Aquatic Resources Assessment. For the purposes of this report, aquatic resources shall be broadly divided into: (a) marine resources and (b) inland resources.

The Economic Justification
for Water Resources Assessment

1. This presentation has been prepared for class discussion on RM 304, Environmental and Natural Resources Valuation and Accounting. 1st Sem 2019-2020 under Dr. Cecilia B. Mangabat . Brent Greg E. Gomuad . Graduate School student. Isabela State University Aquatic Resources Assessment 1 Brent Greg E. Gomuad 2 I. Status of Aquatic Resources in the Philippines II. The Economic Justification for Water Resources Assessment III. Water Resources Assessment General Opinion References cited Appendices CONTENTS IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment

2. I. Status of Aquatic Resources in the Philippines For the purposes of this report, aquatic resources shall be broadly divided into: (a) marine resources and (b) inland resources. A.1 Marine resources Marine resources are those found in the coastal zone. Republic Act 8550 (Fisheries Code) defines the coastal zone as a "band of dry land and adjacent open space (water submerged land in which terrestrial processes and uses directly affect oceanic processes and uses, and vice versa; its geographic extent may include areas within a landmark limit of 1 km from the shoreline at high tide to include mangroves, swamps, brackish water ponds, nipa swamps, estuarine rivers, sandy beaches, and other areas with a seaward limit of 200 m isobath to include coral reefs, algal flats, seagrass beds, and other soft-bottom areas (RA 8550) . I. STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES A.1 MARINE RESOURCES A.1.1 Coral reefs A.1.2 Seagrasses and seaweeds A.2 INLAND RESOURCES A.2.1 Mangroves and brackish water ponds A.2.2 Swamplands A.2.3 Fishponds A.2.4 Lakes and rivers CONTENTS

3. Figure 2: Diagrammatic presentation of key coastal features in the Philippines (Source: DENR , BFAR , DILG 2001) STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES

4. The Philippines is an archipelago located in the Indo-West Pacific Region, an area recognized for its marine biodiversity. STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES It is composed of 7,100 islands with a discontinuous coastline of approximately 17,460 km The country’s total territorial waters, including the Exclusive Economic Zone cover 2,200,000 sq. km. Coastal and oceanic waters cover 266,000 sq.km. and 1,934,000 sq.km., respectively. The country’s shelf area at depth of 200-m totals 184,600 sq. km.

5. Table 1: General information on aquatic resources in the Philippines Source of Data: BFAR , 2000 STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES

6. 2.1.1 Coral reefs The coral reef area in the Philippines is one of the largest in the world, covering 27,000 sq. km. Good to excellent coral reefs can produce 20 tons or more of fish and other edible products per square kilometer per year. Once destroyed, they produce less than 4 tons per square kilometer per year. The sustainable catch from a good reef over 10 years is about 200 tons of fish while that from a destroyed reef is only 72 tons (www.oneocean.org). A 1996 report by the UP- MSI reports that only 4.3% of our coral reefs are in excellent condition. Most are either in fair (39%) or poor condition (30.5%). An estimated 25% of our reefs are in good condition. STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES Unfortunately, these areas have been degraded over the past years. In comparing the status of coral reefs in some areas in the country between 1981-1991, Gomez (1991) reports that excellent reef conditions were found in Negros Oriental, Zamboanga del Norte and Aliguay Island in this province. Location of Philippine coral reefs Image retrieve from: Shutterstcok

7. Sedimentation, overfishing, and destructive fishing are the three most common factors significantly affecting coral reefs. The net present value over 25 years (at 10 percent discount rate) of benefits from blast fishing to individuals is only US $14,600. The loss of tourism potential, on the other hand, can amount to more than US$400,000 , while that of shoreline protection is about US $190,000. Foregone fishery income can be as much as US $108,000. On the other hand, overfishing of small pelagic and demersal fishes is resulting in loss in catch of more than US$400 million per year, fishing effort 2 to 3 times that required for optimal effort to produce a “sustainable yield” is the primary cause of this loss. These large losses will become more obvious as coral reefs become increasingly degraded and we begin to pay to make the reparations required to recover the health and quality of these precious resources. The unfortunate reality is that reparation and recovery operations are extremely expensive, and they not bring back the original resource lost in its natural and most productive form ( www.oneocean.org ). STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES Guieb , R. R. et. al. (May 2002) Image retrieve from: Shutterstcok PHOTO: Apo Reef situated on the western waters of Occidental Mindoro. Encompassing 34 sq.km. 2 nd world largest contiguous coral reef system

8. 2.1.2 Seagrasses and seaweeds A total of 1,384 individuals and 55 species from 25 fish families have been identified from five seagrass sites in the Philippines alone ( Fortes, 1998 ). An estimated 30 to 50 percent of the seagrass habitat in the Philippines has been lost to heavy siltation and coastal development ( Fortes, 1998 ) STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES This is considered the highest number in the Indo-Pacific region and the second highest worldwide, second only to Australia Seagrass beds in the country support at least 172 species of fish, 46 species of invertebrate, 51 species of seaweeds, 45 species of algal epiphytes, 1 sea turtle and 1 species of dugong. They are valued mainly for their role as fish nursery areas and as foraging grounds for fish and others ( Fortes, 1998; UNEP, 1997; www.oneocean.org ). The country is the third biggest producer of seaweeds in 1997, contributing 0.627 million mt or 9.3% of the world’s seaweed production.

9. One species that maybe considered endangered, if not completely lost, is Halophila becarii . Specimens were last collected in Manila Bay more than eight decades ago. The species is said to still thrive in the South China Sea and Bay of Bengal. STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES The Coastal Resource Management Program ( CRMP ) reports that although seagrasses are a relatively hardy group of plant species, they are extremely sensitive to excessive siltation, shading, water pollution, and fishing practices that use bottom trawls, which scrape the beds. Their removal from the marine ecosystem results in lower productivity and decreases water quality. Typically, when a seagrass community is eliminated, its marine animal associates also disappear from the area. In most cases, the disappearance of seagrass beds is hardly noticed compared to mangroves or coral reefs.

10. 2.2 Inland resources 2.2.1 Mangroves and brackish water ponds A study by Primavera (1997) is instructive on the conditions of mangrove resources in the country (refer to Table next slide). According to this study, mangroves have suffered the earliest and greatest degradation in the Philippines because of their relative accessibility and a long history of conversion to aquaculture ponds. Brown and Fischer had the earliest records on mangroves in 1918 with estimates at 450,000 has. This declined to 132,500 has. in 1990 and further declined to 120,000 has. in 1995 ( DENR , 1996) This decline may be traced to overexploitation of coastal dwellers, conversion to agriculture, salt ponds, industry and settlements. Nonetheless, Primavera (1997) suggests that aquaculture remains to be the major cause of this decline in mangrove areas. For example, she cited the “fishpond boom” in the 1950s-1960s where pond construction peaked at 4,000-5,000 ha/ yr with government providing support through loans. In the same way, during the so-called “shrimp fever” in the 1980s , pond development accelerated to 4,700 ha/yr. Not surprisingly, the Asian Development bank ( ADB ) funded a US$21.8 million project on shrimps during this period. STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES 2,500 has./per year

11. Table 3:Total mangrove and brackish water culture pond in the Philippines n.d. – no data Source of Data: Primavera, 1997 STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES

12. A 1998 report from the Coastal Environmental Program (DEP) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources estimates that there are only 142,658.25 mangrove stands in the country planted through loans. Most of these mangroves are found in Region IX (50,515.25). Regions IV and X have 31,514.37 and 20,425.69 mangrove stands, respectively. The National Capital Region has the lowest with an estimate of only 11.0 mangrove stands. Ramoran (2002) provides the most current estimate on mangrove cover at 117,700 has. Of this, 95% are secondary growth while only 5% are primary growth found in Palawan. STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES Cont,n … Mangroves and brackish water ponds

13. 2.2.2 Swamplands The Philippines has a total of 246,063 ha of swamplands: 106,328 ha of which are freshwater and 139,735 ha are brackishwater ( BFAR , 2000). 2.2.3 Fishponds There are 253,854 ha of fishponds: 14,531 ha of which are freshwater and 239,323 ha are brackish water fishponds. In 1997, there were 50,923 farms recorded. 52% of these farms are brackish water farms, and 30 percent are freshwater farms (see Figure 3). The rest are fishpens , fish cages, etc. The average size of a brackish water farm therefore is 10 ha; while the average size of a freshwater farm is just under 1 ha. There are brackish water farms, however, which are more than 500 ha, especially those devoted to milkfish culture. STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES Cont,n … Mangroves and brackish water ponds

14. Source: Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, 1997 Figure 3: Distribution of aquaculture farms, 1997 STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES Cont,d … Mangroves and brackish water ponds

15. 2.2.4 Lakes and rivers The ten major lakes in the Philippines are shown below. Fish pens and fish cages stocked with tilapia can be found in all of these lakes. Table 5: Ten major lakes in the Philippines Source : Philippine Fisheries Profile, 2000, BFAR . STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES

16. Figure 4: Location of ten major lakes in the Philippines Photos source: Rappler . https://www.rapler.com Inspiring journeys. https://inspiringjourneythesis.blogspot.com

17. The major river systems in the Philippines are herein are enumerated. Fish cages (for lapu-lapu , Ephinephelus ) can be found in the mouths of some of these rivers. People also depend on these rivers for fish usually for home consumption. Source : National Water Resources Center as cited in The State of the Philippine Environment, IBON Foundation ,Inc., Databank and Research Center, 2000. STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES Table 6: Major river basins in the Philippines Cont,d … Lakes and rivers

18. II. The Economic Justification for Water Resources Assessment Accurate information on the condition and trend of a country’s water resources – surface water and groundwater, quantity and quality – is required to support sustainable economic and social development whilst addressing maintenance of environmental quality. Almost every sector of a nation’s economy uses water information for planning, development or operational purposes. As a basic necessity water is often difficult to value in absolute economic terms, but in all countries as competition for water increases, water information grows in value. Because the cost of government programs must be properly justified, it is becoming very important to demonstrate the benefits of hydrological information and analysis. .

19. II. The Economic Justification for Water Resources Assessment But… world’s water resources is finite THE ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FOR WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Ф World’s expanding population place an increasing demand of water on drinking, food production, sanitation and other basic social and economic needs Ф Human activities is leading to depletion of resources and pollution is increasing at alarming rate Ф Water related natural hazards are most destructive to human life and property Ф Climate Change (Global Warming etc.) Benefit-cost ratios in the range 5 to 10 seem to be generally plausible, with values of 9.3 and 6.4 being found in studies in Canada ( Acres Consulting Services Limited, 1977 ) and Australia ( Cordery and Cloke , 1992; Wain et al., 1992 ), respectively. Regardless of the actual numerical values, water managers in all countries and at all levels subscribe to the view that good quality hydrological information is an essential prerequisite for wise decision-making in water resources management. that is, the value of the information is five to ten times its cost of collection

20. III. Water Resources Assessment DEFINITION OF TERM Water resources assessment is the determination of the sources, extent, dependability and quality of water resources for their utilization and control. Reference cited: World Meteorological Organization, 2012. TECHNICAL REPORT SERIES No. 2. TECHNICAL MATERIAL FOR WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT. Geneva 2, Switzerland Water resources are the water available, or capable of being made available, for use in sufficient quantity and quality at a location and over a period of time appropriate for an identifiable demand. C.1. Steps in Water Resources Assessment C.1.1 Define Boundaries C.1.2 High-level Review of the Catchment C.1.3 Data Collection C.1.4 Data Analysis C.1.5 Presentation of water resources Assessment C.2 . Data Collection and Processing C.2.2 Data Collection C.2.2.1 Biophysical Data a) Topographic data b) Soils c) Geological data d) Natural vegetation data C.2.2.2 Hydrometeorological Data a) Climate data b) Surface water data c) Groundwater data C.2.1 Reviewing existing information CONTENTS C.2.2.3 Socio-economic Data a) Land use/land cover b) Demography C.2.2.4 Water-use Data

21. STEPS IN WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Reference cited: World Meteorological Organization, 2012. TECHNICAL REPORT SERIES No. 2. TECHNICAL MATERIAL FOR WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT. Geneva 2, Switzerland WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont,n .. Water Resources Assessment

22. In general, an acceptable water resources assessment requires clear hydrological boundaries across which both surface water and groundwater flows. For a river basin, the broadest scale of assessment will be from the watershed with adjacent river basins to the outlet to the sea. However, for many purposes, assessments will be conducted on smaller sub-basin areas. In any case, care is always needed in defining watershed boundaries, particularly in geological formations where groundwater flows are significant, as the extent of aquifers does not necessarily correspond with basin boundaries. A high-level review of the catchment to determine where subsequent investigations should be targeted. This preliminary assessment should, of course, be reviewed and revisited during the process to check that initial assumptions are still valid in the light of data gathered and analyses undertaken. The next stage is a comprehensive gathering and collation of recent and historical hydrological data related to the target area (for example, catchment, river basin, groundwater system). This will include data on precipitation, evaporation, river flow, surface storage, soil moisture and groundwater. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT C.2.1 Define Boundaries of the Study C.2.2 High-level review of the catchment C.2.3 Data Collection Cont,n .. Water Resources Assessment

23. Along with this, comprehensive information on the physiographic features of the basin should be collated and mapped together with relevant socio-economic and water-use data Having assembled all the data, the next stage is analysis to understand the key interactions in the catchment and confirm the key features of both short-term and long-term water balances. In most cases this will result in the construction of some form of model, which might be a relatively simple monthly water balance model but might be a much more complex model that aims to reproduce many of the major water transfers within the catchment. An important aspect of the analysis phase is the: WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT C.2.2 Data Analysis consideration of water quality and environmental issues. 2.The quality of groundwater. 1. Contamination of water sources, whether by natural or human-induced pollutants can significantly affect the resources available for effective use and so must be factored into its economic value. 3. In support and maintain many valuable aquatic habitats that are important for the support of both animal and human populations, for example, fish spawning. 4. Analysis of water availability. Cont,n .. Water Resources Assessment

24. Following analysis, an important stage is the presentation of results to relevant professional and lay audiences. The presentation of future projections and realistic bands of uncertainty will be a particular challenge WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT C.2.4 Presentation of Water Resource Assessment Cont,n .. Water Resources Assessment

25. C.2 . Data collection and Processing C.2.1 Reviewing existing information Information is the backbone of any water resources assessment. Acquisition of water-related data is costly and time-consuming. Field expeditions, designs, installation and maintenance of monitoring networks and other data collection schemes require large investments and long-term logistics. To minimize these costs and time-consuming activities it is essential to first review the existing information related to the study area. This is an essential part of any water resources assessment and can save a lot of money, time and effort. During the process of water resources assessment, data, information and knowledge are required. Demarcation of the terms is important for setting conditions in the process of acquisition, management and sharing. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont,n .. Water Resources Assessment

26. Data : refers to measured values (for example, discharge volumes, depths to groundwater and concentrations of chemical compounds in groundwater); Information : is obtained by interpretation of data and answering “who”, “what” and “when” questions; Knowledge : we can speak about knowledge if we apply information to answer the “how” questions ( Ackoff , 1989 ). The terms can be described as follows: Existing information relevant to an assessment of water resources (a) Any reports, books and manuals reporting on the investigated area; (b) Any maps and cross-sections, representing parts of the investigated area; (c) Any digital geographical data that could be used in GIS-based software; (d) Any raw data collected or relevant to the investigated area. It is important to consider the methods or techniques used to acquire these data, as these provide information on the quality of the data; (e) Any interpreted data presented in graphs, etc.; (f) Any persons having any data, information or knowledge needed for the assessment; WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont,n .. Water Resources Assessment

27. (g) Any programmer, conferences and meetings where the investigated area is the subject of discussion; (h) Relevant newsletters, now often disseminated through the Internet, which might contain relevant information on the investigated area. These newsletters can provide additional up-to-date information on the investigated area and awareness of future plans or projects that could be carried out there. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont,n .. Water Resources Assessment

28. the following publications which provide more detailed information on data collection programs: – Guide to Hydrological Practice s ( WMO -No. 168; WMO , 2008 a ) – Handbook of Hydrology ( Maidment, 1993) – Environmental Hydrology ( A.D. Ward and S.W. Trimble, 1995) – Water Resources Assessment – Handbook for Review of National Capabilities ( WMO /UNESCO, June 1997) Water resources assessment is fundamentally a data/information collection exercise followed by the presentation of these data/information The four areas hereunder identified forms the fundamental basis of a water resources assessment. (a) Biophysical data – topography, soils, geology and vegetation – required for modelling and to set the environmental constraints; (b) Hydrometeorological data – characteristics of climate, surface water and groundwater –required to define the available resource characteristics; (c) Socio-economic data – land use and demography – required for understanding the water needs; (d) Water-use data – required to complete the picture of supply–demand. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT C.2.2 Data Collection C.2 . Data Collection and Processing Cont,n .. Water Resources Assessment

29. Topographic data refer to detailed information about the shape of the Earth surface including ground elevations, rivers, lakes and the location of roads and other infrastructure, administrative boundaries, and surface objects both natural and human-induced. Topographic data comprise information on the following: Topographic data allows the surface drainage area of catchments or regions of interest to be identified and measured, which is generally an important first step in water resources assessment. Topographic data are also essential in understanding the direction of flow and movement of water through the catchment and/or aquifer. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT C.2.2 Biophysical Data – Elevations – Relief, often represented on maps by contour lines – Drainage patterns of surface water bodies (rivers, lakes, streams) – Infrastructure including highways, roads, railways, power plants, etc. – Land use (agricultural zones, forests, cities, industrial zones) – Geographical position (using a projection to a 2-D surface) C.2.1 Topographic data Cont,n .. Water Resources Assessment

30. Potential sources for water pollution can be identified by using topographic data representing locations of human-made sites such as industrial zones, waste deposit sites, built-up areas (settlements) or areas of intensive agricultural production. Availability of topographic data topographic data can be available in different formats: (a) Topographic maps, which are often available at different scales. (b) Digital maps or files such as DEM grids to be used in GIS-based software. (c) Satellite images or aerial photographs Availability of Data Source 1 ttp://eros.usgs.gov/#/Find_Data/Products_and_Data_Available/Elevation_Products 2 http://eros.usgs.gov/#/Find_Data/Products_and_Data_Available/gtopo30_info 3 http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/fliers/01mgg04.html WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Water quantity/quality issues Cont,n .. Water Resources Assessment

31. The term soil usually refers to unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface that may contain liquid and gases. To characterize soil for water resources assessment purposes the following data are required: Soil texture represents the relative composition of sand, silt, clay and organic matter in soils. The texture groups include sands, sandy loams, loams, clay loams, light clays, medium heavy clays and peat soils; Soil structure refers to how soil particles are grouped or arranged; Soil depth is determined by the total thickness of layers affected by soil forming processes. The soil layers are generally underlain by undisturbed “parent material”. Slope class indicates the slope that dominates the area of a soil association. Three classes are distinguished: level to gently undulating (0–8 percent), rolling to hilly (8–30 per cent) and steeply dissected to mountainous (over 30 per cent). WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’n .. Water Resources Assessment: C.2.2 Biophysical Data C.2.2 Soils

32. Soil moisture content refers to the water content of a defined soil sample; Chemical analysis includes both solid phase and fluids. Standard soil analyses should include pH, electrical conductivity, iron pyrite content, nutrients, organic matter content and cation exchange capacity (CEC). In special cases, chemical analyses should also allow quantification of hazards such as heavy metals and dense non-aqueous phase liquids ( DNAPL ). Requirement of Soil data in water resources assessment Water quality issues – Soil particle size influences on pollutants into groundwater. – Soil types affect on surface water contamination. – Mineral composition of soil, organic matter contents and available gases effects on the composition of groundwater through various geochemical and biochemical reactions. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’n.. C.2.2 Biophysical Data- C.2.2 Soils Water quantity issues Soil data can help to parameterize various models: – Soil moisture models – Precipitation runoff models – Groundwater recharge models, etc. For example, soil moisture data are used to determine water fluxes and evaporation rates. Soil data may also be used in estimates of groundwater recharge

33. Processing and interpretation of soil data Geological data refer to all data that can give information on the history, composition, structure, physical properties and processes of the Earth. They include, among others, the following: Lithological data describing the type and mineralogy of rocks (consolidated or unconsolidated) and their parameters such as grain size and porosity; Structural data including faults and folds present in rocks or unconsolidated sediments; Stratigraphic data related to the distribution, deposition and age of sedimentary rocks; Geochemical data quantifying the chemical composition of rocks and describing the results of various processes, for example, the presence of chemical erosion resulting in the development of karst zones. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT The processing of soil data includes the estimation of grain-size distribution, volume-mass properties and soil-water curves taking into account mineralogy, permeability, compression, compaction, shear strength, and so forth. Cont’n.. C.2.2 Biophysical Data- C.2.2 Soils C.2.3 Geological data

34. Requirement for geological data in a water resources assessment Water quantity issues WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’n.. C.2.2 Biophysical Data- C.2.3 Geological data Geological data give basic information on the hydrogeological setting of the area. In the area of interest, aquifers, aquitards, aquicludes, recharge zones and discharge zones (seepage and springs) of groundwater are defined by investigating the geology. Water quality issues When studying the groundwater chemistry in an area, it is essential to assess the natural background concentrations of the major, minor and trace components. These natural background concentrations can be determined using data on the chemical composition of the aquifer rock and groundwater, the physical properties (permeability) and the hydrodynamics (recharge, discharge, flow paths). Lithology and structures of rocks and unconsolidated deposits. The structures and erosional features of the area. When no soils are present on top of geological formations, runoff can also be estimated by observing, among others, the permeability of the outcropping rocks or sediments.

35. Processing and interpretation of geological data Data on natural vegetation include the following: – Categories of plants, for example, grasses, shrubs and trees WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’n.. C.2.2 Biophysical Data- C.2.3 Geological data Geological data should be translated to hydrogeological data by observing the different lithologies and structures present in the rocks and unconsolidated deposits and estimating the corresponding hydraulic parameters (permeability, porosity). The distribution of the different hydrogeological layers can then provide insight into the potential recharge, recharge zones, discharge zones/springs, runoff and the relation between surface water and groundwater in the investigated area. C.2.4 Natural vegetation data – Species in each of the plant categories (although this is normally only of secondary importance) – Temporal and spatial variations in vegetation patterns

36. Vegetation cover also influences evapotranspiration and infiltration. These processes are important in assessment of runoff and groundwater recharge. Requirements for natural vegetation data in water resources assessment Water quantity issues WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’n.. C.2.2 Biophysical Data- C.2.4 Natural vegetation data The distribution of precipitation falling on the ground surface is modified by the presence of vegetation. This process, called interception, is a function of the branching structure and leaf density. Water quality issues Natural vegetation is an important ecological indicator of water quality. Interaction of natural vegetation with soil initiates various chemical and biological reactions that have a pronounced influence on groundwater quality. Removal of natural vegetation (for example, deforestation) can cause erosion in the catchment area. Erosion creates an overload of suspended material in rivers and surface water reservoirs. Revegetation of recharge areas can slow or reverse rising groundwater tables and ameliorate dry land salinity. Removal of natural vegetation (for example, deforestation) can cause erosion in the catchment area. Erosion creates an overload of suspended material in rivers and surface water reservoirs.

37. Availability of natural vegetation data Vegetation maps, satellite images and aerial photographs are main sources of spatial distribution of vegetation. Processing and interpretation of vegetation data WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Presentation of vegetation data Distribution of vegetation Remote-sensing data provide valuable information for mapping vegetation and monitoring, vegetation change (seasonal and long term). is presented on vegetation maps. To evaluate vegetation changes in time, satellite images and aerial photographs for selected periods should be displayed. Data on major vegetation species are usually stored in a (digital) catalogue. Cont’d.. C.2.2 Biophysical Data- C.2.4 Natural vegetation data

38. Hydrometeorological data cover all the various components of the hydrological cycle – climate parameters: Climate data include precipitation, temperature, humidity, solar radiation and wind speed, of which the latter four enable estimation of evaporation. Requirement for climate data in water resources assessment Water quantity issues The types of climate data required are those of the input to the catchment, namely precipitation in the form of rainfall, and those concerned with estimation of evaporation losses, namely temperature, humidity, solar radiation and wind speed. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT C.3 Hydrometeorological Data C.3.1 Climate data precipitation and evaporation, surface water and groundwater Measurements of these hydrological cycle components are the vital building blocks that contribute to water resources assessment. Precipitation is measured primarily through networks of rain gauges, although increasingly other sources of data, such as weather radar or remotely sensed data, are now becoming available.

39. Water quality issues Climate data are not of primary importance when considering water quality, at least not when considering water resources assessment. The issue of acid rain is one that may be of concern for some groups, but is not one that should concern those involved in basic assessment of the quantities and basic quality of water resources; in general, precipitation quality is not a major concern to those involved in WRA . Availability of climate data Precipitation and temperature Several worldwide archives of monthly temperature and precipitation have been constructed using raw data from meteorological stations. The comprehensive overview of the available archives and downloadable data may be found at the dedicated website of the World Data Center for Meteorology ( WDC , http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/wdc/index.php ). WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data. C.3.1 Climate data

40. Surface water data of relevance to WRA primarily refers to river discharge (or flow), although the quality of such waters is also important. It also includes quantities of water held in natural lakes, wetlands, soils and human-made reservoirs. Soil moisture is dealt with elsewhere in the present publication and is not generally routinely measured in most countries, although it may sometimes be estimated through a real water balance modelling as the difference between precipitation inputs and river flow, groundwater recharge and evaporation outputs. Requirement for surface water data in water resources assessment Water quantity issues WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT C.3.2 Surface water data Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data. ʘ River flow data are one of the most important sources of information in WRA . ʘ River flow represents one of the main sources of water for human and animal consumption, irrigation and navigation, as well as a source of hydroelectric power. Further reading materials: Guidance for undertaking river flow computations can be found in the Manual on Stream Gauging ( WMO , 2010) and in the WMO Technical Regulations ( WMO , 2006). However, river flow is just one element of surface water data.

41. Water quality issues The quality of surface water is a key determinant in availability of water for different range of uses and assessment of environmental quality. Water quality is one of the key factors in determining the “fit-for-purpose” nature of a water supply. For example, water of a given quality can be used for domestic stock watering, but may not be suitable for irrigation and/or public water consumption. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data. C.3.2 Surface water data Data collected from water quality monitoring programs/projects are used for a variety of purposes, including the following: ʘ Quantity and quality condition and trend monitoring and reporting; ʘ Supporting other department aquatic ecosystem health monitoring and assessment programs; ʘ Detection of anthropogenic pollution, for addressing which measures should be taken; ʘ Assessment of suitability of water for use and the treatment needed.

42. Presentation of surface water data Surface water data will usually be stored as databases of level, flow or water quality related to the time of measurement so that time series can be plotted. Groundwater data in general refer to all data that are necessary to assess: Groundwater is water that occurs below the surface of the Earth, where it occupies spaces in soils or geologic strata. Most groundwater comes from precipitation, which gradually percolates into the Earth. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data. C.3.2 Surface water data C.3.3 Groundwater data ʘ Groundwater quantity and groundwater quality ʘ Aquifers C.3.3 Ground Water. Video: https://en.savefrom.net/#url=http://youtube.com/watch?v=U0eddu6LF1E&utm_source=youtube

43. Requirement for groundwater data in water resources assessment Water quantity issues Availability of groundwater data Hydrogeological maps, technical reports and publications are main sources of processed and interpreted groundwater information. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data. C.3.3 Groundwater data Groundwater data are required for evaluation of the interaction between groundwater and surface water resources. Water quality issues The quality of groundwater directly influences its use for drinking (domestic), agricultural and industrial purposes. Groundwater composition can also be used to define the origin of water and to follow its movement from recharge to discharge areas (tracers).

44. Socio-economic data capable of supporting water resources management programs include the following: ʘ Land use surveys ʘ Natural resource management surveys ʘ Agricultural census and surveys ʘ Farm surveys ʘ Domestic water supply surveys ʘ Demographic surveys Land-use data record the human-related use to which land has been put. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT C.4 Socio-economic Data C.4.1 Land use/land cover Typical categories of land use include agricultural, horticultural and arboricultural uses split between major crop types and distinguishing between irrigated and non-irrigated crops; urban and suburban land; significant industrial and commercial sites; and major mining or other operations. Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data.

45. The type of land use affects the processes of soil and groundwater infiltration and also identifies the major areas of water use, whether for irrigation, public supply or industrial processes. Availability of land-use data Much land-use data can be extracted from general mapping, although not all mapping produced for general purposes can be relied upon to use consistent definitions for the boundaries of different areas, and at the more detailed level it may be necessary to use aerial or satellite imagery to distinguish between urban and suburban areas and multispectral imagery to distinguish between different crop types. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Requirements for land-use data in water resources assessment Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data. C.4.1 Land use/land cover

46. Processing and interpretation of land-use data Shape files for each land-use type need to be extracted from mapping or photography and imported to a common mapping system or GIS. Where data such as cropping patterns are inferred from remote sensing it will be desirable to carry out a reasonable level of ground trothing to verify the results. The most significant areas of demographic data for water resources assessments are population density and socio-economic status. Requirement of demographic data for water resources assessment is for human consumption and direct family subsistence cultivation is highly dependent on the number of people and their socio-economic circumstances. As families become wealthier they will tend to use water of a higher quality for washing, domestic appliances and amenity uses. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data. C.4.1 Land use/land cover Presentation of land-use data Land-use data will normally be presented in mapped form, preferably as layer(s) in a GIS system. Changes over time will normally be presented through map overlays or GIS layers. C.4.2 Demography

47. Availability of demographic data Basic demographic data for each administrative area of the country should normally be available from government statistical offices. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Processing and interpretation of demographic data It is necessary to make assumptions on the divisions of population between different catchments or water-use areas. Past trends and future projections will be useful for the interpretation of water-use data and estimation of future needs. Presentation of demographic data is normally presented in mapped and tabular form showing the distribution of populations by socio-economic group and illustrating past trends and future projections. Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data. C.4.2 Demography

48. Historical water-use data identifies the main demands on the water resources of an area for human, industrial and agricultural use. It will normally be necessary to distinguish between consumptive and non-consumptive use. It is important to also distinguish between the demand or perceived need for water, the actual amount of water withdrawn or extracted and the amount of that water that is actually used for the purpose intended. Requirements for water-use and demand data in water resources assessment WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT C.5 Water-use Data Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data. The pattern of current and projected water use will be a key consideration in determining resource availability for future activities and assessing the reliability of future supplies.

49. Processing and interpretation of water-use data SUC’s responsible for water-use data should publish summaries of abstractions and discharges by river basin and by category of use. This information should be compared with water availability, both in an average and a year. Presentation of water-use data As a minimum, known water-use data will normally be presented in tabular form for each sub-catchment of the study area. Where possible, locations of major use will generally be mapped to show the spatial distribution of such demands. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT Cont’d.. C.2.2 C.3 Hydrometeorological Data. C.5 Water-use Data

50. Reference cited: MICHAUD, J.P. AND WIERENGA , M. (July 2005). ESTIMATING DISCHARGE AND STREAM FLOWS. Washington State Department of Ecology. Ecology Publication Number 05-10-070. USA Methods available for measuring site discharge: this presentation primarily focuses on: 1. Bucket and Stopwatch 2. Float Method 3. Manning’s Equation 4. Meter D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES D.1 Estimating Discharge and Stream Flows D.2 Water Quality Assessment Methods D.1 Estimating Discharge and Stream Flows CONTENTS C.3.3 Measuring River Flow. Video: https://en.savefrom.net/#url=http://youtube.com/ watch?v =U0eddu6LF1E&utm_source=youtube

51. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Reference cited: MICHAUD, J.P. AND WIERENGA , M. (July 2005). ESTIMATING DISCHARGE AND STREAM FLOWS. Washington State Department of Ecology. Ecology Publication Number 05-10-070. USA 1. Bucket and Stopwatch method A very easy method to estimate discharge is to simply measure the time it takes to fill a container of a known volume. This method only works for systems with fairly low flow volume. Its main limitation is that the discharge must fall from a pipe or ditch in such a way that the bucket can be placed underneath it to capture all the discharge. Any size bucket can be used as long as it does not fill up too fast to get an accurate measurement. Equipment Needed Container to fill of known volume (a clean 5-gallon bucket works well) Timer (stopwatch) Paper and pencil for record keeping Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES.

52. Taking the Measurement: Bucket and Stopwatch method Locate the site’s discharge pipe. If discharge occurs via a channel, then a temporary dam may need to be placed across the channel with the discharge directed through a single outlet pipe. 2. Place the container of a known volume (e.g., a 1 or 5 gallon bucket) directly under pipe. All of the discharge should flow into the container. Note: The 5-gallon line on the bucket may need to be measured and marked ahead of time. 3. Using a stopwatch, time how long it takes to fill the container. 4. Repeat this process three times to obtain an average. Illustration from MICHAUD, J.P. AND WIERENGA , M. (July 2005). ESTIMATING DISCHARGE AND STREAM FLOWS. Washington State Department of Ecology. Photos from Calisen , A. D. (2017) Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES.

53. Calculating the Discharge - Example Calculation A 5 gallon clean paint bucket was placed under the spout of a discharge pipe. The bucket filled up in 15 seconds, 18 seconds and 14 seconds. Calculate average time: Add the three recorded times together and divide by three to obtain the average fill time. Average time = 15 + 18 + 14 = 15.7 seconds 3 Convert average time in seconds to minutes: Divide average time by 60 seconds per minute to obtain minutes. Average time = 15.7 sec = 0.26 minutes 60 Calculate the site discharge: Divide the volume of the container (gallons) by the average time needed to fill the container (minutes). Discharge = 5 gal = 19.2 gallons per minute ( gpm ) 0.26 min MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. Bucket and Stopwatch method

54. 2. FLOAT METHOD This method requires the measurement and calculation of the cross-sectional area of the channel as well as the time it takes an object to “float” a designated distance. Equipment Needed Measuring tape Markers (flagging tape, cones, etc.) Timer (stopwatch) Float (an orange or plastic bottle half filled with water) Paper and pencil for record keeping Waders or boots Taking the Measurement Estimate the cross-sectional area of the channel. For a rectangular shaped channel, a simple way to do this is to multiply the bottom width (ft) of the channel by the depth (ft) of the discharge. This is the cross-sectional area ( ft 2 ). MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES.

55. 2. To determine the velocity of the discharge, mark off a 25 to 100 foot long section of the channel that includes the part where you measured the cross-section. The length you choose will be dependent upon the speed of the water. In many channels, 25 feet would be too short a distance because the float would travel too fast to get an accurate time estimate. Gently release the float into the channel slightly upstream from the beginning of the section. Measure the amount of time it takes the “float” to travel the marked section. Repeat this process at least three times and calculate the average time. 3. Compute the velocity (ft/s) by dividing the length of the section (ft) by the time (s) it took the float to move through the section. Illustration from MICHAUD, J.P. AND WIERENGA , M. (July 2005). ESTIMATING DISCHARGE AND STREAM FLOWS. Washington State Department of Ecology. Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 2. FLOAT METHOD

56. A rectangular shaped channel is 1 foot wide and average depth in the channel is measured to be 0.4 feet deep. For a 50 feet long section, an orange traveled from one end to the other in 57 seconds, 48 seconds and 64 seconds. Calculating the Discharge - Example Calculation Calculate cross-sectional area: Multiply the width of the channel by the depth (in feet). Cross-sectional area = 1 ft x 0.4 ft = 0.4 ft 2 Calculate average time: Add the three recorded times together and divide by three to obtain the average fill time. Average time = 57 s + 48 s + 64 s = 56.3 s 3 Calculate velocity: Divide the distance the float traveled by the average time. Velocity = 50 ft = 0.89 fps 56.3 s MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 2. FLOAT METHOD

57. Calculate discharge in feet per second: Multiply the velocity (fps) by the cross-sectional area ( ft 2 ) and by a correction factor (0.8). This correction factor is needed to take into account the different speeds in the water column. Water flows faster closer to the surface (where the orange floated) and slower near the channel bottom. Discharge = 0.4 ft 2 x 0.89 fps x 0.8 = 0.29 cfs Convert discharge from feet per second to gallons per minute: Discharge ( gpm ) = 0.29 cfs x 448.83 Discharge = 130 gpm MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 2. FLOAT METHOD

58. 3. MANNING’S EQUATION METHOD This method can be used for open channels and partially filled pipes when the flow moves by the force of gravity only (not pressurized). The Manning method is widely used for flow measurements because it is easy to use once a few initial measurements have been made. This method provides fairly reliable site discharge estimates. Official requirements state that the channel should have uniform cross-section, slope, and roughness at least within the vicinity of the measurement. In addition, the pipe (or channel) should be at least 100 feet long and should not have any rapids, falls, or backup flow. Ecology’s purposes a 20 foot long channel or less would probably be sufficient, as long as the water is flowing evenly. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES.

59. Equipment Needed: Measuring tape or ruler Paper and pencil for record keeping Waders or boots The equation requires obtaining values for the roughness of the channel ( determined from standard tables ), the cross-sectional area of discharge flow, the hydraulic radius ( cross sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter ) and the slope of the gradient. Since the slope and roughness are constants, once they are known, future flow estimates can be calculated by simply measuring the depth of the discharge in the channel or pipe. Preliminary Determinations (in the office) MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 3. MANNING’S EQUATION METHOD The appendix contains tables to assist in the discharge calculation .

60. 1. Calculate the slope (the “S” in the equation) of the channel or pipe. Slope is the rise over the run and can also be calculated by dividing the elevation difference by the length of the section. 2. Determine the roughness coefficient (the “n” in the equation) for the specific channel. ( appendix provides some common coefficients ). Taking the Measurement (For rectangular, triangular or trapezoidal channels) 1. Measure the bottom and top width, and the depth of the discharge. These values will be used to determine the cross-sectional area (A) and the hydraulic radius (R). ( Table A-1 in the appendix provides the specific equations, depending on channel shape ) for calculating A and R as well as corresponding diagrams. Illustration from MICHAUD, J.P. AND WIERENGA , M. (July 2005). ESTIMATING DISCHARGE AND STREAM FLOWS. Washington State Department of Ecology. Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 3. MANNING’S EQUATION METHOD

61. 2. Once A, R and S are calculated, the values can be placed into the equation to determine discharge: Q = 1.49 A R 2/3 S 1/2 n Calculating the Discharge - Example Calculation (For a round pipe) A 2 foot diameter pipe carries stormwater discharge from a site. The concrete pipe was designed with a slope of 0.8 foot per 100 feet. At the time of measurement, the pipe has 0.8 feet of discharge flowing in it. Determine roughness coefficient (n) for a concrete pipe from Table A-2 in the appendix : n = 0.013 Calculate slope (S): S = rise / run S = 0.8 ft / 100 ft = 0.008 Divide the discharge depth in the pipe by the diameter of the pipe (d/D): d/D = 0.8 / 2 = 0.4 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 3. MANNING’S EQUATION METHOD

62. Calculate the cross-sectional area (A) of the discharge in the pipe: In Table A-3 in the appendix, scan the first column for the correct d/D value (0.4 in this example). Read across the row to the second column and obtain the Area Correction Factor ( ACF ) that corresponds to the water depth and pipe diameter ratio. ( ACF = 0.2934 in this example) A = (ACF) x (D) 2 A = (0.2934) x (2) 2 = 1.18 ft 2 Calculate the hydraulic radius (R): Continue scanning across Table A-3 in the appendix to the third column that shows the Hydraulic Radius Correction Factor ( RCF ) that corresponds to the discharge depth and pipe diameter ratio. ( RCF = 0.2142 in this example) R = ( RCF ) x D R = (0.2142) x 2 = 0.428 ft Calculate discharge by plugging in the values obtained from the tables: Q = 1.49 A R 2/3 S 1/2 n MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 3. MANNING’S EQUATION METHOD

63. Q = 1.49 x 1.18 x (0.428) 2/3 x (0.008) 1/2 0.013 Q = 6.87 cfs Convert discharge from cubic feet per second ( cfs ) to gallons per minute ( gpm ): Discharge = 6.87 cfs x 448.83 Discharge = 3,084 gpm 4. METER METHOD This method measures velocity directly in order to calculate stream flow. Both velocity and water depth measurements are taken at the same time and place in multiple locations across the channel, using a flow meter. Selecting a Site Measurements should be taken just upstream from where discharge from the site enters the stream. The site should be safely accessible and should be in a section of the stream that is free flowing. Other considerations: Equipment Needed: Measuring tape Meter Top-setting rod (if available) or measuring stick Paper and pencil for record keeping Waders MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 3. MANNING’S EQUATION METHOD

64. TAKING THE MEASUREMENTS 1. Tighten a measuring tape across the stream at right angles to the flow. It should be snug and not sag in the middle. 2. Measure the total stream width and record this measurement. 3. Divide the total stream width into equal segments. If the stream is less than 10 feet wide, use ½ foot intervals. For streams greater than 10 feet, use 1 foot or greater intervals. ( Note: The standard method is to divide the width by 20, however ½ foot or 1 foot intervals are sufficient ) 4. Step out to the first measuring point and position the rod. Stand downstream from the measuring tape with the rod next to the tape. The rod should be held vertically, the meter should face upstream and you should be standing off to the side or behind the meter. Illustration from MICHAUD, J.P. AND WIERENGA , M. (July 2005). ESTIMATING DISCHARGE AND STREAM FLOWS. Washington State Department of Ecology. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 4. METER METHOD

65. 5. Record the distance to the bank. Measure total stream depth and record this depth. Multiply the total depth by 0.6 and set the propeller at this depth. ( Note: 0.6 times the total depth is considered the point of average discharge in a spot that is less than 2 feet deep . If the depth is greater than 2 feet, two different velocity measurements are required one at 0.2 times the depth and one at 0.8 times the depth .) Read and record the velocity at this depth. ( Note: If your meter is attached to a “top setting rod” the propeller can be easily set at this 0.6 depth without calculation by you. Directions on using a top setting rod should be provided by the manufacturer .) Illustration from MICHAUD, J.P. AND WIERENGA , M. (July 2005). ESTIMATING DISCHARGE AND STREAM FLOWS. Washington State Department of Ecology. Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 4. METER METHOD MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

66. 6. Move to the next measuring point and repeat the process. (Note: The standard method is to obtain three velocity measurements at each point and average them.) Make sure to record the distance to the bank, the total stream depth and the velocity at the 0.6 depth for each point across the stream. See Table 1 for an example of how to record and calculate the data. 7. Stream flow measurements should be collected for a minimum of two separate years. Illustration from MICHAUD, J.P. AND WIERENGA , M. (July 2005). ESTIMATING DISCHARGE AND STREAM FLOWS. Washington State Department of Ecology. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 4. METER METHOD

67. Calculating Stream Flow Example Illustration from MICHAUD, J.P. AND WIERENGA , M. (July 2005). ESTIMATING DISCHARGE AND STREAM FLOWS. Washington State Department of Ecology. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n …D. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES. 4. METER METHOD

68. OTHER METHODS There are many other methods that can be used to estimate site discharge flow. Some of these methods require the installation of devices that are used to obtain measurements. In most of these cases, specific equations and tables are then used to determine discharge. Weirs Weirs are structures (i.e. dams) installed across a channel. Water flows either over the dam or through a specially shaped opening or notch in the dam. The water level rises behind the dam and that rise (or ‘head’) is measured and used to calculate discharge. Flumes Flumes are specially shaped sections that are installed into a channel to restrict the channel cross-sectional area. This restriction results in an increased velocity and a change in then level of discharge flowing through the flume. The head of the flume is measured and used to calculate the flow rate. Pumps At some sites, pumps may be used to discharge stormwater or process water to the receiving water. If these pumps have flow gages on them, then discharge rates can be easily obtained from the pump. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

69. There are three main ways of assessing water quality: a) Physico -chemical water analysis Physico -chemical analysis of surface-waters and groundwater provides data about the chemical composition of water from a riser or an aquifer at the point in time when the sample was taken the results obtained are subsequently checked against the legally permitted concentrations. A really complete chemical analysis of a water sample involves, testing for approximately 80 parameters (including the presence of pesticides, heavy metals, aromatic hydrocarbons, Polychlorinated Biphenyl’s (PCBs etc.). b) Biological monitoring biological assessment of water quality. This approach is based on the principle that the composition and diversity of the animal community that lives in surface-water reflects the quality of that water. In most western countries biotic indexes are based on the macro- invertebrate community (i.e. water-snails, water beetles, etc.) MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES D.2 Water Quality Assessment Methods C.3.3 Water Assessment Methods. Video: https://en.savefrom.net/#url=http://youtube.com/watch?v=U0eddu6LF1E&utm_source=youtube

70. c) Microbiological analysis Methodology of biological water quality assessment The process of biologically assessing river water quality at a certain point along the river. consists of the following steps: 1. A sample is taken from the invertebrate community living in the river by going over the bottom with a hand-net of fine mesh (0.5 to 0.75 mm mesh opening). 2. The collected material together with some of the water is put in a sealed container and transported to the research center where the contents are poured over a sieve of 0.5 mm so that sand or mud can be hosed away and water-plants removed. The contents of the sieve (i.e. the living animals) are poured into a plastic tray. The animals are picked out and are taxonomically identified, using a stereoscopic microscope, assisted by the necessary identification manuals. The same goes for microbiological analysis. This is the method by which the numbers of certain bacteria, such as fecal coliforms, are counted in order to assess the degree of pollution of ground or surface-water by human wastes. The results are subsequently checked against the legal standards, ( e.g. the EU norm is < 20.000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml. and DOH – A.O. No. 2007-0012 known as the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water 2007. ) MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n … Water Quality Assessment Methods

71. Class Score Water Quality Color Code I 9-10 excellent blue II 7-8 good green III 5-6 critical yellow IV 3-4 Bad orange V 1-2 very Bad red The Biotic Index value is then calculated with the aid of a standard table which takes into account the degree of sensitivity of the animals found and the diversity of species. The value obtained ranges from 1 to 10 and falls into one of the five quality classes shown in Table hereunder . MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Cont’n … Water Quality Assessment Methods. Methodology of biological water quality assessment

72. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Another Example of Biotic Index Calculation Using Macroinvertebrate Information If you find: 25 Mayflies 15 Caddisflies 20 Stoneflies 20 Scuds 20 Midge larva Multiply each by the Biotic Value: Biotic Value 25 Mayflies 10 25 x 10 = 250 15 Caddisflies 10 15 x 10 = 150 20 Stoneflies 10 20 x 10 = 200 20 Scuds 6 20 x 6 = 120 20 Midge larva 5 20 x 5 = 100 TOTAL = 820 Divide total by 10. This is the Biotic Index Value: 820/10 = 82 Use chart to determine water quality based on Biotic Index Value: Water Quality Biotic Index Excellent >80 Good 60-79 Fair 40-59 Poor <40 Cont’n … Water Quality Assessment Methods. 2. Assessing the quality of surface waters by means of a simplified biotic index

73. 2. Assessing the quality of surface waters by means of a simplified biotic index The official biotic indexes are based on the differences in sensitivity to pollution that water invertebrates show. When water is polluted with organic or inorganic chemicals such as detergents, fertilizers or pesticides the compounds will form combinations with the oxygen molecules dissolved in the water. As a result, the available oxygen will decrease and the aquatic animals will start to die. Some, however, will perish more quickly because they can only survive with abundant dissolved oxygen. Others are more resistant. Finally, there are animals that thrive even in cesspools. There exist approximately 13 groups of macro-invertebrates that are used in biological water-quality assessment, namely: MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 1. Snails 2. clams 3. Flatworms 4. oligochaetes (aquatic rainworms) 5. leeches 6. mosquito and fly larvae (aquatic larvae of crane flics, midges, gnats, mosquitoes, horse-flies and hover flies) 7. crustaceans (hog-lice, freshwater Shrimps and crabs) 8. dragonflies and damselflies 9. water bugs (pond skaters, water boat men, water scorpions) 10. water beetles 11. mayflies 12. Stoneflies 13. sedge flies Reference: Damme, D.V . (2001).Biological Water Assessment: simple method & guidelines Cont’n … Water Quality Assessment Methods. 2 Assessing the Quality of Surface Waters Video: https://en.savefrom.net/#url=http://youtube.com/watch?v=U0eddu6LF1E&utm_source=youtube

74. These 13 groups roughly separate into 3 categories according to their sensitivity to oxygen depletion INDICATOR GROUP I . Macro-invertebrate groups highly sensitive to oxygen depletion/pollution. These are animals which are only able to take up oxygen from water via gills. When the dissolved oxygen concentration falls repeatedly below 5 mg/l O 2 , they will simply suffocate. The presence of these animals in water sample is a clear indication that its quality is good to excellent (color code Blue to green ) INDICATOR GROUP II . Macro-invertebrate groups moderately sensitive to oxygen depletion/pollution. These are animals have alternative or additional breathing systems to gills: they can take in air at the surface (e.g. water beetles, water bugs, mosquito larvae, snails freshwater crabs) or they can absorb oxygen from the water through their entire skin surface (e.g. leeches and flat worms) If these animals occurs in a water sample but clams and damselfly nymphs are, the water has to be considered as being “moderate” polluted . (Color code green ) . If there are fewer than 10 species (usually only a few specimen of snails, beetles, water bugs and a lot of red worms and mosquito larvae), it is a sign that there is really something seriously wrong (color code: orange ). If many different species on indicator group II are found (different kinds of snail, water beetles, shrimps) then it is a sign that the water is still in the upper range of “moderately” polluted. (Color code yellow ) INDICATOR GROUP III . Macro-invertebrate groups little sensitive to oxygen depletion/pollution. If only some mosquito larvae, one or two snails and small red worms are still abundant then the water is definitely polluted (color code: red ) and almost certainly is very dangerous for consumption by people and livestock alike. Cont’n … Water Quality Assessment Methods. 2. Assessing the quality of surface waters by means of a simplified biotic index

75. Animals of group I present water quality good to excellent 1. Clams & damselflies Figure 2. Assessing the quality of surface water by means of simplified biotic index Animals of group II & III present water quality dubious to bad 1. Snails 2. leeches 3. crustaceans, dragonflies 4. water bugs 5. water beetles 6. Stoneflies Animals of group III present water extremely bad 1. mosquito and fly larvae 2. aquatic rainworms

76. SOME INDICES USED IN MEASURING SPECIES DIVERSITY & WATER QUALITY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Index of biotic integrity Trent Biotic Index- integrates 12 measures of stream fish assemblages for assessing water resource quality SHANNON-WIENER INDEX – higher richness represents higher biodiversity (phytoplankton) SIMPSON DIVERSITY INDEX (Gini coefficient), is a similarity index, that is the higher the value the lower in diversity; measures the relative abundance of species, with a higher value indicating high dominance/low biodiversity

77. Simplified biotic water quality monitoring techniques 1. Apparatus: All that is needed will be a hand-net, a container that can be closed (e.g. a plastic pail with a lid), some large glass jars of the type used for conserving, any kind of flat plastic while wash basin and an ordinary kitchen sieve. The hand net can be simply constructed from a steel rod and an old mosquito net a piece of gauzy curtain or a plastic onion sack, provided that the mesh size is not too great (see figure I). MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Figure 1. Material used centers for biological water quality monitoring. Ordinary garden and kitchen appliance can be used as substitute Damme, D.V . (2001).Biological Water Assessment: simple method & guidelines Retrieved from: HTTPs://www.jstor.org/ stable/2468174

78. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Photos from: Gomuad , Bg. E. (2010) Inventory of Fish and Shell Species in Mountain Province

79. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Photos from: Gomuad , Bg. E. (2010

80. IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment 1. There are two main types of assessment and monitoring ( HILL. J. AND WILKINSON. C. 2004) : m Ecological assessment; and m Socio-economic assessment. Ecological and socio-economic parameters are often closely linked; therefore ecological assessment and socioeconomic assessment should be done in the same place at the same time. For example, assessment of fish populations should be directly linked to surveys of fish markets, fishermen and their catches. Similarly ecological parameters describe the natural state of the coral reef, which will have impacts on socio-economic factors such as income and employment. It is not possible to separate human activities and ecosystem health 2 Coral Reef Resources Assessment Vedio:https ://en.savefrom.net/# url =http://youtube.com/watch?v=U0eddu6LF1E&utm_source=youtube.com

81. Ecological assessment includes the natural environment (biological and physical) e.g. the fish, coral or sedimentation. Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment a) Biological parameters measure the status and trends in the organisms on coral reefs these parameters can be used to assess the extent of damage to coral reefs from natural and human disturbances The most frequently measured ecological parameters include: Percentage cover of corals (both live and dead) and sponges, algae and non-living material; m Species or genus composition and size structure of coral communities; m Presence of newly settled corals and juveniles; m Numbers, species composition, size (biomass) and structure of fish populations; m Extent and nature of coral bleaching; and m Extent and type of coral disease. IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment

82. b) Physical parameters Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment measure the physical environment on and around the reefs this provides a physical description of the environment surrounding reefs which assists in making maps, as well as measuring the change in the environment m Depth, bathymetry and reef profiles; m Currents; m Temperature; m Water quality; m Visibility; and m Salinity. IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment

83. 2. Socio-economic assessment Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment This aims to understand how people use, understand and interact with coral reefs IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment can measure the motivations of resource users as well as the social, cultural, and economic conditions in communities near coral reefs. data can help mangers determine which stakeholder and community attributes provide the basis for successful management The most frequently used socio-economic parameters include: m Community populations, employment levels and incomes; m Proportion of fishers, and where and how they fish; m Catch and price statistics for reef fisheries; m Decision making structures in communities; m Community perceptions of reef management; Tourist perceptions of the value of reefs and willingness to pay for management etc.

84. 2: What Type of Assessment or Monitoring To Use? IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment The choice of assessment or monitoring coral reefs depend on a number of factors. These include the following issues: Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment What information do you need to know? 2. What do you need to assess? 3. What resources do you have available? 4. What scale of assessment program do you want? 5. What types of reef do you have in the area? 6. What methods should you use? 7. Data handling and communicating results 8. The need to communicate results

85. What information do you need to know? Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment The information you need to manage your reef will determine which assessment protocols you use IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment e.g. Threats to coral reefs can be categorized as human, natural or climate-related, although some natural impacts may be exacerbated by human impacts. 2. What do you need to assess? You will need to consider the following: 1. What biological and physical variables (things on the reef) do you need to assess? 2. In what detail (taxonomic resolution for biological parameters) do you need to assess these variables? 3. At what scale do you want to collect information? m Broad-scale (wide area); m Medium-scale (medium area); m Fine-scale (small area).

86. 3. What resources do you have available? Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment Assessment costs can vary on the basis of: m Expertise of the people to do the assessment; m Cost of equipment and time. Costs will also be affected by the size of the reef area to be assessed, and therefore how many surveys are needed. 4. What scale of monitoring program do you want? The program scale is the level of detail at which you want to collect information. This can be: m Broad scale; m Medium scale; or m Fine scale. IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment Broad-scale methods will use large units that are defined by the time taken to swim them, e.g. ‘manta tow’ or ‘timed swim’. Medium-scale methods may have units that are defined by a measured length of reef, e.g. line transects or belt transects Fine-scale methods tend to measure smaller areas in more detail e.g. quadrats

87. Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment Figure shows An illustration of the three scales of monitoring: broad-scale covering large areas at lower resolution, e.g. with manta tow; medium-scale for higher resolution at medium scales e.g. line transects; and fine-scale for gathering high resolution data at small scales. HILL. J. AND WILKINSON. C. (2004). IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment Broad-scale methods will use large units that are defined by the time taken to swim them, e.g. ‘manta tow’ or ‘timed swim’. Medium-scale methods may have units that are defined by a measured length of reef, e.g. line transects or belt transects Fine-scale methods tend to measure smaller areas in more detail e.g. quadrats

88. 5. What types of reef do you have in the area? Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment The type of reef will affect the type of assessment method you select due to the accessibility and habitat types. Accessibility: accessible reefs are mostly assessed first and more frequently monitored than less accessible ones. Methods that require frequent site visits, e.g. sedimentation traps or coral recruitment plates are cheaper to do at accessible sites Habitat type: refers to patch reefs or continuous reefs? Long transects may not be suitable for patch reefs, but quadrats or a stationary fish census can be used. A continuous reef is better suited to most sampling methods, such as transects 6. What methods should you use? Several major coral reef assessment or monitoring programs have refined and integrated protocols It is recommended to use the standard methods on different reef components IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment

89. Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment 7. Data handling and communicating results IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment Data entry Should be recorded in a format for easy analysis as well as stored for comparisons with data collected in later years. It is essential that data be organized in a way, which makes them easily accessible for future reference. Data storage A computer spreadsheet is the ideal way to store the data All data should be stored in two safe places immediately after collection to avoid loss. Microsoft Excel is commonly used to store information and can also be used to make graphs and to do basic statistical analysis. For more advanced databases, Microsoft Access is recommended. Data analysis interpretation of the changes that are occurring on the coral reef e.g. are increasing nutrient levels correlated with decreases in coral cover.

90. Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment Data reporting After assessment has been completed, it is important to present the results in a format that is most useful to key stakeholders IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment The steps in this process should include identifying: m The target audience; m The key messages you want to get across and when; and The communication products that will best suit your needs (many products may be required for different audiences). For example, use radio and television, read newspapers, read websites, look at posters etc.

91. Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment 8. The need to communicate results IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment to raise awareness of the problems facing coral reefs and the need for management among local communities, tourists and management staff to ensure that management understand the resources they are managing, ensures that the wider community understands the need for coral reef management Policy

92. G ENERAL ASSESSMENT OR MONITORING METHODS Cont’n ... Coral Reef Resources Assessment Mantatow & Timed swim These are the best methods for obtaining a broad scale, general description of a reef site and involve either towing a diver behind a boat around a reef or a diver swimming for a set time or distance m Transects m Quadrats. Transects provide medium scale information. They are lines put on the reef floor where corals and other objects are counted underneath. Lines can be tape measures, ropes or chains of different lengths with measurements made under fixed points or where something happens e.g. counting chain links or where benthic species change. A quadrat is a square or rectangular sampling unit in which organisms are counted or measured Quadrats provide precise information for fi ne scale, species-specific questions. Permanent quadrats are useful for observing specific coral colonies over time. There are 3 ways to survey quadrats: 1. Visual estimation; 2. Visual point sampling (grid quadrats); 3. Photo quadrats where images are digitized or point sampled to determine percent cover. IV. Coral Reef Resources Assessment

93. General Opinion: b) Many indices for measuring species diversity and/of water quality have been proposed. d) Assessment of marine resources is expensive, more extremely expensive is the rehabilitation that may bring back the original resource lost in its natural and most productive form c) Hi-tech Water quality assessing is technical and requires a high level of expertise. a) The operations involved in water quality assessment are many and complex. They can be compared to a chain of about a dozen links and the failure of any one of them can weaken the whole assessment. It is imperative that the design of these operations must take into account the precise objectives (simple or specific) of the water quality assessment.

94. Example of biotic index calculation using macroinvertebrate information. Retrieved from: Https://www.uen.org.download. FLORES, MJ L. AND ZAFARALLA, M. T. (May 2012) macroinvertebrate composition, diversity and richness in relation to the water quality status of Mananga river, Cebu, Philippines. Philippine Science Letters. Vol. 5 | No. 2 | 2012. University of the Philippines Cebu, Lahug , Cebu City, Philippines. Retrieved from: HTTPs://www.philsciletter.org/ DAMME, D.V. (2001).Biological water assessment: simple method & guidelines Retrieved from: HTTPs://www.jstor.org/stable/2468174 CALISEN, A. D. (2017) Analysis of water potability in identified water sources in Lubon , Tadian , Mt. Province. Undergraduate Thesis, Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, College of Forestry, Tadian , Mountain Province References cited: GOMUAD, BG. E. (2010). Inventory of fish and shell species in Mountain Province. Research and Development, Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, Tadian , Mountain Province GUIEB, R. R. et. Al. (May 2002). Aquatic resources in the Philippines and the extent of poverty in the sector. Voluntary Service Overseas (Philippines) & Regional Aquatic Resource Management (STREAM) progrmame . WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION, (2012). Technical report series no. 2. technical material for water resources assessment . Geneva 2, Switzerland

95. CORALREF RESOURCES PHILIPPINES. Retrieved from: INITIAL FINDINGS PHILIPPINE CORAL. Retrieved from: Cont’n …References cited: https://www.nast.ph/images/pdf%20files/Publications/NAST%20Transactions/NAST%201991%20Transactions%20Volume%2013/Plenary%20I%201.%20Coral%20Reef%20Ecosystems%20and%20Resources%20of%20the%20Philippines%20Edgardo%20D.%20Gomez,%20et%20al..pdf https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318451686_Initial_Findings_of_the_Nationwide_Assessment_of_Philippine_Coral_Reefs_Philippine_Journal_of_Science_1462177-185 Initial Findings of the Nationwide Assessment of Philippine Coral Reefs. Philippine Journal of Science 146(2):177-185 DENR. 2016. DAO 2016-08. Water Quality Guidelines and General Affluent Standards of 2016 HILL. J. AND WILKINSON. C. (2004). Methods for ecological monitoring of coral reefs: a resource for managers. Australian Institute of Marine Science. Retrieved from: www.aims.gov.aubookshop/aims.gov.au A STEP BY STEP GUIDE TO MEASURING STREAM FLOW Retrieved from: https://globalcustomersurveys.com/lp/13f2f8cb557d267fa5cc1a9eeb8f29dc/069059b7ef840f0c7 4a814ec9237b6ec.html?browser={browser}&p=599&lpkey=153e69c189d296ec49&source=PropellerAds&campaign=2626069&zone=2579647&subzone=edge&uclick=2tvca9e23y MEASURING THE FLOW OF A STREAM Retrieved from: https://en.savefrom.net/#url=http://youtube.com/watch?v=W1lUdxE5BGU&utm_source=youtube.com&utm_medium=short_domains&utm_campaign=www.ssyoutube.com&a_ts=1569899734.297

96. FLOAT METHOD TO DETERMINE STREAM VELOCITY Retrieved from: https://en.savefrom.net/#url=http://youtube.com/watch?v=AD9JzBXZwUA&utm_source=youtube.com&utm_medium=short_domains&utm_campaign=www.ssyoutube.com&a_ts=1569899917.769 Cont’d…References cited:

97. Appendices

98. Cross-Sectional Area Calculations b = bottom width H= height T = top width Z = (top width – bottom width) / 2 = (T – b) / 2 A = area WP = wetted perimeter r = radius pi = 3.147 Estimating Discharge and Stream Flows

99. Manning’s Roughness Coefficients (n) for Various Channel Configurations and Conditions

100. Manning’s Equation Area and Hydraulic Radius for Various Flow Depths in partially-filled pipes. d = actual depth of flow in pipe D = diameter of pipe A = (ACF) x D 2 R = (RCF) x D

101. Wordlist of Terms Used in this Report Site discharge: In this guide, discharge refers to the water generated by the facility. It may be dewatering water, wash water, stormwater, or any combination of these. This term is comparable to “flow” which is used here in reference to receiving water flow. [Usually site discharge is measured in gallons per minute ( gpm ).] Flow or Flow volume: This takes into account both the rate of flow and the size of the flow. Typically when a “flow measurement” is required, it is the flow volume that is being referred to. To meet permit requirements, the flow volume needs to be estimated for both the discharge and receiving water. [Measured in cubic feet per second ( cfs ) or gallons per minute ( gpm ).] Rate of Flow or Velocity: This refers to how quickly the water is moving. [Measured in feet per second (ft/s).] cfs cubic feet per second Discharge defined in this guide as the water generated by the facility Flow the volume of water moving past a cross-section of a stream, channel or pipe over a set period of time gpm gallons per minute Manning’s coefficient a value which is dependent on the surface roughness of the pipe or culvert and is used in the Manning’s equation. It is not a constant. Manning’s equation an equation developed in 1890 for determining gravity pipe flow in open channels Open channel flow in any channel where the water flows with a free surface (such as a ditch, channel, river) Slope rise over run of a pipeline or channel Velocity the rate of motion of water in relation to time measured in feet per second

102. Bathymetry is the study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors . In other words, bathymetry is the underwater equivalent to hypsometry or topography . The name comes from Greek ( bathus ), "deep", [ and ( metron ), "measure“. Bathymetric (or hydrographic ) charts are typically produced to support safety of surface or sub-surface navigation, and usually show seafloor relief or terrain as contour lines (called depth contours or isobaths ) and selected depths ( soundings ), and typically also provide surface navigational information. Bathymetric maps (a more general term where navigational safety is not a concern) may also use a Digital Terrain Model and artificial illumination techniques to illustrate the depths being portrayed. The global bathymetry is sometimes combined with topography data to yield a Global Relief Model . Paleobathymetry is the study of past underwater depths. Cont’d… Wordlist of Terms Used in this Report Coral bleaching When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely white . Isobath https://www.dictionary.com/browse/isobath noun an imaginary line or one drawn on a map connecting all points of equal depth below the surface of a body of water. A similar line for indicating the depth below the surface of the earth of an aquifer or the top of the water table.

103. Thank You