalseassumptions,specific
descriptionsofthenatureoftheuniverseandhumanity’splaceinit.
▪Valuesaregeneralizednotionsofwhatisgoodandbad;beliefsaremorespecificand,in
formatleast,havemorecontent.
▪“Educationisgood”isafundamentalvalueinAmericansociety,whereas“Gradingisthe
bestwaytoevaluatestudents”isabeliefthatreflectsassumptionsaboutthemost
appropriatewaytodetermineeducationalachievement.
11/15/2021 Anthropology: Chapter 2 13

56. ❑Norms:Normsareanotheraspectofnonmaterialculture.
▪Normsaresharedrulesorguidelinesthatdefinehowpeople“ought”tobehave
undercertaincircumstances.
▪Normsaregenerallyconnectedtothevalues,beliefs,andideologiesofasociety.
▪Normsvaryintermsoftheirimportancetoaculture,theseare:
a)Folkway:Normsguidingordinaryusagesandconventionsofeverydaylifeare
knownasfolkways.
▪Folkwaysarenormsthatarenotstrictlyenforced,suchasnotleavingyourseat
foranelderlypeopleinsideabus/taxi.Theymayresultinapersongettingabad
look.
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57. b)Mores:Mores(pronouncedMOR-ays)aremuchstrongernormsthanthefolkways.
▪Moresarenormsthatarebelievedtobeessentialtocorevaluesandweinsiston
conformity.
▪Apersonwhosteals,rapes,andkillshasviolatedsomeofsociety’smostimportant
mores.
▪Peoplewhoviolatemoresareusuallyseverelypunished,althoughpunishmentforthe
violationofmoresvariesfromsocietytosociety.
▪Itmaytaketheformofostracism(isolation,exclusion),viciousgossip,publicridicule,
exile,lossofone’sjob,physicalbeating,imprisonment,commitmenttoamentalasylum,
orevenexecution.
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58. 2.4 Cultural Unity and Variations: Universality, Generality and
Particularity of Culture
▪Instudyinghumandiversityintimeandspace,anthropologistsdistinguishamong
theuniversal,thegeneralized,andtheparticular.
▪Certainbiological,psychological,social,andculturalfeaturesareuniversal(found
ineveryculture),othersaremerelygeneralities(commontoseveralbutnotall
humangroups),othertraitsareparticularities(uniquetocertaincultural
traditions).
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59. 1)Universality:
▪Universalsareculturaltraitsthatspanacrossallcultures.Mostarebiologically
thatdistinguishusfromotherspecies:–Longperiodofinfantdependency–Year-
roundsexuality–Complexbrainthatenablesuseofsymbols,languages,and
toolsSocialuniversals–Lifeingroups–Somekindoffamily–Cultureorganizes
onsociallifeDependsonsocialinteractionsforexpressionandcontinuation–
Incesttaboo–Exogamy(marriageoutsideone’sgroup).
▪AgreatexampleofuniversalityisthatwhetherinAfricaorAsia,Australia,or
Antarctica,peopleunderstandtheuniversalconceptoffamily.
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60. ▪Anthropologistswouldarguethatit'sjustwhatweashumansdo-weorganize
ourselvesintofamiliesthatarebasedonbiology.Nomatterwhereyouchooseto
travelandexplore,you'llfindafamilysystem.
2)Generality:
▪Generalitiesareculturaltraitsthatoccurinmanysocietiesbutnotallofthem.
▪SocietiescansharesamebeliefsandcustomsbecauseofborrowingDomination
(colonialrule)whencustomsandproceduresareimposedononeculturecanalso
causegenerality.Independentinnovationofsameculturaltrait–Farming
Examples:–NuclearfamilyParentsandchildren.
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61. 3)Particularity:
▪Traitofaculturethatisnotwidespread.Culturalborrowing–traitsoncelimited
aremorewidespread.
▪Usefultraitsthatdon’tclashwithcurrentculturegetborrowedExamples:–Food
dishesParticularitiesarebecomingrarerinsomeways,butalsobecomingmore
obvious,borrowedculturaltraitsaremodifiedMarriage,parenthood,death,
puberty,birthallcelebrateddifferently.
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62. 2.5. Evaluating Cultural Differences: Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism and
Human Rights
▪Theconceptsofethnocentrismandculturalrelativismoccupykeypositionin
anthropology.
A.ETHNOCENTRISM:
▪Thecommonresponseinallsocietiestootherculturesistojudgetheminterms
ofthevaluesandcustomsoftheirownfamiliarculture.
▪Ethnocentrismreferstothetendencytoseethebehaviors,beliefs,values,and
normsofone'sowngroupastheonlyrightwayoflivingandtojudgeothersby
thosestandards.
▪Beingfond/loving,affectionate/ofyourownwayoflifeandcondescendingor
evenhostiletowardotherculturesisnormalforallpeople.
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63. ▪Becauseofethnocentrism,weoftenoperateonthepremisethatourown
society’swaysarethecorrect,normal,betterways,foracting,thinking,
feelingandbehaving.
▪Ourowngroupisthecenteroraxisofeverything,andwescaleandrateall
otherswithreferencetoit.
▪Ethnocentrismisnotcharacteristiconlyofcomplexmodernsocieties.
Peopleinsmall,relativelyisolatedsocietiesarealsoethnocentricintheir
viewsaboutoutsiders.
▪Itisaculturaluniversal.Alien(unfamiliar)culturaltraitsareoftenviewed
asbeingnotjustdifferent,butinferior,lesssensible,andeven“unnatural”.
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64. ▪Ethnocentrismresultsinprejudices(partialities)aboutpeoplefromotherculturesandthe
rejectionoftheir"alien(unfamiliar)ways."
▪Ourethnocentrismcanpreventusfromunderstandingandappreciatinganotherculture.
▪Whenthereiscontactwithpeoplefromothercultures,ethnocentrismcanpreventopen
communicationandresultinmisunderstandingandmistrust.
▪Thiswouldbehighlycounterproductiveforbusinessmentryingtonegotiateatradedeal,
professionalswhoworkinareasotherthantheirownorevenjustneighborstryingtogetalong
witheachother.
▪Thepositiveaspectofethnocentrismhastodowiththeprotectionthatitcanprovidefora
culture.
▪Bycausingarejectionofthefoods,customs,andperceptionsofpeopleinothercultures,itacts
asaconservativeforceinpreservingtraditionsofone'sownculture.Itcanhelpmaintainthe
separationanduniquenessofcultures.
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65. B.CULTURALRELATIVISM:
▪Wecannotgraspthebehaviorofotherpeopleifweinterpretwhattheysayand
dointhelightofourvalues,beliefs,andmotives.
▪Instead,weneedtoexaminetheirbehaviorasinsiders,seeingitwithinthe
frameworkoftheirvalues,beliefsandmotives.
▪Theconceptofculturalrelativismstatesthatculturesdiffer,sothatacultural
trait,act,orideahasnomeaning,butitsmeaningonlywithinitsculturalsetting.
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66. ▪Culturalrelativismsuspendsjudgmentandviewsaboutthebehaviorofpeople
fromtheperspectiveoftheirownculture.
▪Everysocietyhasitsownculture,whichismoreorlessunique.
▪Everyculturecontainsitsownuniquepatternofbehaviorwhichmayseemalien
topeoplefromotherculturalbackgrounds.
▪Wecannotunderstandthepracticesandbeliefsseparatelyfromthewider
cultureofwhichtheyarepart.
▪Aculturehastobestudiedintermsofitsownmeaningsandvalues.
▪Culturalrelativismdescribesasituationwherethereisanattitudeofrespectfor
culturaldifferencesratherthancondemningotherpeople'scultureasuncivilized
orbackward.
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67. ❑Respectforculturaldifferencesinvolves:
•Appreciatingculturaldiversity;
•Acceptingandrespectingothercultures;
•Tryingtounderstandeverycultureanditselementsintermsofitsowncontext
andlogic;
•Acceptingthateachbodyofcustomhasinherentdignityandmeaningasthe
wayoflifeofonegroupwhichhasworkedouttoitsenvironment,tothe
biologicalneedsofitsmembers,andtothegrouprelationships;
•Knowingthataperson'sowncultureisonlyoneamongmany;and
•Recognizingthatwhatisimmoral,ethical,acceptable,etc.,inoneculturemay
notbesoinanotherculture.
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68. C.HUMANRIGHTS:
▪Intoday'sworld,humanrightsadvocateschallengemanyofthetenets
(doctrines,beliefs)ofculturalrelativism.
▪Manyanthropologistsareuncomfortablewiththestrongformofcultural
relativismthatsuggeststhatallpatternsofcultureareequallyvalid.Whatifthe
peoplepracticeslavery,violenceagainstwomen,torture,orgenocide?
▪Humanrights:rightsbasedonjusticeandmoralitybeyondandsuperiorto
particularcountries,cultures,andreligions.Theideaofhumanrightschallenges
culturalrelativismbyinvokingarealmofjusticeandmoralitybeyondand
superiortothelawsandcustomsofparticularcountries,cultures,andreligions.
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69. ▪Humanrightsincludetherighttospeakfreely,toholdreligiousbeliefswithout
persecution,andtonotbemurdered,injured,orenslavedorimprisonedwithout
charge.Suchrightsareseenasinalienable(nationscannotabridgeorterminate
them)andinternational(largerthanandsuperiortoindividualnationsand
cultures).
▪Adoctrineofuniversalhumanrights,whichemphasizestherightsofthe
individualoverthoseofthecommunity,wouldcondemnsuchkillings.
▪Anthropologistsrespecthumandiversity.Mostethnographerstrytobeobjective,
accurate,andsensitiveintheiraccountsofothercultures.However,their
objectivity,sensitivityandacross-culturalperspectivegotnothingtodowith
ignoringinternationalstandardsofjusticeandmorality.
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70. 2.6 Culture Change
▪Whyandhowdocultureschange?
▪Culturechangesinseveralways;
▪Whenyouexaminethehistoryofasociety,itisobviousthatitsculturehaschangedover
time.
▪Someofthesharedbehaviorsandideasthatwerecommonatonetimearemodifiedor
replacedatanothertime.
▪Thatiswhy,anyanthropologicalaccountofthecultureofanysocietyisatypeof
snapshotviewofoneparticulartime.
▪Theanthropologistsreturnseveralyearsaftercompletingaculturalstudy,heorshe
wouldnotfindexactlythesamesituation,fortherearenoculturesthatremain
completelystaticyearafteryear.
▪CulturechangecanoccurasaresultofthefollowingMechanisms:
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71. A.Diffusion:Thesourceofnewculturalelementsinasocietymayalsobeanothersociety.
▪Theprocessbywhichculturalelementsareborrowedfromanothersocietyand
incorporatedintothecultureoftherecipientgroupiscalleddiffusion.
▪Diffusionisdirectwhentwoculturestradewith,intermarryamong,orwage(income)
warononeanother.
▪Diffusionisforcedwhenoneculturesubjugatesanotherandimposesitscustomsonthe
dominatedgroup.
▪DiffusionisindirectwhenitemsortraitsmovefromgroupAtogroupCviagroupB
withoutanyfirsthandcontactbetweenAandC.Inthiscase,groupBmightconsistof
tradersormerchantswhotakeproductsfromavarietyofplacestonewmarkets.Or
groupBmightbegeographicallysituatedbetweenAandC,sothatwhatitgetsfromA
eventuallywindsupinC,andviceversa.
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72. ▪Intoday'sworld,muchinternationaldiffusionisindirect-culturespreadbythe
massmediaandadvancedinformationtechnology.
B.Acculturation:Istheexchangeofculturalfeaturesthatresultswhengroupshave
continuousfirsthandcontact.
▪Theculturesofeitherorbothgroupsmaybechangedbythiscontact.
▪Thisusuallyhappensinsituationsoftradeorcolonialism.
▪Insituationsofcontinuouscontact,cultureshavealsoexchangedandblended
(mixed)foods,recipes(guidelines),music,dances,clothing,tools,and
technologies.
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73. C.Invention:Inventionistheprocessbywhichhumansinnovate,creativelyfinding
solutionstoproblemsisathirdmechanismofculturalchange.
▪Facedwithcomparable/similar/problemsandchallenges,peopleindifferentsocieties
haveinnovatedandchangedinsimilarways,whichisonereasonculturalgeneralities
exist.
▪OneexampleistheindependentinventionofagricultureintheMiddleEastandMexico.
▪Overthecourseofhumanhistory,majorinnovationshavespreadattheexpenseof
earlierones.
▪Oftenamajorinvention,suchasagriculture,triggersaseriesofsubsequentinterrelated
changes.
▪Thus,inbothMexicoandtheMiddleEast,agricultureledtomanysocial,political,and
legalchanges,includingnotions(ideas)ofpropertyanddistinctionsinwealth,class,and
power.
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74. D.Globalization:Thetermglobalizationencompassesaseriesofprocesses,includingdiffusionand
acculturation,workingtopromotechangeinaworldinwhichnationsandpeopleareincreasingly
interlinkedandmutuallydependent.
▪Promotingsuchlinkagesareeconomicandpoliticalforces,aswellasmodemsystemsof
transportationandcommunication.
▪Duetoglobalization,long-distancecommunicationiseasier,faster,andcheaperthanever,and
extendstoremoteareas.
▪Themassmediahelppropelagloballyspreadingcultureofconsumption.Withinnationsand
acrosstheirborders,themediaspreadinformationaboutproducts,services,rights,institutions,
lifestyles,andtheperceivedcostsandbenefitsofglobalization.
▪Emigrantstransmitinformationandresourcestransnationally,astheymaintaintheirtieswith
home(phoning,faxing,e-mailing,makingvisits,andsendingmoney).Inasensesuchpeoplelive
multilocally-indifferentplacesandculturesatonce.Theylearntoplayvarioussocialrolesandto
changebehaviorandidentitydependingonthesituation.
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75. 2.7 Ties That Connect: Marriage, Family and Kinship
▪Dearstudent,inonewayoranotherwetouchedabouttheimportanceofculture
andaspectsofcultureinourpreviousdiscussions.
▪Inthissectionyouwillbeintroducedtotheideaofhowweassocialbeings
organizeourselvesandhowtheculturalrulesgoverningourtiesonmarriage,
familyorganization,residencepatternsaftermarriage,formsofdescent
(ancestor,lineage)anddescentgroups,andotheraspectsofkinship.
11/15/2021 Anthropology: Chapter 2 33

76. 2.7.1MARRIAGE:
▪Almostallknownsocietiesrecognizemarriage.Theritualofmarriagemarksa
changeinstatusforamanandawomanandtheacceptancebysocietyofthe
newfamilythatisformed.
▪Thetermmarriageisnotaneasytermtodefine.Foryears,anthropologistshave
attemptedtodefinethesetermsinsuchawaytocoverallknownsocieties.
Frequently,anthropologistshavedebatedwhetherornotfamiliesandthe
institutionsofmarriageareuniversals.
11/15/2021 Anthropology: Chapter 2 34

77. ❑RulesofMarriage:
▪Societiesalsohaverulesthatstatewhomonecanandcannotmarry.
▪Everysocietyknowtoanthropologyhasestablishedforitselfsometypeofrules
regulatingmating(sexualintercourse).
▪Themostcommonformofprohibitionismatingwithcertaintypeofkin(families,
relatives)thataredefinedbythesocietyasbeinginappropriatesexualpartners.
▪Theseprohibitionsonmatingwithcertaincategoriesofrelativesknownasincest
taboos.
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78. ▪Themostuniversalformofincesttabooinvolvesmatingbetweenmembersof
theimmediate(nuclear)family:mother-sons,father-daughters,andbrother-
sisters.
▪Thereareafewstrikingexamplesofmarriagebetweenmembersofthe
immediatefamilythatviolatetheuniversalityoftheincesttaboo.
▪Forpolitical,religious,oreconomicreasons,membersoftheroyalfamiliesamong
theancientEgyptians,IncasandHawaiianswerepermittedtomatewithand
marrytheirsiblings,althoughthispracticeddidnotextendedtotheordinary
membersofthosesocieties.
▪Marriageis,therefore,apermanentlegalunionbetweenamanandawoman.It
isanimportantinstitutionwithoutwhichthesocietycouldneverbesustained.
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79. ❑MateSelection:WhomShouldYouMarry?
▪Inasocietyonecannotmarryanyonewhomheorshelikes.Therearecertain
strictrulesandregulations.
a)Exogamy:
▪Thisistherulebywhichamanisnotallowedtomarrysomeonefromhisown
socialgroup.
▪Suchprohibitedunionisdesignatedasincest.
▪Incestisoftenconsideredassin.
▪Differentscholarshadtriedtofindouttheexplanationbehindthisprohibition.
i.e.howincesttaboocameintooperation.
11/15/2021 Anthropology: Chapter 2 37

80. b)Endogamy:
▪Aruleofendogamyrequiresindividualstomarrywithintheirowngroupand
forbidsthemtomarryoutsideit.
▪ReligiousgroupssuchastheAmish,Mormons,Catholics,andJewshaverulesof
endogamy,thoughtheseareoftenviolatedwhenmarriagetakeplaceoutsidethe
group.CastesinIndiaandNepalarealsoendogamous.
▪“Indeed,mostculturesareendogamousunits,althoughtheyusuallydonotneed
aformalrulerequiringpeopletomarrysomeonefromtheirownsociety”(Kottak,
2017:150).
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81. c)PreferentialCousinMarriage:
▪Acommonformofpreferredmarriageiscalledpreferentialcousinmarriageand
ispracticedinoneformoranotherinmostofthemajorregionsoftheworld.
Kinshipsystems(Relationship,associationsystem)basedonlineagesdistinguish
betweentwodifferenttypesoffirstcousins,theseare:
▪CrossCousins:arechildrenofsiblingsoftheoppositesex-thatisone’smother’s
brothers’childrenandone’sfather’ssisters’children.
▪Themostcommonformofpreferentialcousinmarriageisbetweencrosscousins
becauseitfunctionstostrengthenandmaintaintiesbetweenkingroups
establishedbythemarriagesthattookplaceintheproceedinggeneration.
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82. ▪ParallelCousins:Whenmarriagetakesplacebetweenthechildrenofthesiblings
ofthesamesex,itiscalledparallelcousinmarriage.Arechildrenofsiblingsof
thesamesex,namelythechildrenofone’smother’ssisterandone’sfather
brother.Thematemaycomeeitherfromone’sfather’sbrother’schildrenor
mother'ssister’schildren.
▪Amuchlesscommonformofcousinmarriageisbetweenparallelcousins,the
childofone’smother’ssisterorfather’sbrother.FoundamongsomeArabic
societiesinNorthAfrica,itinvolvesthemarriageofamantohisfather’sbrother’s
daughter.Sinceparallelcousinsbelongtothesamefamily,suchapracticecan
servetopreventthefragmentationoffamilyproperty.
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83. d)TheLevirateandSororate
▪Anotherformofmateselectionthattendstolimitindividualchoicearethose
thatrequireapersontomarrythehusbandorwifeofdeceasedkin.
▪Thelevirate-isthecustomwherebyawidowisexpectedtomarrythebrother(or
someclosemalerelative)ofherdeadhusband.
▪Usuallyanychildrenfatheredbythewoman’snewhusbandareconsideredto
belonglegallytothedeadbrotherratherthantotheactualgenitor.
▪Suchacustombothservesasaformofsocialsecurityforthewidowandher
childrenandpreservedtherightsofherhusband’sfamilytohersexualityand
futurechildren.
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84. ▪Thesororate,whichcomesintoplaywhenawifedies,isthepracticeofa
widower’smarryingthesister(orsomeclosefemalerelative)ofhisdeceased
wife.
▪Intheeventthatthedeceasedspousehasnosibling,thefamilyofthedeceased
isunderageneralobligationtosupplysomeequivalentrelativeasasubstitute.
▪Forexample,inasocietythatpracticesororate,awidowermaybegivenasa
substitutewifethedaughterofhisdeceasedwife’sbrother.
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85. ❑NUMBER OF SPOUSES
▪Societies have rules regulating whom one may/may not marry; they have rules
specifying how many mates a person may/should have.
oMonogamy:themarriageofonemantoonewomanatatime.
oPolygamyi.e.,marriageofamanorwomanwithtwoormoremates.Polygamy
canbeoftwotypes:
✓Polygyny:themarriageofamantotwoormorewomenatatime.
✓Polyandry:themarriageofawomantotwoormoremenatatime
•Marriageofamanwithtwoormoresistersatatimeiscalledsororalpolygyny.
•Whentheco-wivesarenotsisters,themarriageistermedasnon-sororal
polygyny.
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86. ❑Advantages&DisadvantagesofPolygamymarriage
▪Havingtwo/morewivesisoftenseenasasignofprestige.
▪Havingmultiplewivesmeanswealth,power,&statusbothforthepolygnous
husband,wivesandchildren.
▪Itproducesmorechildren,whoareconsideredvaluableforfutureeconomicand
politicalassets.
▪EconomicAdvantage:Itencouragestoworkhard(morecows,goats.)formore
wives
▪TheDrawbacksofPolygyny:Jealousyamongtheco-wiveswhofrequently
competeforthehusband’sattention.
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87. Economic Consideration of Marriage
▪Mostsocietiesviewasabindingcontractbetweenatleastthehusbandandwifeand,in
manycases,betweentheirrespectivefamiliesaswell.
▪Suchacontractincludesthetransferofcertainrightsbetweenthepartiesinvolved:
rightsofsexualaccess,legalrightstochildren,andrightsofthespousestoeachother’s
economicgoodsandservices.
▪Oftenthetransferofrightsisaccompaniedbythetransferofsometypeofeconomic
consideration.
▪Thesetransactions,whichmaytakeplaceeitherbeforeorafterthemarriagecanbe
dividedintothreecategories:
1.BridePrice
2.BrideService
3.Dowry
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88. 1.BridePrice:Itisalsoknownasbridewealth,isthecompensationgivenupon
marriagebythefamilyofthegroomtothefamilyofthebride.
▪AccordingtoMurdock,inAfricaitwasestimatedthat82%ofthesocietiesrequire
thepaymentofbrideprice.
▪Anthropologistsidentifiedanumberofimportantfunctionsthattheinstitutions
ofbridepriceperformedforthewell-beingofthesociety.
▪Forexample,bridepricehasbeenseen:-
✓assecurityorinsuranceforthegoodtreatmentofthewife,
✓asmechanismtostabilizemarriagebyreducingthepossibilityofdivorce,
✓asaformofcompensationtothebride’slineageforthelossofhereconomic
potentialandchildbearingcapacityand
✓asasymboloftheunionbetweentwolargegroupsofkin.
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89. 2.BrideService:Whenthegroomworksforhiswife’sfamily,thisisknownasbride
service.
▪ItmayberecalledthatintheOldTestament,Jacoblaboredforsevenyearsinorderto
marryLeah,andthenanothersevenyearstomarryRachel;Leah’syoungersister,thus
performedfourteenyearsofbrideserviceforhisfather-in-law.
▪BrideservicewasalsopracticedbytheYanomamo,apeoplelivinginthelow-landsof
Venezuela.Duringthistime,thegroomliveswiththebride’sparentsandhuntsforthem.
3.Dowry:Adowryinvolvesatransferofgoodsormoneyintheoppositedirection,from
thebride'sfamilytothegroom’sfamily.
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90. Post-Marital Residence
▪Wherethenewlymarriedcouplelivesafterthemarriageritualisgovernedbyculturalrules,
whicharereferredtoaspost-maritalresidencerule.
PatrilocalResidence:themarriedcoupleliveswithorneartherelativesofthehusband’sfather.
MatrilocalResidence:themarriedcoupleliveswithorneartherelativesofthewife.
AvunculocalResidence:Themarriedcoupleliveswithornearthehusband’smother’sbrother.
Ambilocal/BilocalResidence:Themarriedcouplehasachoiceoflivingwithrelativesofthewife
orrelativesofthehusband.
NeolocalResidence:TheMarriedcoupleformsanindependentplaceofresidenceawayfrom
therelativesofeitherspouse.
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91. 2.7.2 FAMILY
▪Familyisthebasisofhumansociety.
▪Itisthemostimportantprimarygroupinsociety.
▪Thefamily,asaninstitution,isuniversal.Itisthemostpermanentandmost
pervasive(prevalent,persistent)ofallsocialinstitutions.
▪Theinterpersonalrelationshipswithinthefamilymakethefamilyanendurable
(tolerable,acceptable)socialunit.
▪Culturalanthropologistshaveidentifiedtwofundamentallydifferenttypesof
familystructure-theextendedfamilyandthenuclearfamily.
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92. 1.TheExtendedFamily:
▪Insocietiesbasedonextendedfamilies,bloodtiesaremoreimportantthantiesof
marriage.
▪Extendedfamiliesconsistoftwoormorefamiliesthatarelinkedbybloodties.
▪Mostcommonly,thistakestheformofamarriedcouplelivingwithoneormoreoftheir
marriedchildreninasinglehouseholdorhomesteadandundertheauthorityofafamily
head.
▪Inthecaseofapatrilinealextendedfamily,theyoungcoupletakesupresidenceinthe
homesteadofthehusband’sfather,andthehusbandcontinuestoworkforhisfather,
whoalsorunsthehousehold.
▪Moreover,mostofthepersonalpropertyinthehouseholdisnotownedbythe
newlyweds,butiscontrolledbythehusbands’father.
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93. ▪Itisimportanttopointoutthatinextendedfamilysystems,marriageisviewed
moreasbringingadaughterintothefamilythanacquiringawife.
▪Inotherwords,aman’sobligationsofobedience(compliance)tohisfatherand
loyaltytohisbrothersisfarmoreimportantthanhisrelationshiptohiswife.
▪Whenawomanmarriesintoanextendedfamily,shemostoftencomesunderthe
controlofhermother-in-law,whoallocateschores(tasks,responsibilities)and
supervisesherdomesticactivities.
▪Thegeographicalmobilityismorelikelyassociatedwithnuclearfamilythanwith
extendedfamily.Thereisaroughcorrelationfoundbetweenextendedfamily
systemandanagriculturalwayoflife.
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94. 2.TheNuclearFamily:
▪Consistingofhusbandandwifeandtheirchildren,thenuclearfamilyisatwo-generation
familyformedaroundtheconjugal(married)ormaritalunion.
▪Eventhoughtheunclearfamilytosomedegreeispartofalargerfamilystructure,it
remainsrelativelyautonomousandindependentunity.
▪Thatis,theeverydayneedsofeconomicsupport,childcare,andsocialinteractionaremet
withinthenuclearfamilyitselfratherthanbyawidersetofrelatives.
▪Inthosesocietiesbasedonthenuclearfamily,itiscustomaryformarriedcoupletolive
apartfromeithersetofparents(neolocalresidence),noristhereanyparticularobligation
orexpectationforthemarriedcoupletocarefortheiragingparentsintheirownhomes.
▪Generally,parentsarenotactivelyinvolvedinmateselectionfortheirchildren,innoway
legitimizethemarriagesoftheirchildren,andhavenocontroloverwhetherornottheir
childrenremainmarried.
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95. Functions Marriage and Family
❑Familyperformscertainspecificfunctionswhichcanbementionedasfollows:
❑BiologicalFunction:Theinstitutionofmarriageandfamilyservesbiological(sexualand
reproductive)function.
▪Theinstitutionofmarriageregulatesandsociallyvalidateslongterm,sexualrelationsbetween
malesandfemales.
▪Thus,husbandwiferelationshipcomeintoexistenceandbecomeasociallyapprovedmeansto
controlsexualrelationandasociallyapprovedbasisofthefamily.
▪Sexualcohabitationbetweenspousesautomaticallyleadstothebirthofoff-springs.
▪Thetaskofperpetuating(continuing)thepopulationofasocietyisanimportantfunctionofa
family.Societyreproducesitselfthroughfamily.
❑EconomicFunction:Marriagebringseconomicco-operationbetweenmenandwomenandensure
survivalofindividualsinasociety.
▪Withthebirthofoff-springsthedivisionoflaborbasedonsexandgenerationcomeintoplay.
▪Insmallscalesocietiesfamilyisaself-contained(independent,self-sufficient)economicunitof
production,consumptionanddistribution.
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96. ❑SocialFunction:Marriageisbasedonthedesiretoperpetuate(continue,preserve)one’s
familyline.
▪Inmarriageoneadds,notonlyaspousebutmostofthespouse’srelativestoone’sown
groupofkin.
▪Thismeanstheinstitutionofmarriagebringswithitthecreationandperpetuationofthe
family,theformofperson-to-personrelationsandlinkingoncekin(families)groupto
anotherkingroup.
❑EducationalandSocializationFunction:Theburdenofsocialization(viaprocessesof
enculturationandeducation)ofnewborninfantsfallprimarilyuponthefamily.
▪Inaddition,childrenlearnanimmenseamountofknowledge,culture,valuesprescribed
(agreed)bysociety,beforetheyassumetheirplaceasadultmembersofasociety.
▪Thetaskofeducatingandenculturatingchildrenisdistributedamongparents.
▪Moreover,familybehavesasaneffectiveagentinthetransmissionofsocialheritage.
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97. 2.7.3 KINSHIP
▪AsignificantconceptinAnthropology–Theconceptofkinshipisvitallyimportantin
Anthropology,becausekinshipandfamilyconstitutethefocalpointsinanthropological
studies.
▪Kinshipisthemethodofreckoning(estimate,calculate)relationship.
▪Inanysocietyeveryadultindividualbelongstotwodifferentnuclearfamilies.
▪Thefamilyinwhichhewasbornandrearediscalled‘familyoforientation’.
▪Theotherfamilytowhichheestablishesrelationthroughmarriageiscalled‘familyof
procreation’.
▪Akinshipsystemisneitherasocialgroupnordoesitcorrespondtoorganized
aggregationofindividuals.
▪Itisastructuredsystemofrelationshipswhereindividualsareboundtogetherby
complexinterlockingandramifying(dividing)ties.
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98. ▪Therelationshipbasedonbloodtiesiscalled“consanguineouskinship”,andthe
relativesofthiskindarecalled‘consanguineouskin’.
▪Thedesireforreproductiongivesrisetoanotherkindofbindingrelationship.
“Thiskindofbond,whicharisesoutofasociallyorlegallydefinedmarital
relationship,iscalledafinalrelationship”,andtherelativessorelatedarecalled
‘finalkin’.
▪Thefinalkinds[husbandandwife]arenotrelatedtooneanotherthroughblood.
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99. 2.7.4 DESCENT
▪Descentreferstothesocialrecognitionofthebiologicalrelationshipthatexistsbetweenthe
individuals.
▪Theruleofdescentreferstoasetofprinciplesbywhichanindividualtracehisdescent.
▪Inalmostallsocietieskinshipconnectionsareverysignificant.
▪Anindividualalwayspossessescertainobligationstowardshiskinsmenandhealsoexpectthe
samefromhiskinsmen.Successionandinheritancearerelatedtothisruleofdescent.
▪Therearethreeimportantrulesofdecentarefollows;
1.Patrilinealdescent
▪Whendescentistracedsolelythroughthemaleline,itiscalledpatrilinealdescent.
▪Aman’ssonsanddaughtersallbelongtothesamedescentgroupbybirth,butitonlythesons
whocontinuetheaffiliation.
▪Successionandinheritancepassthroughthemaleline.
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100. 2.Matrilinealdescent
▪Whenthedescentistracedsolelythroughthefemaleline.
▪Itiscalledmatrilinealdescent.
▪Atbirth,childrenofbothsexesbelongtomother’sdescentgroup,butlateronlyfemales
acquirethesuccessionandinheritance.
▪Therefore,daughterscarrythetradition,generationaftergeneration.
3.CognaticDescent
▪Insomesociety’sindividualsarefreetoshowtheirgenealogicallinkseitherthroughmen
orwomen.
▪Somepeopleofsuchsocietyarethereforeconnectedwiththekin-groupoffatherand
otherswiththekingroupofmothers.
▪Thereisnofixedruletotracethesuccessionandinheritance;anycombinationoflineal
linkispossibleinsuchsocieties.
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101. Unit Three: Human Diversity, Culture Areas and Contact in Ethiopia
Chapter Introduction:
▪Inthisunit,webelieveyouwillgetabetterunderstandingofwhatmakes
humanitydifferentfromotheranimalspecieswithintheanimalkingdomandhow
diddiversegroupsofpeopleemergeacrosstheglobethroughtime.
▪Theunitisstructuredinsuchawaythatyouwillbeabletorecognize/findoutthe
sourcesofhumanvariationemanatingfromenvironmental,evolutionaryand
culturalfactors.
▪Asaresult,inthisunit,youwillbeintroducedtothemessuchashumanity,human
diversityorvariation,race,racialforms,cultureareasandaspectsofcontact
(interaction,connection)inthecontextofEthiopia.
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102. 3.1. Human Beings & Being Human: What it is to be human?
❑Reflectyourviewsonthefollowingquestions:
▪Whatdoyouunderstandbythetermhumanity,diversity,andhumandiversity/variation?
▪Whatmakeshumanbeingsdifferentfromotheranimals?
▪Originandevolutionofhumanbeings?
▪Asyoulearntinthefirsttwounitsofthismodule,anthropologyisabroaderdiscipline
coveringavastspatio-temporaldimensioninthestudyofman/humanity.
▪Sinceanthropologystudieshumanityinitsentirety,itisoftencalledamirrorof
humanity.
▪AsKluckhohncorrectlypointedout:"Anthropologyholdsupagreatmirrortomanand
letshimlookathimselfinhisinfinitevariety."
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103. •Inthiscase,anthropologyhelpshumanbeingstolookintothemselvesbysearchingfor
answerstoquestionsthatchallengeus.
❑Someofthequestionscentraltohumanityandanthropologyare:
▪Whatarethecommonalitiesamonghumansworldwide?(Thatiswhatdoesevery
humanculturedo?)
▪Whatarethevariationsamonghumansworldwide(Thatis,whatthingsdoonlysome
culturesdo?)
▪Whydothesecommonaltiesandvariationsexistinthefirstplace?(Inotherworldswhy
aren'tallhumanculturesthesame?)
▪Howdoeshumanitychangethroughtime?(Isitstillevolving,andifso,how?)
▪WherehasHumanitybeen,andwhatcanthatshowusaboutwherehumanityisgoing?
(Thatis,whatcanwelearnaboutourselvestoday,fromthepast?)
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104. ▪Inordertoaddressthesequestions,weshouldrelyonkeyanthropological
conceptsofcomparativeapproach(culturalrelativism)andevolution.
▪Thecomparativeapproach,whichisalsoknownasculturalrelativism,entails
thoseculturesshouldn'tbecomparedoneanotherforthesakeofsayingoneis
betterthantheother.
▪Instead,culturesshouldbecomparedinordertounderstandhowandwhythey
differandsharecommonaltieseachother.
▪Thecomparativeapproachorculturalrelativismencouragesusnottomakemoral
judgmentsaboutdifferentkindsofhumanity,anditexaminesculturesontheir
ownandfromtheperspectiveoftheiruniquehistoryandorigin.
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105. ▪Evolutionisanotherkeyconceptinanthropologywhich,togetherwiththe
comparativeapproach(culturalrelativism)allowsustotheaddresstheafore-
mentionedfundamentalquestionsregardingourdistantorigin,currentstageof
growth,formsofadaptation,andpredictfuturedirectionofdevelopment.
▪Bystudyingevolution,thechangeofspeciesthroughtime,anthropologiststend
totreathumanityasoneofthebiologicalspeciesintheanimalkingdom.
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106. ▪Inthisrespect,humanbiologyandculturehaveevolvedovermillionsofyearsandtheywill
continuetoevolvetogether.
▪Humanbiologyaffectshumanculture;andsimilarly,humancultureaffectshumanbiology.
▪Oneexampleofthisisthatthebrainsizeofhumanshasbecomelargerovermillionsofyearsof
evolution,andthisisconsideredbiologicalchange.
▪Whereas,thechangeinhumanbrainhasbroughtculturalchangesintermsofincreased
intelligence,languageandeventheemergenceofwriting.
▪Thisiswhyanthropologistsusethetermbioculturaltodescribethedualnatureofhuman
evolution:bothbiologicalandculturaldimensions.
▪Humanbeingsaredescribedasabioculturalanimal.Inwhatfollowswewillseethemeaningof
bioculturalevolutionwithpracticalexamples.
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107. The bio cultural animal?
▪Humanityevolvesbothasaresultofbiologicalfactorsandculturalfactors.
▪Forthisreason,anthropologistscallitbioculturalevolution.
▪Althoughhumanssurvivebyusingboththeirbiologyandculturalinformation,allotheranimals
survivemainlythroughtheirbiologyandbyrelyingoninstinctratherthansuchcultural
information.
▪Considerthefollowingculturalbehaviorsandtheirpossibleinvolvementwithbiological
evolutionofourspecies:
▪Theearliestuseofstonetoolscorresponds/agrees/withincreasedconsumptionofanimal
protein.Moreanimalproteininturnchangesthehominiddietandpotentiallyits
anatomy/structure.
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108. ▪Theuseofclothing(itselfaculturalartifactorobject)allowshumanbodiestosurvivein
environmentstheywouldn’tnormallysurvivein.Forexample,thehumanbodyis
naturallybest-suitedforequatorialenvironments,nottheArctic,buttheinventionof
heavycoatsandothersuchclothingenablesthatbodytosurviveArctictemperatures.
▪Asaresult,Paleo-anthropologists(scientific)areconcernedwithunderstandinghow
cultural,non-cultural,andbio-culturalevolutionaryfactorsshapedhumanitythrough
time.
▪Ifthisisthecase,letusfirstseethemeaningofhumanityfromtheanthropological
perspective.
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109. ▪Humanityisthemostcommontermwetouserefertohumanbeings.Humanitystands
forthehumanspecies,agroupoflifeformswiththefollowingcharacteristics:
oBipedalism(walkingontwolegs);
oRelativelysmallteethforprimatesofoursize;
oRelativelylargebrainsforprimatesofoursize;
oUsingmodernlanguagetocommunicateideas;and
oUsingcomplexsetsofideascalledculturetosurvive.
▪Standingontwolegsandhavingparticularlysmallteethandlargebrainsareall
anatomicalcharacteristics,andthey’restudiedbyanthropologistsfocusingonhuman
biologicalevolution.
▪Survivingbyusingawidearrayofculturalinformation(includinginstructionsformaking
apotteryorfarmingtoolsinEthiopia)istheuseofculture.It’sstudiedbyother
anthropologists,andevenmorestudytheevolutionoflanguage.
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110. ▪Humanityisageneraltermthatdoesn’tspecifywhetheryou’retalkingabout
males,females,adults,orchildren;itsimplymeansourspecies-Homosapiens
sapiens-atlarge.
▪Thetermhumanitycanbeappliedtomodernhumans(Homosapienssapiens)as
wellassomeofourmostrecentancestors,placedmoregenerallyinHomo
sapiens,withoutthesubspecies(thesecondsapiens)suffix.
▪ExactlywhenHomosapiensevolvedintoHomosapienssapiensisacomplex
questionbasedonwhenhumansbecameanatomicallymodernandwhenthey
becamebehaviorallymodern.
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111. 3.2 Origin of the Modern Human Species: Homo sapiens sapiens
❑Reflectyourviewsonthefollowingquestions:
▪Whatdoesdifferentworldreligionsandcosmologiessayabouttheoriginof
humanbeings?
▪Whataboutscientific(paleo-anthropologicalexplanations)abouttheoriginand
evolutionofhumanbeings?
3.21.CosmologiesVs.EvolutionallyandPaleo-anthropologicalExplanations
▪Oneofthemajorquestionsanthropologists’grapples(deal)withistheoriginsof
humankind.
▪ThefossilrecordpreservesevidenceofpastlifeonEarth,tracingordrawinga
progressionofsimpleone-celledorganismstoincreasinglydiverseforms.
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112. ▪Howdidthesedifferentformsoflifeemergeandnewspeciesarise?
▪Thebiologicalexplanationsforthisprocessarethefocusofthissection.
▪TheoriesconcerningtheevolutionoflifedatebacktotheancientGreeks,butit
wasonlyduringthe19thcenturythatthefirstcomprehensivetheoriesof
evolutionweredeveloped.
▪Theyweremadepossiblethroughdiscoveriesinmanydifferentareas.The
acceptanceofevolutionarytheoryisbasedonresearchinmanyfields.
▪Indeed,thevalueofevolutionarytheoryisitsutility(usefulness)asaunifying
explanationforawidevarietyofphenomena.
▪Beforeexaminingthescientificbasisforourunderstandingofevolution,itis
usefultoconsiderotherexplanationsofhumanorigins.
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113. A.CosmologiesandHumanOrigins
▪Themostprofoundquestionsaretheonesthatperplex(puzzle,confuse)usthe
most.
▪Wheredidwecomefrom?Whyarewehere?Whatisourplaceinthe
universe?
▪Thesequestionshavebeensharedbymanypeoplethroughouthistory.Most
cultureshavedevelopedexplanationsthatprovideanswerstothesefundamental
questions.
▪Cosmologiesareconceptualframeworksthatpresenttheuniverse(thecosmos)
asanorderlysystem.
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114. ▪Theyoftenincludeanswerstothesebasicquestionsabouthumanoriginsandthe
placeofhumankindintheuniverse,usuallyconsideredthemostsacred(holly)of
allcosmologicalconceptions.
▪Cosmologies(thescientificstudyoftheoriginandstructureoftheuniverseor
cosmos)accountforthewaysinwhichsupernaturalbeingsorforcesformed
humanbeingsandtheplanetweliveon.
▪Thesebeliefsaretransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationthroughritual,
education,laws,art,andlanguage.
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115. ▪InWesternculturaltraditions,theancientGreekshadvariousmythological
explanations(lackingfactualbasisorhistoricalvalidity)forhumanorigins.
▪ThemostimportantcosmologicaltraditionaffectingWesternviewsofcreationis
recountedinthebiblicalBookofGenesis,whichisfoundinGreektextsdating
backtothe3rdcenturyBC.ThisJudaictraditiondescribeshowGodcreatedthe
cosmos(universe).Itbeginswith“InthebeginningGodcreatedtheheavenand
theearth”anddescribeshowcreationtooksixdaysduringwhichlight,heaven,
Earth,vegetation,Sun,Moon,stars,birds,fish,animals,andhumansoriginated.
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116. B.Evolutionaryandpaleo-anthropologicalperspectivesonhumanorigin
▪Asopposedtocosmologicalexplanationsthatwediscussedabove,todayanthropologist
relyonscientificviewsofevolutioninordertoexplainhumanorigins.Simplyput,
evolutionreferstoaprocessandgradualchangeinspecieovertime.
▪Infact,evolutionisusedtodescribethecumulativeeffectsofthreeindependentfacts.
▪Importantly,theseattributesofevolutioncanbeobservedinnatureeveryday.They
are:
➢Replication:Thefactthatlifeformshaveoffspring;
➢Variation:Thefactthateachoffspringisslightlydifferentfromitsparents,andits
siblings;and
➢Selection:Thefactthatnotalloffspringsurvive,andthosethatdotendtobetheones
bestsuitedtotheirenvironment.
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117. 3.3 The Kinds of Humanity: human physical variation
❑Reflectyourviewsonthefollowingquestions
oWhyisn’teveryonethesame?
oWhydopeopleworldwidehavedifferencesintheirphenotypicattributes?
▪Peoplecomeinmanycolorsandshapes;peopleoftheMediterranean,for
example,areobviouslydarker-skinnedthanthoseofScandinavia,and
nativesoftheArcticareshorterandstockierthanthetall,leanSamburuof
EastAfrica.
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118. ▪Whyisthis?
▪Howdidthesevariationscomeabout,andwhatdotheymeanfor
humanityasaspecies?
▪Theanswercomesfromthestudyofhumanbiologybyphysical
anthropologists.
▪Inthissectionwewillseehowhumanpopulationshaveadaptedto
theirvaryingenvironmentsbythesameevolutionaryprocessthat
shapesalllivingthingsfromtheperspectiveofrace.
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119. 3.3.1. Racial types-anthropological perspectives
▪Likealllivingthingswithsensoryinput,humanshavetoclassifytheirperceptionsinto
somekindoforder:Thesethingsgowiththeseothersbutdon’tbelonginthisgroup.
▪Somepeoplehavedarkerskin,sothey’reinthe“darkerskin”category.Andthelistgoes
on.
▪Obviously,notallhumanbeingslookthesame,sohumanshavespentsometimeputting
peopleofdifferentcolors,bodyshapes,andsoonintodifferentcategoriessometimes
calledraces.
▪Unfortunately,thistendencyhashadsomeverybadconsequencesformillionsofhuman
beingsoverthecenturies.
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120. ▪Biologicallyspeaking,araceisagroupoforganismsofthesamespeciesthat
sharesimilarphysical(andgenetic)attributesandspecificgeographicregions.
▪Inshort,they’resubdivisionsofasinglespecies-meaningtheycanmateandhave
offspringthatarehealthyenoughtohavetheirownoffspring-exhibitingsome
characteristicsreflectingtheirgeographicalorigins.
▪Thisdefinitionisprettyslippery,though,becausefindinggoodexamplesof
distinctlydifferentracesisdifficult.
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121. ▪Themostvisiblenon-humananimalracesarethoseofdogs.Whereveryougo,all
dogsareinthesamespecies-Canisfamiliaris-buttheyhaveobviousphysical
differences.Strictlyspeaking,they’reofdifferentraces-andeventhisisn’tso
strict,becausethesedifferencescomefromhumansselectivelybreedingthese
animalsforcertaincharacteristics,notfromtheiroriginallyinhabitingvery
differentenvironments.
▪Once,alldogs(mostlikelyfirstdomesticatedabout20,000yearsago)werewolf-
like,andtheirmoderndiversityismorearesultofhumanselectivebreedingthan
geographicaladaptation.
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122. ▪Justlikeanyotherlivingthing,humanbeingsadapttotheirenvironments
throughanevolutionaryprocess.
▪Throughoutthisunitwewillseethewaysinwhichourspeciesadaptsmainly
throughculturalmeans;thatis,wesurviveourenvironmentsnotbecausewe’ve
adaptedtothembiologically,butwithartifactsandcomplexbehavior.
▪Inthisrespect,itshouldbenotedthathumanbodies(humanbeings)have
adaptedtocertainconditionsovertime.
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123. ▪Adaptationiscanbeunderstoodasaprocess(behavioraland/orbiological)that
increasesthelikelihoodofsurvivalforanorganism.
▪Anadaptationcanbeamutation/change,transformation/thatconfers/discuss/
anadvantage.
▪Forexample,afrogthathasbetter-camouflagedskin(awayofhidingsomething
bypaintingitorcoveringitwithsomething)thanitssiblingshavealowerchance
ofbeingsnappedupbyafish,andthereforeastrongerchancetosurviveand
haveoffspringthatwillcarrythegeneforbetter-adaptedcamouflage.
▪Inhumans,adaptationsincludecomplexbehavior,suchasmakingtools.These
behaviorsaren’tpassedongeneticallybutratherculturally.
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124. ▪Someofthesebodilyadaptationsareprettyeasilyvisible,andsomeareonlyvisible
whenyoulookverycloselyatthegenes.
▪Skincolor—oneofthemostvisiblehumancharacteristics—isagoodexampleof
adaptationtoaparticularenvironment.
▪Thedarkestskinappearsinpopulationsoriginatingintropicalzones,suchasAfricaand
Asia.
▪ThelightestskinistraditionallyfoundinnorthernEuropebecauseovertime,natural
selectionfavoreddarkerskinsinareasthatreceivedextensiveandmoreintensive
sunlight,becauseindividualswithlighterskinintheseareasweremorepronetoskin
cancers.
▪Darkerskin,then,isanadaptationtothegeographicalconditionsofAfrica.
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125. ▪What’stheadaptivevalueoflighterskin?
▪IthastodowithvitaminD,ofallthings.
▪VitaminDisanutrientthathelpshumanbonesformproperly.
▪WithoutenoughvitaminD,deformitieslikethediseaserickets,whichnormally
includesbowed(deformed)legsandamisshapenpelvis,willoccur.
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126. ▪HumansnaturallyproduceVitaminDthroughtheskinwhenthey’reexposedtosunlight,
butcloudierpartsoftheworld—likenorthernEurope—areexposedtomuchless
sunlightthanregionsinthetropics,wherethespeciesbegan.
▪AsearlyhumanpopulationswereexpandingintonorthernEuropearound40,000years
ago,thoseindividualswithdarkerskinwerelessabletomanufactureVitaminDand
probablyexperiencedamuchlowerbirthratethanthosepopulationswithlighterskin.
▪Lighterskin,then,isanadaptationtothegeographicalconditionsofEuropebecause
overtime,theprehistoriccolonistsofEuropewhohappenedtobebornwithlighterskin
(simplybychance)hadmoreoffspring,whothemselvescarriedthegenesforlighterskin.
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127. ▪Biologicaladaptationsaren’tinstantaneous/immediate.
▪Theytakeplaceoverthespanofgenerations,soanAfricanmovingtoEurope
won’tevolvelighterskin,norwillaEuropeantravellingtoAfricaevolvedarker
skin(exceptforsometanning).
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128. ▪Anotherexampleofbiologicaladaptationinhumanbeingsisthedifferenceof
staturebetweenarctic(suchasInuit)andEastAfrican(suchasMaasai)people.
▪Inbiology,Bergmann’sruleindicatesthatincolderregions,warm-blooded
animalswillhavestockierbodiesthantheircounterpartsfromwarmerregions,
becausestockierbodiesaremoreefficientatretainingbodyheat.
▪Inthecoldpolarregions,theInuithaveashortandstockybuild;theMaasaiof
EastAfricahavetallerandmoreslenderbodiesthatdon’thavetoretainsomuch
heat—theyactuallyhavetodumpexcessheatintheirhotenvironment,whichis
facilitatedbytheirbodyshape.Bodystatureinthesecasesisanadaptationtothe
geographicalconditionsofhotAfricanandthecoldArctic.
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129. ▪Therapidphysiologicalchangesthatoccurinone’slifetime—likea
mountaineer’sadjustmenttoloweroxygenlevelsathighaltitude—arereferred
toashabituationoracclimatization.
▪Thesearen’tpassedongeneticallytothenextgeneration(becausechanges
acquiredduringlifecan’tbeencodedinthegenes,)andthey’rereversible(as
whenthemountaineerreturnstolowerelevations.)
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130. 3.3.2. What Anthropologists can say for sure about Human Races?
▪So,dohumanracesexist?Verystrictlyspeaking,yes.Homosapienssapiensdoes
featuregeographicallybaseddifferenceswithinthespecies.However,youmust
considertwoveryimportantpoints:
❑First,thesegeneticdifferencesdon’tmeanalot,biologically.Becauseallhealthy
humanscanmateandhavehealthyoffspring,we’reallinHomosapienssapiens,
biologicallyspeaking.
▪Don’tletanyonetellyoudifferent.Notonlyisitinaccuratetosay“thefemale
species”whentalkingaboutsignificantsexdifferencesbetweenmalesand
females,butit’salsoinaccuratetosay“theAfricanrace”orthe“Europeanrace”
whenspeakingofdeepdifferencesinthesepeoples.
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131. ▪Alookatthegenesshowsnosignificantspecies-leveldifferences—onlyvery
minorvisibleonessuchasskincolor,shapeofnose,orhairtexture.
▪Biologicallyspeaking,though,thesedifferencesaren’timportant.Formost
physicalanthropologists(who’vespentthemosttimecloselyexamininghuman
biology),raceisnearlymeaninglesswhenappliedtohumanity.
▪Ratherthantalkaboutraces,physicalanthropologistsmorecommonlytalktoday
ofancestry,amoregeneraltermthatrecognizestherealityofsome
geographicallyspecifichumanadaptationsbutdoesn’tturnthemintoloaded,
black-and-whiteraces(punintended.)Ancestrymaybeimportant,forexample,
whenconsideringsomeone’sgenetichealthbecausedifferenthuman
populationshavedevelopedslightlydifferentgeneticcharacteristicsovertime.
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132. ❑Second—andmostimportant—isthatculturalbehaviorisn’tgeneticallylinkedto
thosegeographicaldifferences.Thisdisconnectisoneofanthropology’smostimportant
discoveriesandlessonsforhumanity.
▪PeoplefromScandinaviaaren’treserved—orwhateverotherbehavioraltraityoumay
applytothem—becauseit’sintheirgenestobeso.It’snot.
▪Mostofhumanbehaviorisn’tbiologicallydeterminedorfilteredinthroughthenatural
environment—mostofitisculturallylearned.AninfantfromJapancanberaisedinthe
KalahariofSouthernAfricaandwon’tautomaticallyremovehisshoeswhengoingintoa
homeunlesshisculturespecificallyteacheshimtodoso.
▪Likeanyhumancanacquireanylanguage,anyinfantcanacquireanyculture;it’sculture
thatreallydrivesbehavior,notthegenes.Theancientbeliefthathumanraceshave
innatebehavioraltraits—industriousAsiansorhot-bloodedMediterranean’s—is
simplywrong.
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133. ▪Oneofthemainreasonstheraceconceptreallydoesn’tapplytohumansisthatdefining
humanracesisalmostimpossible:Forexample:
✓TowhatracedoyouassignapersonbornfromaNativeAmericanandanativeAfrican
marriage?
✓Doyoucreateanewraceinthiscase?
✓Althoughsomeofthesedesignations/descriptions/doexist,tocomeupwitharacefor
everypossiblecombinationofancestrieswouldbeaninfinitejob.Plus,itwouldjustbe
anotherexerciseindrawinglineswheretheydon’treallyexist.Andwhat’s“black”or
“white”?IsaGreekpersonblackorwhite?Ofcourse,they’reinbetween.Assigning
peopletoaracebasedonskincolorbecomesanexerciseinholdinguppaintchipstothe
skin.
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134. 3.4 Human Races: the history of racial typing
▪Likeallanimals,humanshaveundoubtedlybeenclassifyingtheirneighborsin
variouswaysforaverylongtime.
▪Someofthefirstrecordsofhumansclassifyingothersascertain“types”come
fromancientEgypt,whereby1350BCyoucanseerecordsofthemclassifying
humansbyskincolor:
✓Egyptianswerered-skinned,peoplesouthofEgyptwereblack-skinned,those
livingnorthoftheMediterraneanSeawerewhite-skinned,andpeopletotheeast
wereyellow-skinned.
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135. ▪Bythethe16thcentury,duringtheAgeofDiscovery,Europeansvoyagingaroundthe
worldwereencounteringmanypreviouslyunknownpeoplesanddevelopingracial
classificationsoftheirown.
▪Becauseskincolorwassonoticeable,manyracialclassificationswerebasedonlyonthat
factor.
▪Additionally,theseunknownpeopleweren’tChristiananddidn’tshareEuropeanculture
andvalues,sotheEuropeanslabeledthemSavages.
▪Infact,theythoughttheycoulduseracialtypeasanindicatorofjusthowSavagea
personwas.
▪ThelessEuropean-looking,ofcourse,themoreSavage.Thoughmosthave
ditched(abandoned)thisconcepttoday,manyracialsupremacistsstillbelievethat
culturalbehaviorcorrelateswithskincolor,noseshape,hairtexture,orwhathaveyou.
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136. ▪Somenaturalistsinthe16ththrough19thcenturiesproposedthatsavageswere
evenadifferentspeciesthanwhiteEuropeans,sayingthattheyshouldn’tevenbe
consideredhuman.
▪Thisclassificationmadepersecutionandenslavementofdifferentpeoplespurely
becauseofhowtheylookedmucheasier.
▪EarlyattemptsbyEuropeanstocategorizepeopleintoracialschemes
(arrangements)wereextremelybiasedandhierarchical,associatingmoralityand
intelligencewithskincolorandotherphysicalattributes.
▪TheseschemesalwaysplacedEuropeansatthetopofthescale,andthe
successivelydarker-skinnedpeoplesatthebottom.
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137. ▪Bythemid-1800s,naturalistsbeganusingamethodofdescribingtheshapeof
theheadcalledthecephalicindex,aratiomeasurementofthelengthandwidth
ofthehead.
▪Dolichocephalicpeopleshadlongandnarrowheads(likemostnorthern
Europeans),andbrachycephalicpeoplestendedtohavebroadheads—like
manysouthernEuropeans.
▪Notsurprisingly,thisclassificationschemeandotherslikeitledtomany
argumentsaboutwhichpeoplesweresuperiortotheothers.
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138. ▪Therootproblemofallthisflailingaroundattheidentificationofhumantypes
wasbiologicaldeterminism,theideathatphysicaltraitsweresomehowlinkedto
behavior.
▪Manythoughttraitslikeintellect,values,andmoralswereallproductsofone’s
race.
▪Today,mostpeopleknowbetter,althoughsomepeoplestillwearsheetsandcall
for“racialpurity,”animpossibleanddestructiveidea.
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139. ▪Asimilarwaythateveryone—includingearlyanthropologists—hadthisideaall
wrongwasintheapplicationofDarwin’sprinciplesofbiologicalevolutionto
societies.ThisledtoaconceptknownassocialDarwinism,theideathatas
societiesandnationsevolvedandcompeted,themorallysuperiorsocieties
wouldprevail(overcome),astheless-moral,“savage”societieswereweededout
(clearedout),andthatthiswasallnaturalandgood.
▪Aroundthistimedebatesaboutthesuperiorityorinferiorityofparticulargroups
continuedandsomebegantofearthatcivilized(meaningnorthernEuropean
Christian)societywasslowlybeingdestroyedby“unfit”peopleswho,forone
reasonoranother,werenotbeingweededout.
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140. ▪Withbehavioralcharacteristics“linked”togeneticcharacteristicsinthemindsof
many(includingscientists),someinthe19thandearly20thcenturieseven
advocatedforstateregulationofmarriages,familysize,andwhethertoallowan
individualtoreproduce.
▪Thispracticebecameknownaseugenics,andtheNazistookittoaterrible
extremeduringWorldWarII.InGermany,theNazipartybegantosystematically
killthosemembersofsocietythatitconsideredinferiortotheNorthern-
EuropeanChristianidealtheyheld.
▪Usingeugenicsasthebasisforitsacts,theNazipartykilledmillionsofJewish
people,Gypsiesandothersitconsideredinferiorinanattempttocreateamaster
race.
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141. ▪Theproblemswiththeconceptofamasterrace—aside(separately)fromtheobvious
moralissuessurroundingeugenics—isthatbiologicalvariationisnecessaryforthe
healthofapopulation.
▪Basically,ifallmembersofapopulationarethesame,thepopulationhasnobuffer
againstaparticularlylethalorcatastrophicdiseaseoranyothermajorchangeinthe
species’selectiveenvironment.Ifeveryoneisthesame,everyoneissusceptibletothe
samepotentialdisaster.
▪Forthisreason,manybiologistsmeasuretheoverallhealthofaspeciesbyitsvery
geneticdiversity.Soevenifamasterracewerepossible,andonecould(andwouldwant
to)managetopreventanyinterbreeding,theendresultwouldbeageneticallyuniform
andgeneticallyvulnerablepopulation.Theideaofamasterraceisthereforesuicidal.
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142. 3.5 The Grand Illusion: Race, turns out, is arbitrary
❑Whydoyouthinkisracebecomeanelusive(intangible,vague)concept?
▪Overtheyears,variousanthropologistshaveattemptedtoclassifythehuman
speciesintovariousraces,suchasCaucasian,BlackAfrican,Asian,andsoon.
▪Theproblemisthatthephysicaltraitsusedtoidentifywhichgroupanindividual
belongedinaren’tbinaryoppositeslikeblackorwhite,period,withnomiddle
ground.They’recontinuoustraits,meaningthatawholespectrum/range/exists
between,say,“black”and“white”skindesignations.
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143. ▪Anyattempttoclassifyhumanracesraisesanumberofquestions.Although
AsianslookprettyclearlydifferentfromEuropeansinsomerespects,whatdoyou
dowithpeoplewholook,well,partlyAsianandpartlyEuropean?Anddoes
“European”endintheMiddleEast,wheresomeAfricantraitsarepresent?
WheredoesAfricaevenbegin,geneticallyspeaking?Who’sgoingtodrawupthe
linesbetween“black”and“white”(andwhatqualifiesthatpersonforthejob,
anyway)?
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144. ▪Onethorough1972studybyHarvardanthropologistR.C.Lewontinconcluded
that“Humanracialclassificationisofnosocialvalueandispositivelydestructive
ofsocialandhumanrelations.Sincesuchracialclassificationisnowseentobeof
virtuallynogeneticortaxonomic[classifying]significanceeither,nojustification
canbeofferedforitscontinuance.”
▪Bottomline:Formostprofessionalanthropologiststoday,human“race”isan
antiquated(oldfashioned,obsolete)concept.
▪Forbiomedicalreasons(andsometimesforensicidentificationofbodies),the
realityofgeneticancestrycanbeimportant,butcolor-codedraces,loadedwith
behavioraltraits,arebasicallyarbitrary.
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145. 3.6. Why is Everyone Different? Human Cultural Diversity/Variation
▪Whydon’tothersdothingsthewaywe/youdo?
▪Althoughallhumansareofthesamespecies,theydon’tallactthesame;human
behaviorvariestremendously(extremely)worldwide.
▪Ifracedoesn’tcontrolaperson’scharacteristics,whatdoesaccountforhuman
behavioralvariation?
▪Inshort,theanswerisculture.Culturesdifferbecausepeopleliveindifferent
conditions,betheyecological,economic,social,orwhathaveyou.Forexample,
eachcultureisultimatelyauniqueadaptationtothesocialandenvironmental
conditionsinwhichitevolves.
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146. ▪ThecultureoftheAmazonianforagers(hunters)hascertaincharacteristics,and
theyvaluecertainthingsandactcertainways,becausetheyhaveevolvedina
particularecologicalenvironment,onedifferentfromhighlandScots,whoseown
cultureisanadaptationtotheiruniqueenvironment.Thisdifferenceisultimately
whyhumanbehaviorisn’tthesameworldwide.
▪Ofcourse,humancultureshavebeenevolvingforthousandsofyears—andin
themodernage,withmasscommunicationandmassmovementofpeoplesfrom
oneenvironmentandculturetoanother,culturehaschangedveryquickly.
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147. 3.7. Culture area and cultural contact in Ethiopia
▪Putsimplycultureareasreferstoaclusterofrelatedcultures
occupyingacertaingeographicalregion.Inanthropologytheconcept
ofcultureareahasbeenusedbeginningfromthe1920swhereAfred
Kroeberandhiscontemporarieswereinterestedinexaminingthe
concentrationofculturaltrainsinagivengeographicarea.
▪InthecontextofEthiopia,wemaycomeupwithdifferentcultureare
inrelationtosubsistence(survival).Theseareploughculture
(cultivate),Ensetculturearea,pastoralsocietiesculturearea.
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148. A.Ploughculturearea
▪Ploughculturearearepresentsthosepartsofthecountrywhere
agricultureispredominantlythemeansbywhichsubsistenceisekedout
(togetwithgreatdifficulty).
▪Mostofhighlandandcentralpartsofthecountryservesasthebackbone
oftheeconomyisconsideredaploughculture.Theareaoftencalled
ploughculturehasbeenasubjectofanthropologicalinquiresoverthepast
sevendecadesstartingfromthe1950s.
▪Someoftheethnographerswhostudiedtheareathatwecallplough
cultureareDonaldLevine,AllenHobben,FredrickGamstandJackBauer.
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149. B.Ensetculturearea
▪Ensetculturearea,ontheotherhand,coversavastregioninthe
southernpartofcountry.
▪EnsetcultivatingregionsofthepresentdaySNNPRSsuchasthe
Guraghe,SidamaandGedeoareasconstituteensetculturearea.
▪Inthisregion,ensetservesasastaple(main,principal)diettothe
peoplewhomakeusetheplantinawidevarietyofformsforaliving.
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150. C.Pastoralculturearea
▪Pastoralcultureareaisfoundinthelowlandareascoveringalargesection
oftheAfarinthenorthwest,SomaliinthesoutheastandBorenaof
southernofEthiopia.
▪Asopposedtotheabovecases,inhabitantsofthepastoralculturearearely
(dependon)significantlyontheirherdsandcattleforaliving.
▪Mobilityofpeopleandherdsisamajorcharacteristicfeatureofthepeople
occupyingthepastoralculturearea.
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151. Unit Four
Marginalized, Minorities, and Vulnerable Groups
4.1Definitionofconcepts
❑Whatismarginalization?Marginalizationisdefinedasatreatmentofapersonor
socialgroupasminor,insignificantorperipheral.
▪Marginalizationinvolvesexclusionofcertaingroupsfromsocialinteractions,marriage
relations,sharingfoodanddrinks,andworkingandlivingtogether.
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152. ❑Who are mostly marginalized?There are marginalized social groups in every society
and culture. Women, children, older people, and people with disabilities are among
marginalized groups across the world.
▪Thenatureandlevelofmarginalizationvariesfromsocietytosocietyasaresultof
culturaldiversity.
▪Religious,ethnic,andracialminoritiesarealsoamongsocialgroupsmarginalizedin
differentsocietiesandcultures.
▪Craftsworkerssuchastanners(onethattanshides),potters,andironsmithsare
marginalizedinmanypartsofEthiopia.
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153. ❑Whatisvulnerability?Vulnerabilityreferstothestateofbeingexposedto
physicaloremotionalinjuries.
▪Vulnerablegroupsarepeopleexposedtopossibilitiesofattack,harmsor
mistreatment.
▪Asaresult,vulnerablepersons/groupsneedspecialattention,protection
andsupport.Forexample,childrenandpeoplewithdisabilitiesneed
specialsupportandprotectionastheyareexposedtorisksandneglect
becauseoftheirageanddisabilities.Universitieshaveintroducedspecial
needseducationforstudentswithdisabilitiestogivethemspecialsupport.
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154. ❑Minoritygroups:Thephrase‘minoritygroup’referstoasmallgroupofpeople
withinacommunity,region,orcountry.
▪Inmostcases,minoritygroupsaredifferentfromthemajoritypopulationin
termsofrace,religion,ethnicity,andlanguage.Forexample,blackAmericansare
minoritiesintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Christianscouldbeminoritiesina
Muslimmajoritycountry.MuslimscanbeminoritiesinapredominantlyHindu
society.Hence,minoritygroupscanbeethnicminorities,religiousminorities,or
racialminoritiesinagivencommunity,regionofcountry.
▪Therearedifferentformsofmarginalization.Inthischapterwewilldiscuss
issuesrelatedtooccupational,ageandgender-basedmarginalization.
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155. 4.2 Gender-based marginalization
▪Genderinequalityinvolvesdiscriminationonagroupofpeoplebased
ontheirgender.
▪Genderinequalitymainlyarisesfromsocio-culturalnorms.The
manifestationsofgenderinequalityvaryfromculturetoculture.Girls
andwomenfacenegativediscriminationinsocietiesacrosstheworld.
Womenareexposedtosocialandeconomicinequalitiesinvolving
unfairdistributionofwealth,incomeandjobopportunities.
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156. •Gender-basedmarginalizationisaglobalproblem.Itinvolvesexclusionofgirlsandwomen
fromawiderangeofopportunitiesandsocialservices.
•Genderdisparitiesineducationisagoodexample.
•Girlsindevelopingcountries,especiallythosewholiveinremoteandruralareas,are
excludedfromformaleducation.
•Theenrollmentofgirlsinhighereducationismuchlowerthanthatofboys.Womendonot
enjoyequalemploymentopportunities.Theydonothaveequalrightsintermsofproperty
ownershipandinheritance.
•Womenandgirlsarealsovulnerabletogender-basedviolencesuchasrape,early/child
marriage,abduction/forcedmarriage,domesticviolenceandfemalegenital
cutting/mutilation.
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157. •Therearesomecustomarypracticesthataffectthehealthand
wellbeingofgirlsandwomen.Thesepracticescollectivelyare
calledharmfultraditionalpractices(HTPs).
•Wewilldiscusstwoexamples:early/childmarriageandfemale
circumcision,alsocalledfemalegenitalcutting/mutilation.
•Letusbeginwithfemalegenitalcutting,whichiswidelypracticed
inmostregionsofEthiopia.
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158. A.Femalegenitalcutting
•Femalegenitalcutting(FGC)ispracticedin28countriesinwestern,
northernandeasternAfrica.
•TheprevalenceofFGCisveryhighinSomalia(98%),Djibouti(93%),
Egypt(87%),Sudan(87%),andEritrea(83%).
•EthiopiaisoneofthehighprevalencecountriesinAfrica.Accordingto
recentreports,65%ofgirlsandwomenin15to49years’agecategory
arecircumcised(UNFPA&UNICEF,2017).
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159. •Healthimpactsoffemalegenitalcutting
•TherearefourmajortypesofFGC.TheyareTypeI(clitoridectomy),TypeII(excision),
TypeIII(infibulation),andTypeIV(alltherest).
•ThefirstthreetypesofFGCarepracticedinEthiopia.
•HarmsofFGCvarybecausethetypesofFGCpracticedindifferentregionsand
culturalsettingsaredifferent.
•TypeIII(alsocalledinfibulationorphraonic)isthemostsevereformofFGC.This
typeofFGCiswidelypracticedintheSomali,Afar,andHarariregions.
•Shorttermandlong-termimplicationsforthehealthofgirlsandwomenincluding
severebleeding,infections,painduringsexualintercourse,deliverycomplications,
andfistula.Theimpactsalsoincludepsychologicaltrauma.
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160. •Factorsthatencouragefemalegenitalcutting
•TheprevalenceofFGChasbeendeclininginEthiopia.However,itis
stillpracticedinmostoftheregionsinthecountry.Whydopeople
practiceFGC?Thepracticeissustainedforsomereasons:
•1)peopleconsideritasanintegralpartoftheirculture;and
•2)peoplebelievethatthepracticehassomebenefits.
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161. ❑The following are some of the beliefs related to the practice:
I.FGCisconsideredasaprocessofpurifyinggirls.Insomecultures,uncircumcisedgirls/women
areconsideredasimpure.Accordingtolocalbeliefs,marriagetouncircumcisedgirlswouldbring
misfortunessuchasillness,infertility,andconflict.Hence,girlsmustbecircumcisedtobeclean
andreadyformarriage.
II.Uncircumcisedgirlswouldbedisobedient(noncompliant),powerfulandill-mannered.Insome
partsofEthiopia,peoplebelievethatuncircumcisedgirlstendtodestroyhouseholdutensils.
III.Thereisawidelyheldbeliefthatuncircumcisedgirlsarepromiscuous(immoral)becausethey
havehighsexualdrive.Somepeoplebelievethatmarriagetouncircumcisedgirls/womenwould
notbestableandlong-lasting.
IV.FGCisalsoconsideredasameansofpreservinggirls’virginity,whichisconsideredasa
preconditionformarriageinsomecultures.
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162. •Femalegenitalcuttingissustainedandenforcedbysocialexpectationsandnorms.Girlsandparentswho
decidetoabandonthepracticewouldbesubjecttosocialsanctions.
•Thefollowingareexamples:
✓Socialexclusionandmarginalization:Communitymemberswouldexcludeuncutgirlsandwomenfroma
widerangeofsocialrelationsandinteractions.
✓Gossip(talk,chat)andinsult:communitymembers,includingpeergroups,boys,womenandmen,put
pressureonuncircumcisedgirlsandtheirparentsthroughgossipingandinsulting.
✓InsomepartsofEthiopia,mendonotmarryuncircumcisedgirls.Asaresult,uncircumcisedgirlsare
excludedfrommarriageopportunitiesandloverelationships.
✓Insomepartsofthecountry,peopledonoteatfoodcookedbyuncircumcisedgirls.Uncircumcised
girls/womenarenotalsoallowedtojoinotherpeopleforprayer.Thisisbecauseuncutgirlsarelabeledas
impure.
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163. B.Early/childmarriage:Earlymarriagereferstomarriagewhichinvolvesgirls
belowtheageof18.
▪TheprevalenceofearlymarriageisdeclininginEthiopiaandotherAfrican
countries.However,itisstillwidelypracticedindifferentregionsofEthiopia.
▪Accordingtointernationalhumanrightsconventions,earlymarriageisregarded
asviolationoftherightsofthechild.
▪Earlymarriagehasthefollowingmajorharmfulconsequences:
✓Younggirlsenterintomaritalrelationwhentheyaretooyoungtogivetheir
consenttogetmarried.
✓Earlymarriageinhibitsgirls'personaldevelopment;ithindersgirls’chanceto
educationandfutureprofessionaldevelopment.
✓Earlymarriageexposesyounggirlstosexualabusebytheirolderhusbands.
✓Earlymarriageleadstoearlypregnancies,whichincreasesrisksofdiseasesand
complicationsduringdelivery,fistula,anddeathofthemotherorchild.
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164. ▪ChildmarriageisanillegalpracticeaccordingtotheCriminalCodeofEthiopia.Despitethis
legalrestriction,however,earlymarriageisstillpracticedindifferentregionsofthecountry.
•Factorsencouragingearlymarriage:Accordingtostudyfindings,therearevariousfactors
thatdriveearlymarriage.Socialnormsandeconomicfactorsarethetwomajordriversofthe
practice.
•Socialnorms:Socialnormscontributealotforthecontinuationofearlymarriageinmany
partsoftheworld.Chastity(thestateofnothavingsexwithanyone)ofgirlsisoneofthe
socialnormsthatinfluenceparentsandrelativestoprotectinggirlsfrompre-maritalsex.
•Thevalueattachedtovirginityisanotherdriverofearlymarriage.Girl’sreputation
(character,standing)andfamilysocialstatusareassociatedwithsexualpurityofgirls.
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165. ▪Parentsinclinetomarryofftheirdaughterbeforethegirlreachatthestageof
povertytoavoidthepossibilityofpre-maritalsexandloveaffair.
•Communitymembersinfluenceunmarriedteen-agegirlstogetmarriedasearly
aspossible.Theydothisthroughsocialpressureincludinginsultingunmarried
younggirls.Komoker,anAmharicterm,isthewidelyusedinsulttoridiculegirls
consideredtobelatetogetmarried.
•Economicfactorsareamongthemajorfactorsthatdrivechildmarriage.Inmany
areasofEthiopiamarriageprovideseconomicsecurityforyounggirls.Hence,
parents,insomecasesgirls,supportearlymarriageforeconomicbenefitssuchas
accesstolandandotherresources.Parents’desiretogetagoodhusbandfor
theirdaughterisalsoanotherreason.
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166. 4.3 Marginalized occupational groups
•Accordingtoanthropologicalfindings,thereareoccupationalmarginalized
groupsinmanypartsofEthiopia.
•Thefollowingaremarginalizedoccupationalgroupsinourcountry:
tanners,potters,weaversandironsmiths.
•Thesecraft-workershavedifferentnamesindifferentpartsofthecountry.
•Craft-workerssuchaspottersandtannersareconsideredasimpureand
excludedfromsocialinteractions,ownershipofeconomicresources(e.g.,
land),andparticipationinassociationsandcelebrations.
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167. •Asnotedabove,marginalizedoccupationgroupsarepeopleengagedincraftworkssuchas
pottery,tannery,andironworks.Craft-workersinEthiopiaproduceseveralarticlessuchas
traditionalhand-wovenclothes,householdutensils,andfarmtools.
•Craftsworkersleadalifeofparadoxes(contradiction).Theyhaveimportantcontributionstotheir
communities;however,theyaremarginalizedbythedominantandmajoritygroups.
•Forexamples,weaversproduceculturalclotheshighlydemandedbythousandsandmillionsof
people.Manypeopleuseculturalclothesduringannualcelebrations,religiousholidays,
weddings,culturedays,andmourning(sorrow).Thedemandofculturaldresseshasbeen
increasinginthelastthreedecades.Peopledressculturalclothesindifferentoccasionssuchas
culturalfestivals,daysofnationsandnationalities,andreligiouscelebrations.
•Despitetheircontributions,weaversaremarginalizedfromthewidersociety.
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168. •Ironsmithsareamongoccupationalgroupsmarginalizedinmanyculturalsettings
inEthiopia.
•Ironsmithsmakeandrepairironarticleswithoutusingmachines.Theycontribute
alotespeciallyinruralareas.Ironsmithsserveruralcommunitiesbyproducing
farmingtoolssuchasploughshares,sickles,andhoes.Ethiopiafamilieswidely
usehouseholdutensils(e.g.,knivesandaxes)madebyironsmiths.
•Tannersmakeleatherproductsthatservecommunitymembers.Pottersproduce
potteryarticlesessentialforfoodprocessingandservingandfetchingwater.
•Despitetheircontributions,thesecraft-workersareconsideredinferiorand
marginalizedfromwideareasofsocialinteractions.
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169. •Marginalizationofdespised(hated)occupationalgroupsismanifested
inmanywaysindifferentpartsofEthiopia.
•DenaFreemanandAlulaPankhurst(2001),well-known
anthropologists,identifieddifferentformsofmarginalizationtargeting
minorityoccupationalgroups.
•Someofthemaresummarizedinthefollowingtable:
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170. Type of
marginalization
Manifestationsofmarginalization
Spatial
marginalization
•Craft-workerssettle/liveontheoutskirts(peripheries’)ofvillages,neartoforests,on
poorland,aroundsteepslopes.
•Theyaresegregatedatmarketplaces(theyselltheirgoodsattheoutskirtsorborders
ofmarkets).
•Whentheywalkalongtheroad,theyareexpectedtogivewayforothersandwalkon
thelowersideoftheroad.
Economic
marginalization
•Craft-workersareexcludedfromcertaineconomicactivitiesincludingproductionand
exchanges.Insomecultures,theyarenotallowedtocultivatecrops.
•Theyhavealimitedaccesstolandandlandownership.
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171. Social
marginalization
•Craft-workersareexcludedfromintermarriage;theydonotshareburialplaceswith
others;theyareexcludedfrommembershipofassociationssuchasiddirs.
•Whenmarginalizedgroupsareallowedtoparticipateinsocialevents,theymustsit
onthefloorseparately-sometimesoutsidethehouseornearthedoor.
Cultural
marginalization
Culturalmarginalizationismanifestedinnegativestereotypingsuchasthefollowing:
•Occupationalminoritiesarelabelledasimpureandpolluting;theyareaccusedof
eatinganimalsthathavediedwithoutbeingslaughtered;
•Occupationalminoritiesarealsoconsideredunreliable,lackingmorality,respectand
shame.
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172. 4.4 Age-based vulnerability
•What isage-basedvulnerability?Age-basedvulnerabilityis
susceptibility/vulnerability/ofpeople,especiallychildrenandolderpeople,to
differentformsofattack,physicalinjuriesandemotionalharms.
•Forexample,childrenandolderpeople(peopleaged60andabove)areexposed
topossibilitiesofattack,harmandmistreatmentbecauseoftheirage.
•Asaresult,vulnerablepersons/groupsneedspecialattention,protectionand
support.Inthissection,wediscusssomeexamplerelatedtochildrenandolder
people.
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173. 4.4.1Children:Discrimination/vulnerability
•Childrenareamongvulnerablegroupsexposedtoharmbecauseoftheirage.
•Bothboysandgirlsareexposedtosomeharmandabuseinthehandsofolderpeople.
However,girlsareexposedtodoublemarginalizationanddiscriminationbecauseofthe
gender.
•Childgirlsareexposedtovariouskindsofharmbeforetheyreachattheageofmaturity.
Asdiscussedearlierinthischapter,girlsareexposedtoHTPssuchasfemalegenital
cutting.Minorgirlsarealsoexposedtoearly/childmarriageinmanypartsofEthiopia.
•Early/childmarriage:Earlymarriagereferstomarriagewhichinvolvesgirlsbelowthe
ageof18.
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174. 4.4.2Marginalizationofolderpersons
•Wehavediscussedage-basedmarginalizationconsideringthevulnerabilityof
children.Age-basedmarginalizationalsoaffectsolderpeople.Thephrase‘older
people’referstoadultswiththeageof60andabove.
•People’sattitudetowardsolderpersonsischangingovertimeinEthiopiaandall
overtheworld.OldermenandwomenhavebeenrespectedacrossEthiopian
cultures.
•Olderpersonshavebeenconsideredascustodians(guardians,defenders)of
tradition,culture,andhistory.
•Theroleofolderpersonscrucialinmentoringyoungerpeople,resolvingdisputes,
andrestoringpeaceacrossEthiopiancultures.
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175. •Situationsarechangingasfamilystructuresandlivingpatternsarechangingover
time.
•Rural-urbanmigration,changesinvaluesandlifestyle,educationandnew
employmentopportunitiesleadtosomanychanges.
•Careandsupportforolderpeopletendtodeclineasyoungerpeoplemigrateto
urbanareasandexposedtoeconomicpressureandnewlifestyles.
•Ageismisawidelyobservedsocialproblemintheworld.Ageismreferto
stereotyping,prejudice,anddiscriminationagainstpeoplebasedontheirage.
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176. •Olderwomenandmenenjoyedacertainlevelofsupportandrespectedinthe
past.ThiswastrueinmanyculturesofEthiopiainthepast.Thingshavebeen
changinginrecenttimes.Olderpeoplearefacingvariousproblemsasaresultof
modernization,globalization,andurbanization.
•Olderpeopleareexposedtosocialexclusionbecauseoftheirlowersocialand
economicstatus.Inmostcases,olderpeopleareexcludedfromsocial,cultural,
politicalandeconomicinteractionsintheircommunities.
•Olderpersonsaremarginalizedbecausetheyareconsideredassocialburden
ratherthansocialassets.Communitiesdonotprovideolderpersonswith
opportunitiestocontributetotheircommunities.
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177. 4.5. Religious and ethnic minorities
•Religiousandethnicminoritiesgroupsalsofacedifferentformsof
marginalization.Thereareseveralexamplesofmarginalizationand
discriminationtargetingreligiousandethnicminoritiesintheworld.
•Letusmentiontwoexamples:
•TheJewishpeoplesufferedfromdiscriminationandpersecutionin
differentpartsoftheworld.Theyweretargetsofexterminationin
GermanyandotherWesternEuropeancountriesbecauseoftheiridentity.
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178. •MuslimRohingyasareamongthemostmarginalizedandpersecuted(mistreated,victimized)
peopleintheworld.
•AccordingtoAbduHasnatMiltonetal(2017),theRohingyaare‘oneofthemostill-treatedand
persecutedrefugeegroupsintheworld’.Inrecentyears,morethanhalf-a-millionRohingyasfled
fromtheirhomesinNyanmartoneighboringcountriessuchasBangladesh.Aspeoplelivingin
refugeecamps,theRohingyasarevulnerabletoproblemssuchasmalnutritionandphysicaland
sexualabuse.
•Theseareamongthewidelyknownexamplesofdiscriminationagainstreligiousandethnic
minorities.Theproblemisnotlimitedtospecificareas,regionsorcountries.Althoughthelevelof
theproblemvariesindifferentcontexts,religiousandethnicminoritiesfacedifferentformsof
discriminationinmanypartsoftheworld.
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179. 4.6.Humanrightapproachesandinclusiveness:Anthropological
perspectives
•Allformsofmarginalizationanddiscriminationagainstvulnerableandminoritygroups
contradicttheprinciplesofhumanrights.
•Themajorhumanrightsconventionsdenouncediscriminationagainstwomen,children,
peoplewithdisability,olderpeopleandotherminorityandvulnerablegroups.
•Peoplewithdisabilitieshavetherighttoinclusiveservicesandequalopportunities.The
humanrightsofwomenandgirlsincluderighttobefreefromharmfultraditionalpractices
suchasforcedmarriage,earlymarriage,andfemalegenitalcutting.
•Anyformofdiscrimination,exclusion,andgender-basedviolencealsoviolatethehuman
rightsofgirlsandwomen.
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180. •Explorethehumanrightstreaties
•TheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(CRC)isahumanrightstreatyapproved
bytheUnitedNationsin1989.TheConventionhas41articlesfocusingonthe
survivalrights,developmentrights,protectionrightsandparticipationrightsof
children.
•ConventionfortheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen
(CEDAW)isalsoahumanrightstreatyendorsedbytheUnitedNationsGeneral
Assemblyin1979.
•Readthetwoconventionsandoutlinesarticlesfocusingonexclusionand
discriminationagainstchildrenandwomen.
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181. •Anthropologyappreciatesculturaldiversityandcommonality.Doyouremember
themeaningofculturalrelativism?Itisoneoftheguidingprinciplesinsocial
anthropology.
•Itisabouttheimportanceofunderstandingthevalues,norms,customsand
practicesofaparticularcultureinitsowncontext.Thisrequiresappreciatingthe
lifestylesofothersincludingtheirdressingstyles,foodhabits,beliefs,ritualsand
celebrations.Italsorequiresavoidingvaluejudgmentssuchassaying‘thiscustom
isbackwardorprimitive’.
•Thisdoesnotmeanthatweneedtoappreciateeverycustomandpractice.
Anthropologistsdonotsupport/appreciateculturalpracticesthatviolatethe
rightsandwellbeingofindividualsandgroups.
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182. •Forexample,anthropologistsdonotsupportthefollowingharmful
practicesinthenameofculturalrelativism:
•Femalegenitalcutting(FGC):AnthropologistsdonotsupportFGCfor
practicalreasons:FGCviolatestherightsofgirlstophysicalintegrity.Ithas
short-andlong-termconsequencesforthehealthofgirlsandwomen.
•Early/childmarriage:Anthropologistsdonotsupportearlymarriagefor
similarreasons:Earlymarriageviolatestherightsofyounggirlstomake
decisionabouttheirfuture.Itdestroystheirchancetoeducation,and
personalandprofessionaldevelopment.Earlymarriagenegativelyaffects
theirphysicalandpsychologicalwellbeing.
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183. Unit Five: Identity, Inter-Ethnic Relations and
Multiculturalism in Ethiopia
Introduction
Ethnicity,race,andnationalityposeoneofthegreatestchallengestothesurvivalof
humankindinthe21stc,fortheytouchtheverycoreofthesocialfabric(thebasicstructureof
something),personalidentityandindividuality;theyinfluencehowwethinkofothersand
ourselves;theyplayaroleinourmorality(morals,principles)andpoliticalbehavior;andthey
affectoureverydayexistenceinsignificantways.
Indeed,theyseemtoaffectmostthingswedoandthink,fromthemostmundane(ordinary,
routine)waysinwhichwebehavetothedearest(highlyvalued)beliefsweholdabout
ourselvesandothers.Suchidentitieshaveasmuchpolitical,sociologicalandeconomicsalience
(veryimportantornoticeable)astheyeverhad.
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184. Identity,EthnicityandRace:IdentificationandSocialCategorization
❖Allanimalsrecognizedifferencesbetween“self”and“other”.
❖Inhumansocieties,thesedifferencestakeonenormoussignificance,
partlybecausehumansaresoindividualistic-ratherthanbeingclone-like
automatons(machines),humanshaveindividualpersonalities.
❖So,Societyvalidatesthatindividualismbygivinginfantsuniquenames.
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185. ❖Thenotionofidentityappliestotheentireuniverseofcreatures,thingsand
substancesaswellashumanbeings.
❖Identityiswhatidentifiessomebodyorsomething.
❖Itisthenameoressentialcharacterthatidentifiessomebodyorsomething.
✓ThetermidentityissaidtocomefromtheLatinword‘Identitas’,meaningthe
same.
✓‘Identity’involvestwocriteriaofcomparisonbetweenpersonsorthings;
Thesearesimilarityanddifference
✓Thebasicprincipleofidentityisconnectedwithsimilarityanddifference
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186. Identityinvolvestwocriteriaofcomparisonbetweenpersonsorthings.
1.Classifyingthingsoraperson(whiteboard,adog,blackman,etc.)
2.Associatingoneselfwithsomeoneelse(religion,ethnicity,sexetc.)
❖Basically,identityishowindividualsorgroupsdefinethemselvesandhow
otherindividualsorgroupsseeanddefinethem.
❖Allhumanidentitiesareknownassocialidentities.
❖Sociologically-identityisthewaysinwhichindividualsandcollectivitiesare
distinguishedintheirrelationswithotherindividualsandcollectivities.
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187. ❖Howdoyouthinkidentityisformed?
oIdentityisformedthroughthesocializationprocessandtheinfluenceof
socialinstitutionorsocializingagentsincludingthefamily,theeducation
systemandthemassmedia.
➢Theindividualisnotfreetoadoptorchooseanyidentitytheylike,and
factorsliketheirsocialclass,theirethnicgroupandtheirsexarelikelyto
influencehowothersseethem.
Fore.g.Aspectslikesocialclass,ethnicgroup,sexisidentifiedbyhow
othersseetheindividual.
•Theidentityofindividualsandgroupsinvolvebothelementsofpersonal
choiceandtheresponsesandattitudesofothers.
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188. ❑Identityisourunderstandingofwhoweareandwhootherpeopleareand
viseversa.Itisnotfixedratheranegotiableaspect.
❑Socialidentity:referstothoseaspectsofapersonthataredefinedin
termsofhis/hergroupmemberships.Althoughmostpeoplearemembers
ofmanydifferentgroups,onlysomeofthosegroupsaremeaningfulin
termsofhowwedefineourselves.
-Ourselfdefinitionissharedwithotherpeoplewhoalsoclaimthat
categoricalmembership.E.gasaman,asaMuslim,asateacheretc…
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189. ❖Membersofagivensocialgroupwhoidentifythemselvesusuallysharemostfeatures
associatedwiththewholegroup.
•Toshareasocialidentitywithothersdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatweknowor
interactwitheveryothermemberofthedesignatedcategory.
•Itdoesmean,however,thatwebelievethatwesharenumerousfeatureswithother
membersofthecategoryandthat,tosomedegree,eventsthatarerelevanttothe
groupasawholealsohavesignificancefortheindividualmember.
❑Socialidentificationistheprocessbywhichwedefineorlabelourselvesintermsand
categoriesthatwesharewithotherpeople;notourpersonalidentity.
Fore.g.religious(beingaChristian),political(beingarepublican)ethnic,etc…
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190. •Brubaker(2004),inculcate/teach/thatidentitymoregenerallyisnotreal,
either,inthesensethatitisnota‘thing’thatpeoplecanbesaidtohave
ortobe.Instead,weshouldtalkaboutongoingandopen-ended
processesofidentification.
•Bythislogic,identitydoesnotimpel(coerce)peopletodoanything;itis,
rather,peoplewhoengageinidentification.
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191. The concept of Ethnicity
•TheEnglishoriginoftheterm‘ethnicity’isconnectedtotheterm
“ethnic,”–whichisderivedfromtheGreekterm‘ethnos’whichinturn,
derivedfromtheLatinword‘ethnikos’,whichliterallymeans“agroupof
peopleboundtogetherbythesamemanners,customsorotherdistinctive
features”(Vanderwerfetal.,2009).
•InancientGreek,thetermreferstoacollectivityofhumanslivedand
actedtogether.
•AncientGreekswereusingtheterm‘ethnos’torefertonon-Hellenic,
peoplewhoarenon-Greekandconsideredassecond-classpeoples.
•Likewise,inearlyEngland,itusedtorefertosomeonewhowasneither
ChristiannorJewish(torefertoheathenorpagan).
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192. •Initsmodernsense,itwasonlyaftertheendofWorldWarIIthatthetermwidely
adoptedandbeginstouse.
•BeforeWorldWarII,whiletheterm“tribe”wasthetermofchoicefor“pre-modern”
societiesandtheterm“race”wasusedtorefermodernsocieties(Jenkins,2001).
•Duetothecloselinkbetweentheterm“race”andNaziideology,afterthe
endofIIWW,theterm“ethnic”graduallyreplaced“race”withinboththe
NorthAmericantraditionandtheEuropeantradition.
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193. •Noneofthefoundingfathersofanthropologyandsociology-withthepartial
exceptionofMaxWebergrantedethnicitymuchattention.MaxWeber,inhis
workentitled“EconomyandSociety”,firstpublishedin1922(1978:385-98),
providedtheearlyandinfluentialsociologicalconceptionsofethnicityand
ethnicgroup.
•AccordingtoWeber,an“ethnicgroup”isbasedonthebeliefincommon
descentsharedbyitsmembers,extendingbeyondkinship,politicalsolidarity,
andcommoncustoms,language,religion,values,morality,andetiquette
(manner).
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194. •ForMaxWeber,anethnicgroupisbased,onthebeliefincommondescentsharedbyits
membersbecauseofsimilaritiesorphysicaltypeorofcustomsorboth,orbecauseof
memoriesofcolonization&migration.And“itdoesnotmatterwhetherornotanobjective
bloodrelationshipexists”,butbelievedtoexist.
•AftertheendWWII(1945),racialcategorizationwasdroppedbysocialscientists.Sincerace
impliesfalsebiologicalcategorizationandinequality,theconceptofethnicityrose.
•Theterm“ethnicity”isrelativelynew,firstappearingintheOxfordEnglishDictionaryin
1953.
•Thirty-fiveofthethirty-sevenmajorarmedconflictsintheworldin1991wereinternal
conflicts,andmostofthem-fromSriLankatoNorthernIreland-couldplausiblybe
describedasethnicconflicts.
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195. •Duringthe1980sandearly1990s,wehavewitnessedanexplosioninthegrowthof
scholarlypublicationsonethnicity,ethnicphenomenonandnationalismacross
differentdisciplines,withinsocialsciences
•TheconceptofEthnicityispurelysocialinmeaning.Itreferstothecultural
practicesofagivencommunityofpeoplethatsetthemapartfromothers.
•Membersofanethnicgroupseethemselvesasculturallydistinctfromothergroups
inasociety.
•Distinguishingcharacteristicsofanethnicgroupincludelanguage,history,religion
andstyleofdress.
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196. •TheNorthAmericantraditionadopted‘ethnic’asasubstituteforminoritygroups
withinalargersocietyofthenation-state(referringtotheJews,Italians,Irishand
otherpeopleconsideredinferiortothedominantgroupoflargelyBritishdescent).
•TheEuropeantraditionregularlyopted(chose)touse‘ethnicgroup’asasynonym
fornationhood(thestateofbeinganindependentnation),definedhistoricallyby
descentorterritory(Vanderwerfetal.,2009:5).
•Furthermore,thecollapseofthecolonialworldinthe1950sand1960shas
broughtevenmoreconfusiononquestionsof‘race’,‘culture’and‘ethnicity’.The
homelandsofformerEuropeancolonizershavebecomepopulatedwithnew,post-
colonialimmigrants,whoarevisiblydifferent.
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197. •Whatisobviousfromthisshorthistoryofthetermisthefactthat
‘ethnicity’containsamultiplicityofmeanings.Suchaplasticity(flexibility)
andambiguityoftheconceptallowsfordeepmisunderstandingsaswell
aspoliticalmisuses.
•Ethnicityis“vague,elusiveandexpansive”(Eller,1999).
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198. •Inspiteofthedifferenceinscholarlyviewsofethnicityamong
anthropologists,the'basicsocialanthropologicalmodelofethnicity'can
besummarizedasfollows:
•Ethnicityisamatterofculturaldifferentiation-although,toreiterate
themainthemeofsocialidentity(Jenkins2004),identificationalways
involvesadialecticalinterplaybetweensimilarityanddifference.
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199. •Ethnicityiscentrallyamatterofsharedmeanings-whatwe
conventionallycall'culture'-butisalsoproducedandreproduced
duringinteraction.
•Ethnicityisnomorefixedorunchangingthanthewayoflifeofwhichit
isanaspect,orthesituationsinwhichitisproducedandreproduced.
•Ethnicity,asidentification,iscollectiveandindividual,externalizedin
socialinteractionandthecategorizationofothers,andinternalizedin
personalself-identification.
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200. Ethnic Group
❖Byconsideringthevariousdefinitionsprovidedtodefineethnicity,HutchinsonandSmith’s(1996)
identifiedsixmainfeaturesthatthedefinitionofanethnicgroup,predominantlyconsists.
Thisincludes;
1.Acommonpropername,toidentifyandexpressthe“essence”ofthecommunity;
2.Amythofcommonancestrythatincludestheideaofcommonoriginintimeandplaceand
thatgivesanethnicgroupasenseoffictive/assumed/kinship;
3.Sharedhistoricalmemories,orbetter,sharedmemoriesofacommonpastorpasts,including
heroes,events,andtheircommemoration;
4.Oneormoreelementsofcommonculture,whichneednotbespecifiedbutnormally,include
religion,customs,andlanguage;
5.Alinkwithahomeland,notnecessarilyitsphysicaloccupationbytheethnicgroup,onlyits
symbolicattachmenttotheancestralland,aswithdiasporapeoples;and
6.Asenseofsolidarityonthepartofatleastsomesectionsoftheethnic’spopulation
(HutchinsonandSmith,1996:6-7).
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201. Ethnic Identity
•Ethnicidentityisanaffiliativeconstruct,whereanindividualisviewedby
themselvesandbyothersasbelongingtoaparticularethnicorculturalgroup.
•Ontheindividuallevel,ethnicityisasocial-psychologicalprocess,whichgivesan
individualasenseofbelongingandidentity.
•Locatingoneselfinrelationtoacommunityandsocietyisnotonlyapsychological
phenomenon,butalsoasocialphenomenoninthesensethattheinternal
psychologicalstatesexpressthemselvesobjectivelyinexternalbehaviourpatterns
thatcometobesharedbyothers.
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202. External and Internal Ethnic Identity
•Externalaspectsrefertoobservablebehaviorsofbothculturalandsocial
Suchas-
✓Speakinganethniclanguage
✓Practicingethnictraditions
✓Beingengagedinethnicinstitutionalorganizations(church,media,
politics)
✓Participatinginethnicrelatedevents,concerts,publiclectures,
rallies,dances,festivalsetc.
•Internalaspectsofethnicidentityreferstoknowledge,images,ideas,attitudes
andfeelings…..eventhough,theinternalandexternalaresometimes
interconnectedbutnotalways.
•Forexample,latergenerationsmayshowhigherinternalethnicaspectsof
identityratherthantheexternal.
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203. Aspects of Internal Identity
▪We can distinguish at least three types of internal aspects of identity:
1.Cognitive: self-image and image of one’s group
✓Knowledge of one’s group’s heritage and its history
✓Group’s values
2.Moral: involves feelings of group obligations
✓A persons attachment to the group and the group’s implications on that person’s behavior.
(e.g. the importance of teaching the ethnic language to one’s children)
✓Marriage within the group
✓Helping a member of the group in various ways
3. The affective (emotional) dimension:refers to feelings of attachment
to the group.
A.Feelings of security, sympathy/understanding/ and connectedness with
members of one’s group as against members of other groups.
B.Feeling of security and comfort with the cultural patterns of one’s group as
against the cultural patterns of other groups.
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204. The concept of Race
•Theconceptofracewasfirstrelatedtobiologicaldifferencesofhumans.
•JosephArthur(thefatherofmodernracism)proposedthreeraces;white(Caucasian),
black(negroid)andyellow(mongoloid).
•AccordingtoArthur,thewhiteracepossessessuperiorintelligence,moralityandwill-
power.
•Theblacksincontrast,aretheleastcapable,markedbyananimalnature,lackof
moralityandemotionalinstability.
•TheseideaswhereusedbytheNazisandtheBritishcolonizersofsouthAfrica
(apartheid).
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205. •Raceisanelusiveconceptlikeethnicity–usedinavarietyofcontexts
andmeanings;sometimesinterchangeablywithethnicity,wherethe
relationshipbetweenthetwoconceptsremaincomplex.
•Whenfirstappeared,ethnicity/ethnicidentitywasusedinsynonymwith
raceorracialidentity,whichcomplicatedtheirrelation.
•Moreover,theboundarybetweenthetwoconceptsishistorically
variable;whatwas'racial'before1945maybemorepubliclyacceptable
as'ethnic'today.
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206. Racial Classification: A Short Historical Overview
▪Forsometime,itwascommontodividehumanityintofourmainraces,whichrecognizedbothonthe
scientificandfolknotions(traditionalideas)oftheconcept.Inthisregard,racewasusedbothasasystemof
humanclassificationandsocialstratificationasfollows:
•Europeaeus:White;muscular;hair–long,flowing;eyesblue–Acute,inventive,gentle,andgovernedby
laws.
•Americanus:Reddish;erect;hair–black,straight,thick;widenostrils–Obstinate,merry,free,and
regulatedbycustom.
•Asiaticus:Sallow(yellow);hairblack;eyesdark–Haughty,avaricious,severe,andruledbyopinions.
•Africanus:Black;hair–black,frizzled;skinsilky;noseflat;lipstumid–Crafty,indolent,negligent,and
governedbycapriceorthewilloftheirmasters.
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207. •ThefolkNotionsoftheconceptontheotherhand,perceivedraceasanon-overlappingand
distinguishablecategoriesofpeople;whichisfixedand/ornatural(immutable)inits
character.
•These,“folk”and“scientific”notionsofracehowever,begintodivergeintheearly20th
century.Moderngeneticsabandonraceasavariableinbiomedicalresearchandtendsnotto
speakofraces,andthishastwomainreasons:
1.Therehasalwaysbeensomuchinterbreedingbetweenhumanpopulationsthatitwouldbe
meaninglesstotalkoffixedboundariesbetweenraces.
2.Thedistributionofhereditaryphysicaltraitsdoesnotfollowclearboundaries.Inother
words,thereisoftengreatervariationwithina"racial"groupthanthereissystematic
variationbetweentwogroups.
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208. •Biologicallyspeaking,becauseoftheblendingofpeoplefromdifferent
partsoftheworld,thereisnosuchthingasa“pure”race(Shwartz,2001).
Asaresult,useofraceassystemofhumancategorizationlacksscientific
validity(Haga&Venter,Science,2003).
•Geneticstudiesconcerninghumanvariationshowthathumansare>99%
geneticallyalike.Surprisingly,ofthe<1%variation[~85%isfoundwithin
anyhumanpopulationorgroup(suchastown/village/tribalorethnic
group),~10%isbetweenanytwogroups,eventhosethatare
geographicallycloseand~5%isbetweengeographicallydistantgroups
suchastwotowns/villagesfromdifferentcontinents](JMarks,1995).
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209. •Asasocialconstructionofhumancategorization‘Racialgroup’isagroupof
people,definedbyitselforothersasdistinctbyvirtueofperceivedcommon
physicalcharacteristicsthatareheldtobeinherent/inborn/.
•Atthislevel,conceptofracewouldbeimportanttotheextentthatitwill
informpeople'sactions;whereitexistsasaculturalconstruct,whetherithasa
"biological"realityornot.Racism,obviously,buildsontheassumptionthat
personalityissomehowlinkedwithhereditarycharacteristics,whichdiffer
systematicallybetween"races",andinthiswayracemayassumesociological
importanceevenifithasno"objective"existence.
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210. •ScholarslikePierrevandenBerghe(1983)otherthandifferentiatingthe
twoconcepts,regard"race"relationsasaspecialcaseofethnicity.He
describesraceas“aspecialmarkerofethnicity”thatusesbiological
characteristicsasanethnicmarker.
•Inotherwords,‘race’isasocialconstruct,wherephenotypicattributesare
popularlyusedtodenotein-groupsfromout-groups.Sincethereisno
soundbiologicalorsociologicalfoundationforitsuseinananalyticalsense,
oneshouldtreat‘race’asnomorethanaspecialcaseofethnicity.
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211. •Hence,whentheterm‘race’isusedinpopulardiscourse,itcannotrefertoa
‘sub-speciesofHomosapiens’(vandenBerghe,1978)butisappliedonlyasa
socialattribute.Itisviewedasa‘sociallydefinedgroupwhichseesitselfandis
seenbyothersasbeingphenotypicallydifferentfromothersuchgroups.
•Contrarytothis,otherscholarsarguedthatwhilethereismuchoverlapbetween
raceandethnicity,theyaredistinctconceptsandsothattheyneedtobe
distinguished.Inthisregard,MaxWeber(1922),differentiatedbetweenracial
andethnicidentitybyproposingthatabloodrelationshipwasnecessaryfor
racialidentificationbutnotforethnicidentification.
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212. •Inmorespecificterms,GeraldBerreman(1972,1981)provideshisowndistinctionsbetween
ethnicityandrace.Hestatedethnicityislinkedinadichoticrelationshipwithrace.Itis
differentiatedfromraceinthatracialstratificationisassociatedwithbirth-ascribedstatus
basedonphysicalandculturalcharacteristicsdefinedbyoutsidegroups.Ethnicityisalso
ascribedatbirth,buttheethnicgroupnormallydefinesitsculturalcharacteristicsitself.
•Thus,racialcategorizations,whicharedefinedbytheoutsider,arenormallylacedwith
inaccuraciesandstereotypes,whileethnicclassificationisnormallymoreaccurateofacultural
groupbecauseitisdefinedbythegroupitself.Yet,ethnicclassificationscanalsobedefined
andusedbyoutsidegroupstostereotypeanethniccommunityinwaysthatareoften
oversimplifiedandthatviewethnicityasastaticculturalprocess.
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213. •Despitethishowever,somescholars’claimsthattheexternalethnic
boundariesarethesourceofracialdistinctionsandofraceasagroup
phenomenon.Asasocialphenomenon,raceisaresponsetoexternal
categorizationandexclusionandwhateverinternaldynamicsrace
generates,itisalwaysaresponsetoexternalexclusionratherthanto
internalidentity-generatingforces.
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214. Theories of Ethnicity: Primordialism, Instrumentalism
and Social Constructivism
1.Primordialistapproach:Ethnicityisfixedatbirth.Ethnicidentificationis
basedondeep,‘primordial’attachmentstoagrouporculture
•ThePrimordialistapproachistheoldestinanthropologicalliterature.Itwas
popularuntilthemid-1970s.
•Theanthropologist,CliffordGeertz(1973:255-310),whosystematizedthe
primordialmodelarticulatedethnicityasanaturalphenomenonwithits
foundationsinprimordialties-derivingmainlyfromkinship,localityand
culture(Geertz1963).
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215. •Initsgeneralsensethen,itcanbesaidthatethnicityissomethinggiven,ascribedat
birth,derivingfromthekin-and-clan-structureofhumansociety,andhencesomething
moreorlessfixedandpermanent(Geertz,1963;Isaacs,1975;Stack,1986).
•Primordialisttheoriesviewhumansocietyasaconglomerationofdistinct
socialgroups.Atbirthaperson“becomes”amemberofaparticular
group.Ethnicidentificationisbasedondeep,‘primordial’attachmentsto
thatgroup,establishedbykinshipanddescent.One’sethnicityisthus
“fixed”andanunchangeablepartofone’sidentity.
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216. •Primordialismisan“objectivistoressentialisttheory”whichargues,
that“ultimatelythereissomereal,tangible,foundationforethnic
identification.”
•Tosum,Smithconcludedthat,‘primordialism’makestwodistinct
claims.Firstly,ethnicityandethnicattachmentis“naturaland
innate”,whichwouldneverchangeovertime,andsecondly,itis
“ancientandperennial”(Smith,1986).Bythis,ethnicityisan
ascribedstatusandethnicmembershipisfixed,permanentand
primarilyascribedthroughbirth.
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217. 2.Instrumentalist(Situational)TheoryofEthnicity
•Theinstrumentalisttheoristsviewethnicityassituationallydefined,dependingon
rationalcalculationsofadvantageandstimulatedbypoliticalmobilizationunderthe
leadershipofactorswhoseprimarymotivesarenon-ethnic.
•Ethnicityissomethingthatcanbechanged,constructedorevenmanipulatedtogain
specificpoliticaland/oreconomicends.
•Ethnicity,basedonpeople’s“historical”and“symbolic”memory,issomethingcreated
andusedandexploitedbyleadersandothersinthepragmaticpursuitoftheirown
interests.
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218. •Banks(1996)explainedtheinstrumentalistunderstandingsofethnicityasan
instrumentofgroupmobilizationforpoliticalandeconomicends(Banks,1996:
40).Bythis,ethnicityissomethingthatcanbechanged,constructedoreven
manipulatedtogainspecificpoliticaland/oreconomicends.
•Proponentsofthisperspective(e.g.,AbnerCohen,PaulBrassandTedGurr)
advocatethatinthecontextsofmodernstates,leaders(politicalelites)useand
manipulateperceptionsofethnicidentitytofurthertheirownendsandstayin
power.Inthisregard,ethnicityiscreatedinthedynamicsofelitecompetition
withintheboundariesdeterminedbypoliticalandeconomicrealities”andethnic
groupsaretobeseenasaproductofpoliticalmyths,createdandmanipulatedby
cultureelitesintheirpursuitofadvantagesandpower.
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219. ▪AbnerCohen(1974),oneoftheleadingadvocatorsofthisperspective,incontrast
toBarth,“placed[a]greateremphasisontheethnicgroupasacollectively
organizedstrategyfortheprotectionofeconomicandpoliticalinterests”(Jones
1997:74).Ethnicgroupssharecommoninterests,andinpursuitoftheseinterests
theydevelop“basicorganizationalfunctions:suchasdistinctivenessor
boundaries(ethnicidentity);communication;authoritystructure;decisionmaking
procedure;ideology;andsocialization”(Cohen1974:xvi–xvii).
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220. ▪Accordingly,DanielBell(1975)andJeffreyRoss(1982)emphasizethepolitical
advantageofethnicmembershipchoice.Hence,ethnicityis"agroupoptionin
whichresourcesaremobilizedforthepurposeofpressuringthepoliticalsystem
toallocatepublicgoodsforthebenefitofthemembersofaself-differentiating
collectivity"(Ross,1982).
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221. 3.SocialConstructivistTheoryofEthnicity
•Ethnicidentityisnotsomethingpeople“possess”butsomethingthey
“construct”inspecificsocialandhistoricalcontextstofurthertheirown
interests.Itisthereforefluidandsubjective.
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222. •Thebasicnotioninthisapproachisthatethnicityissomethingthatis
beingnegotiatedandconstructedineverydayliving.Itregardsethnicity
asaprocess,whichcontinuestounfold.
•Ithasmuchtodowiththeexigencies(needs)ofeverydaysurvival
(ethnicityisconstructedintheprocessoffeeding,clothing,sendingto
schoolandconversingwithchildrenandothers).
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223. •Perhapsthemostinterestingaspectofthisapproachisitssubjectivist
stance,whichseesethnicityasbasicallyasocial-psychologicalrealityora
matterofperceptionof"us"and"them"incontradistinctiontolookingat
itassomethinggiven,whichexistsobjectivelyasitwere"outthere".
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224. •F.Barthistheleadingfigureofthisapproach.Barthviewedethnic
identityasan“individualisticstrategy”inwhichindividualsmove
fromoneidentitytoanotherto“advancetheirpersonaleconomic
andpoliticalinterests,ortominimizetheirlosses”(Jones1997:74).
FollowingBarth,ethnicidentityformsthroughboundary
maintenanceandinteractionbetweenindividuals.Dependingoneach
socialinteraction,aperson’sethnicidentitycanbeperceivedor
presentedinvariousways.
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225. Summary
•Ethnicityhasgotawidespreadmainstreamuseinendof20thc.
•Itisemployedtodescribeanexpandingrangeofsocialandpoliticalconcerns.
•Aswehaveseenasthetermhasgainedpopularity,sohaveitsmeaningsshifted.
•MostsocialscientistsfromWebertoBarthagreedtodaythatethnicityisa
constructed,artificialcategorythecharacteristicsandboundariesofwhichhave
beenrenegotiated,redefinedovertheyearstosuitdifferentcontextsand
objectives.
•Therealsoseemsaconfusionbetweenraceandethnicity.
•Mostpeopleseemtoconsiderraceasabiologicalconstructfundamentally
explainedintermsofphenotypicalexpressions.
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226. •Primordialismholdsthatethnicityhasexistedatalltimesofhumanhistoryand
thatmodernethnicgroupshavehistoricalrootsfarintothepastwithan
understandingofhumanityasbeingdividedintoprimordiallyexistinggroups
rootedbykinshipandbiologicalheritage.
•Instrumentalismisaperspectivetowardsethnicitythatseesethnicclassification
asamechanismofsocialstratificationorasthebasisforasocialhierarchy.
•Constructivismseestheprimordialistviewsasbasicallyflawed(faulty),andholds
thatethnicgroupsareonlyproductsofhumansocialinteraction,maintainedonly
insofarastheyaremaintainedasvalidsocialconstructsinsocieties.
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