APPLIED SCIENCE I, FDP 103 for university students

Science

1. APPLIED SCIENCE I, FDP 103 MODULE OBJECTIVES (a)Understand the relevance of science to the programme (b). Understand the fundamentals of science and define basic terminologies, Periodic Table and Chemical Bonding (c)State the S.I units of physical quantities and define them.

2. MODULE OBJECTIVES (d) Explain the differences between plant and animal cells . (e) Understand the origin and chemical composition of wood.

3. MODULE OBJECTIVES - CONTINUES (f) Apply the knowledge of polymer chemistry (Monomers and Polymers) to understand the build-up of wood for interior works. ( g ) Explain the effect of moisture on wood as a material (h) Write the effects of heat and temperature on wood and apply it to wood usage. ( i ) Understand the Basics of Organic Chemistry.

4. OBJECTIVE a). DEFINITIONS OF BASIC TERMINOLOGIES : Atoms are smallest particles of matter with sub-particles namely protons, neutrons in the core and electrons surrounding the core in their respective shells . Protons – They are sub-particles of the atom and is positively charged, located at the nucleus and has mass. Neutrons – They are sub-particles of the atom and has no charge, located at the nucleus . They have mass. Electrons : These are negatively charged sub-particles of the atom, which have negligible mass and are found in the surrounding orbitals; they are held to the nucleus by an electrostatic attraction.

5. OBJECTIVE a). ---- Illustration of the structures of atoms of the various elements: EXERCISE : (a). Explain why Sodium as an element is very reactive but Neon is not ? (b). Illustrate the reaction that takes place between Na and Florine ( c ). Why is the Periodic Table so named?

6. OBJECTIVE a). Continues Nucleons - They are sub-particles in the core/ nucleus of the atom i.e both protons and neutrons in the core of the atom. Mass Number : This is the sum total of the nucleons in the core of the atom ; or the sum of the protons and neutrons in the core of the atom. Atomic Number : This is equal the number of protons in the atom. Ions : These are atoms that have either gained or lost electrons. An atom loses electron(s) to become a positive ion or CATION , and gain electron(s) to become a negative ion or ANION. Electronegativity describes the tendency of an atom to gain an electron.

7. OBJECTIVE a). Continues ISOTOPE : Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers. Eg . Carbon – 14 ; Carbon-12 :- All have same number of protons but different number of neutrons. Element : An element is a pure substance consisting only of atoms that all have the same numbers of protons in their atomic nuclei. Note that chemical elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means. Molecule : Is a group of two or more atoms that form the smallest identifiable unit into which a pure substance can be divided and still retain the composition and chemical properties of that substance. Eg . O 2 ( homonuclear ) ; H 2 O ( heteronuclear).

8. MORE ABOUT ELEMENTS Elements are classified as metals, non-metals and semi-metals Elements which are metals are found on the left hand side and the middle of the periodic table. Elements which are non-metals are found on the right hand side of the periodic table. Semi-metals are elements whose properties are intermediate between metals and non-metals; and occupy the region between metals and non-metals on the periodic table. CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS and MIXTURES are not metals or non-metals.

9. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METAL ( ON THE PERIOIC TABLE). Non-metals are generally unreactive They may react with oxygen in air, dilute acids, dilute alkalis, and water at higher temperatures.

10. OBJECTIVE a). Continues THE PERIODIC TABLE : Why is it so named? It is so named because it is the arrangement of elements in increasing order of atomic number ; those found along the horizontal row fall into the same period whilst those that fall within a vertical column fall into a group and share similar chemical properties . The periodic table contains valuable information about specific elements and can also help identify trends in atomic size, melting point, chemical reactivity, and other properties. ASSIGNMENT : Draw the periodic table showing the first 20 elements.

11. OBJECTIVE a). Continues CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS & SOLUTIONS : Chemical Compounds - It is a chemical substance composed of many identical molecules composed of atoms from more than one element held together by chemical bonds. N.B based on this a molecule consisting of only one element is not a compound. Eg . Of Compounds- Water, Hydrogen Peroxide ( H 2 O 2 ), Sodium Chloride, Baking Soda and Octane ( C 8 H 18 ). SOLUTION : Solutions are homogenous mixtures ; particles of one substance ( the solute) are mixed together with the particles of another substance ( the solvent) – NaCl in water. NaCl is solute, water as solvent.

12. ATOMIC BONDING ( CHEMICAL BONDING) : A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds. NB. VALENCE – The valence of an atom is the number of electrons in an atom that participate in bonding or chemical reaction. If an atom has a valence of zero, the element is INERT / NOBLE GAS ( non-reactive) eg . Argon which has the electronic structure - 2,8.8

13. TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING : 2 main types ; PRIMARY and SECONDARY PRIMARY BONDS : They are relatively strong bonds between adjacent atoms resulting from the transfer or sharing of outer orbital electrons. These include IONIC, COVALENT and METALLIC BONDS. SECONDARY BONDS : This type of bonding is inter-molecular, and results from molecules or atoms in which there is either an induced or permanent dipole-dipole attraction with each other. Eg . HYDROGEN BONDING and van der Waals Forces

14. PRIMARY BONDS – 1.//IONIC BONDING A chemical bond is a force that holds ions, molecules or atoms together. A bond is formed so that each atom acquires a stable electronic configuration similar to that of a noble gas. IONIC COMPOUNDS are formed by the attraction of positive and negative ions. An electrostatic force of attraction between the positive and negative ions provides the binding force that holds the ions chemically together. The electrostatic binding force is called an IONIC BOND or ELECTROVALENT BOND. The formation of ions Na ― Na + + e- Cl + e- ― Cl - The overall reaction equation Na + Cl ― NaCl

15. IONIC BONDING PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS : They are hard, crystalline, brittle solid; conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution. They have high melting and boiling points, high heats of fusion and vapourisation ; some are soluble in water

16. - 2.//COVALENT BONDING A covalent bonding is formed when a covalent bond forms between two or more atoms of non-metals that are unable to form stable ions by gaining or losing electron(s). These atoms achieve a stable configuration similar to the NOBLE GASES, by sharing one or more pairs of electrons. Unlike ionic compounds, which contain aggregates of ions, covalent compounds are made up of molecules ; they are molecular substances, with low boiling and melting points; low heats of fusion & vaporization.

17. COVALENT BONDING PROPERTIES : Some are gases or liquids at room temperature; many do not conduct electricity either in the molten state or aqueous solution. Many are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. A covalent bond formed between two atoms is sometimes shown as a short line drawn between the symbols of the atoms : H―H and Cl―Cl. In an oxygen molecule, O 2 , each atom donates two electrons to form two covalent bonds. This is shown as two lines, O=O . In nitrogen molecule, N 2 , triple covalent bonds are found : N≡N EXERCISE : State FIVE differences between covalent and ionic Compounds.

18. - 3.//METALLIC BONDS Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises from the electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons and positively charged metal ions. It may be described as the sharing of free electrons among a structure of positively charged ions. Metallic bonding loosely bound and mobile electrons surround the positive nuclei of metal atoms. Metallic bonding is responsible for many physical properties of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, thermal and electrical conductivity, opacity, and luster.

19. METALLIC BONDING

20. ASSIGNMENT I (a). Sodium Chloride, water, Nitrogen, Sodium, Hydogen Sulphide , Iron (II) Sulphide , Silicon, Chlorine. Which of the above substances are made up of ( i ) ions (ii) atoms (iii) Molecules ( 8 mks ). (b). Naphthalene ( mothballs) sublimes at room temperature. What type of chemical bonding is it exhibiting? (2mks). (c). What type of bonding results if - i . Carbon combines with oxygen ( 1mk) -ii. H combines with S ( 1mk) - iii. Cu combines with oxygen. ( 1mk).

21. ASSIGNMENT (a). ( i ). State and explain the nature of the THREE types of the primary bonds .(12mks ) (ii). What are the differences between Hydrogen Bonds and the van der Waals Forces . ( 8 Mks ).

22. SECONDARY BONDS – i // HYDROGEN BONDING H-bond is as a result of dipole-dipole interaction between a partially positive H-ion ( H d+ ) of one H 2 O molecule and partially negative O-ion (O d- ) of another H 2 O molecule; it is therefore an INTER-MOLECULAR BOND ; is observed in drying wood which leads to increased Strength Properties; it is a weak force, however it is stronger than the van der Waals Forces. The relatively strong H-bonding between water molecules is that which make water have surface tension and boiling points higher than those of many organic liquids of comparable molecular weight. Heating water to boiling points breaks this inter-molecular H-Bonds.

23. SECONDARY BONDS – van der Waals BONDS van der Waals Forces is as a result of dipole-dipole interaction between a partially positive ( d+ ) portion of a molecule and partially negative ( d- ) of another molecule in close proximity; even though weak, it ensures the binding/holding contact glue surfaces; it is comparatively a weaker force to the H- Bond . These forces can dramatically change the properties of certain materials. Eg . Graphite and diamond have very different mechanical properties as a result of this.

24. OBJ. 2 – SOME S. I UNITS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES TERM UNIT DEFINITION Force Newton (N) and is the force which when applied to a mass of 1Kg gives it an acceleration of 1m/ sec 2 Power Watts (W ) it is the work done when a force of 1N moves through a distance of 1m for a given time of 1 second. Weight Newton ( N) ( SAME AS Force above ) Work Joules (J) defined as the work done when a force of 1N moves through a distance 1m.

25. TERM UNIT DEFINITION Electric current Ampere (A) A current of one ampere means one coulomb of electrical charge flows each second. Temperature Kelvin ( K) ; Degree Celsius ( C) Volume Length Cubic Centimetre (cm 3 ) Metre

26. COMPARISM BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

27. COMPARISM BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

28. COMPARISM BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS ORGANNELS THEY SHARE IN COMMON : Nucleus : Contains the genetic materials and also controls all activities in the cell. Cytoplasm : The medium in which the cell contents are suspended. Cytoskeleton : The structural framework of the cell and serves as the scaffold that determines the cell shape and the general organization of the cytoplasm. Cell membrane ( Plasma membrane) : A semipermeable membrane that controls movement of substances in and out of the cell.

29. COMMON ORGANELLES Mitochondrion : The organelle in which respiration takes place. Known as the POWER HOUSE. Lysosomes : The organelles that contain digestive enzymes, and are responsible for breaking down excess or worn-out cell parts. They take care of invading bacteria and viruses into the cell. Also known as the SUICIDE BAG. Endoplasmic Reticulum ( ER): Both the Smooth ER and Rough ER serve as transport pathways for materials inside and outside the cell. The rough ER serves as a platform that supports the RIBOSOMES. It also transport the PROTEINS produced by the ribosomes. Golgi Bodies ( Golgi Apparatus) : The golgi bodies are responsible for the production and repair of the cell membrane.

30. COMMON ORGANELLES Nucleus : This is what controls all the cellular activities. It contains the CHROMOSOMES and NUCLEOLUS. Chromosomes contain genes which are responsible for inheritance of characters from parents. Nucleolus manufactures the RIBOSOMES. RIBOSOMES : They are composed of RNA and PROTEIN. They are the sites of protein synthesis.

31. NON – COMMON ORGANELLES CENTRIOLES : Small, rod-like structures found in pairs near the nuclear membrane of most ANIMAL cells. They separate and move to opposite poles at early stages of cell division and are believed to be responsible for the formation of spindle fibres . VACUOLES : Fluid filled spaces in the cytoplasm bounded by a single membrane- TONOPLAST. Plant cells have LARGE PERMANENT ones whilst Animal cells have SMALLER TEMPORARY ones. CHLOROPLAST : They are found only in green parts of PLANTS. They contain the green pigment CHLOROPHYLL. CELLULOSE CELL WALL : A structure surrounding the cell membrane.

32. SUMMARY OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMAL CELLS S/N ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL 1 Does not have shape Has definite shape 2 No Cellulose cell wall outside the cell membrane cellulose cell wall present 3 Small temporary vacuole present Contain Large permanent vacuoles 4 No chloroplasts neither chlorophyll Possess chloroplasts, therefore chlorophyll 5 Store glycogen as carbohydrate food reserve. Store starch as carbohydrate food reserve

33. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF CELLS IN LIVING ORGANISMS Group of cells that are specialized to perform the same function is called a TISSUE. An ORGAN is a group of different tissues which perform the same function or functions. Two or more organs working together to perform a specific function form an ORGAN SYSTEM. Organ systems are co-ordinated or work together in such a way that a LIVING ORGANISM is formed.

34. WOOD ; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION MAJOR CONSTITUENTS : Lignin may be used as raw material for chemicals such as vanillin; environmentally sustainable dust suppression agent for roads; used as fuel as it yields more energy when burnt; source of carbon sequestration. Cellulose is used in the production of paper and pulp ; hydrolysed to make glucose and sucrose; useful in the production of cellulose-acetate; useful in the production of cloth, film, explosives and plastic products. Hemi-cellulose is hydrolysed to simple sugars; used in the production of furfurals MINOR CONSTITUENTS : Extractives such as- resins and oils, phenolics , tannins- are toxic to wood pest; tannins are used in the dyeing industry; terpenes are used in producing turpentine; gums used in producing adhesives. Starch attract fungi attack( negative importance). Silica in wood blunt knives, but may improve the value for measurement of Hardness; Potassium in ash serve as fertilizer/ plant nutrient

35. MONOMERS AND POLYMERS Monomers and Polymers: Monomers are smaller units of a large molecule/ macro-molecule; the latter is formed as a result of linkages between the former. Eg . Ethene . whilst a Polymer is formed when a large number of monomers are linked together, usually by the condensation process, over and over again in a long chain , eg . Polyethene . POLYMERISATION : 2 METHODS - - Addition reactions & Condensation : Water molecule ( H 2 O) is given out in condensation polymersation , whilst no product is given out in the addition polymerization.

36. ADHESIVES Substances that are used to stick materials together. Adhesives such as white glue, animal glues, polyurethanes, urethanes, acrylics, cyanoacrylates and epoxies are commonly used Some adhesives such as epoxies, cyanoacrylates, urethanes, acrylics can carry significant stresses and are also recommendable for exterior use.

37. FINISHES Finishing Materials are the most visible and, making good decisions on such finish materials can make critical difference to the satisfaction of the customer. The selected finish plays a key role for the intended use, as well as providing the structural support and prep work the materials require for good performance. Examples of finishing materials for furniture include paint , plastic laminates, vanishes and lacquer

38. TYPES OF PLASTICS THERMOSETTING PLASTICS THERMOPLASTIC PLASTICS Unique properties of plastics ; -Despite being lighter, are surprisingly strong having high strength to weight ratios comparable to that of wood and even metals. -They are stable and do not move and therefore drawer rails are often preferred to be in plastics than wood. -Furniture made of thermosetting plastics could withstand higher temperatures -Plastics are very attractive engineering materials -They do not rust even when close to the marine environment. -Plastics can take many fanciful colours that adds to their attraction.

39. 2 TYPES OF PLASTICS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THERMOSETTING THERMOPLASTICS -Plastics which when heated and is set cannot be melted again . -Chemically -unreactive once set.; hence not recyclable . Eg.Polyimides . Melamine resin, epoxy resin, acrylics, polyurethanes. -Plastics which can be heated and set can be re-heated again and again. -They are chemically reactive after setting Eg . Polyethylene, Polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, nylon, polystyrene

40. APPLIED MECHANICS – STATICS : EQUATIONS OF MOTION : In physics, equations of motion are equations that describe the behavior of a physical system in terms of its motion as a function of time. More specifically, the equations of motion describe the behavior of a physical system as a set of mathematical functions in terms of dynamic variables : The three equations are :   v = u + at .   v² = u² + 2as .  s = ut + ½ at² Where v is final velocity; u is initial velocity; a is acceleration; s is distance and t is time.

41. EQUATIONS OF MOTION - CONTINUES A body starts from rest accelerate to a velocity of 20 m/s in a time of 10 s. Determine the acceleration of the body. Solution : Here, Final velocity v = 20m/s; u = 0 and t= 10s Hence using v = u + at 20 = 0 + 10a a = 20/10 = 2m/s₂

42. APPLIED MECHANICS - STATICS Newton's First Law When more than one force acts upon an object, the vector sum of these forces is the resultant force. When the resultant force on an object is zero, it will remain at rest if it is at rest, or continue to move in a straight line at a constant velocity if it is in motion . i.e an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force .

43. LAWS OF MOTION NEWTON’S SECOND LAW is usually succinctly stated with the familiar equation: F=ma where  F is net force, m is mass, and a is acceleration . This equation indicates that a force will cause an object to accelerate in the direction of the net force, and the magnitude of the acceleration will be proportional to the net force but inversely proportional to the mass of the object . NEWTON’S 3 RD LAW : For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Newton’s Third Law states For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

44. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY HYDROCARBONS Aliphatic compounds  are composed of straight-chained, branched, or cyclic  compounds  and can be saturated (alkanes) or unsaturated (alkenes, alkynes, and others), whereas  aromatic compounds  have one or more conjugated, benzene or heterocyclic rings within their structures. ... Examples of  aliphatic  and  aromatic compounds Aliphatic hydrocarbons are divided into three main groups according to the types of bonds they contain:  alkanes ,  alkenes , and alkynes .  Alkanes  have only single bonds,  alkenes  contain a carbon-carbon  double bond , and alkynes contain a carbon-carbon triple bond.

45. EXPLANATIONS 2,4 H ӏ H- C –H SINGLE BONDS ------ALKANES (SATURATED) C n H 2n +2 ӏ - Methane CH 4 ; ETHANE (2C); PROPANE (3C); BUTANE (4C); PENTANE (5C) H H H ӏ ӏ H-C= C -H DOUBLE BOND – ALKENES ( UNSATURATED) ; ETHENE (2C); PROPENE (3C), BUTENE (4C), PENTENE(5C) FORMULA C n H 2n -C Ξ C - TRIPLE BOND - ALKYNES ( UNSATURATED) : FORMULA C n H 2n - 2 This makes so Carbon versatile as it has the tendencies MULTIPLE BONDS

46. ALKANES H H ӏ ӏ H- C – C -H SINGLE BONDS ------ALKANES (SATURATED) ӏ ӏ Ethane – C 2 H 6 FORMULA : C n H 2n+2 H H C 3 H 8 - PROPANE - C 4 H 10 - BUTANE

47. ALKENES H H ӏ ӏ H-C= C -H DOUBLE BOND – ALKENES ( UNSATURATED) ; ETHENE (2C); PROPENE (3C), BUTENE (4C), PENTENE(5C) FORMULA : C n H 2n

48. ALKYNES -C Ξ C - TRIPLE BOND - ALKYNES ( UNSATURATED) : FORMULA C n H 2n - 2 FOR ETHYNE C 2 H 2 H-C Ξ C – H PROPYNE (3C); BUTHYNE (4C); PENTYNE (5C); HEXYNE (6C) - C 3 H 4 Why are Alkynes so reactive than Alkanes ? This makes so Carbon versatile as it has the tendencies MULTIPLE BONDS

49. EXAMPLES OF HYDROCARBONS

50. CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS A  cyclic hydrocarbon  is a hydrocarbon in which the carbon chain joins to itself in a ring. A  cycloalkane  is a cyclic hydrocarbon in which all of the carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. Like other alkanes, cycloalkanes are saturated compounds. Cycloalkanes have the general formula  C n H 2n . The simplest cycloalkane shown below is cyclopropane, a three-carbon ring. H H C H H C C H H CYCLOPROPANE

51. CYCLIC ALIPHATIC COMPOUNDS - REACTIONS CH 2 H 2 C CH 2 + Br 2 CH 2 H 2 C CH 2 + HBr Cyclopentane H 2 C CH--Br H 2 C CH 2 Bromocyclopentane

52. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS Aromatic compounds are benzene and compounds that resemble benzene in chemical behavior. Aromatic compounds are less reactive than alkenes, making them useful industrial solvents for nonpolar compounds. Aromatic compounds are produced from petroleum and coal tar. Aromatic properties are those properties of benzene that distinguish it from aliphatic hydrocarbons. The benzene ring is a ring of a special kind. Benzene has the molecular formula C 6 H 6

53. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS Aromatic compounds, originally named because of their fragrant properties, are unsaturated hydrocarbon ring structures that exhibit special properties, including unusual stability, due to their aromaticity. They are often represented as resonance structures containing single and double bonds. However, the bonding is stronger than expected for a conjugated structure, and it is more accurately depicted as delocalized electron density shared between all the atoms in the ring .

54. BENZENE RING RESONANCE

55. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS Physical Properties of Aromatic Compounds - Aromatic compounds are generally nonpolar and immiscible with water. As they are often unreactive, they are useful as solvents for other nonpolar compounds. Due to their high ratio of carbon to hydrogen, aromatic compounds are characterized by a sooty yellow flame Reactivity of Aromatic Compounds - The double bonds in aromatic compounds are less likely to participate in addition reactions than those found in typical alkenes. Instead, cyclic aromatic compounds undergo electrophilic substitution reactions (reactions in which the ring acts as an nucleophile to a suitable electrophile). When benzene participates in such substitution reactions, the product retains the stability associated with the aromatic [latex]\pi[/latex] electron system. This stability is lost in electrophilic addition because the product is  not  aromatic .

56. REACTIONS OF BENZENE Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution The electron-rich benzene makes a bond with an electron-deficient chemical species (E + , the electrophile) which takes the place of an H-atom in the original structure. The reaction preserves the pi system of electrons and therefore the aromatic character of the benzene ring . C 6 H 6 + Cl 2 Fe C 6 H 5 -Cl ( Chlorobenzene) + HCl C 6 H 6 + RCl C 6 H 5 - R ( Alkylbenzene ) + HCl