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1. Putting Words Together Organizing Your Information and Drafting Your Paper University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad SRM University, Vijayawada Indian Institute of Technology, Tirupati December 2019 Carol L. Ruppel [email protected]

2. What did we cover yesterday? Narrowing your topic Writing research questions Listing subtopics Using search engines/databases Using Advanced Search Working bibliography (look at websites, screenshots)

3. Google Scholar – Advanced Search Sciencedirect.com – good for abstracts JSTOR.org “Search Help” in Advanced Search Proximity, truncation, etc. Tools = Text Analyzer IIT library website: explore UOH: Igmlnet.uohyd.ac.in:8000 Open Free Resources Dissertations, Statistics, more…!

4. How to find an article with only the citation and/or the abstract: See sciencebuddies.com DOI number (Digital Object Identifier) website at https://dx.doi.org/ Articles may change locations; DOI doesn’t change If it starts with http:// or https:// … (an active link) If it doesn’t, add http:doi.org/10.—etc. Sci.hub ( sigh …)

5. Why use a “working bibliography”? Sources already in the correct style No need to return to the original Place to add comments, observations, etc. Must be done first to write the paper Organizing the paper with a working bibliography (“source driven”)

6. Today’s Presentation will cover… Using information from sources Organizing your paper through outlining Writing from your outline (words - sentences – paragraphs) Writing paragraphs

7. I. Using Sources Correctly

8. Review… Readers should know what source has provided each piece of information. Strong research integrates accurate information, authoritative opinions, & reliable data from varied sources. It also gives credit to the authors and researchers whose information, ideas, and data are used.

9. Short Course in Plagiarism Plagiarism: the unauthorized use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of another author and the representation of them as one's own original work.

10. Online Resources about plagiarism Website with resources: https://academy.sitehost.iu.edu/choice.html Test: https://tedfrick.sitehost.iu.edu/plagiarism/item1.html

11. A Word about Citation Styles APA. MLA, Chicago, ISO 690

12. ISO 690/ISO 690-2 Most commonly used style for academic writing in many countries Developed by the International Organization for Standards Updated in 2010, ISO 690-2 is used for electronic sources

13. APA / MLA / Chicago Other citation styles often used in the USA Different styles / same goals… For example, APA = sciences because it emphasizes DATES (the most current research)

14. References List Starts on a separate page in a paper Comes after the body of the paper but before the appendixes Includes all sources used and mentioned in the text Format depends on style required; no space between entries Alphabetized by author, responsible party, or title (if no other information is available)

15. General Format of Entries Author(s) given first, inverted names, only first and middle initials, uses “&” between names, use period. Date of publication in parentheses, use period. Title Articles: First word capitalized, no italics, period, then journal title as below. Books, journals, and Internet sites: First word capitalized, italicized, period

16. General Guidelines continued: Volume number, pages (for journal article) City of publication and publisher (for book) “Retrieved” and date accessed for Web articles; “from” and URL or database for Internet sites of any type (Always disable the hyperlink – right click, select “Remove hyperlink” from the menu)

17. Examples in APA              Degelman , D., & Harris, M. L. (2000).  APA style essentials.  Retrieved May 18, 2000, from Vanguard University, Department of Psychology Web site: http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ ddegelman /index.cfm?doc_id=796 Gender and society . (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2001, from http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/ gender.html Murzynski , J., & Degelman , D. (1996). Body language of women and judgments of vulnerability to sexual assault [Abstract].  Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26,  1617-1626.   (See Purdue OWL, examples done with JSTOR; other submission styles)

18. Textual Citations How to refer to sources in the text of your paper

19. Cannot be done without the Reference page citation Often several different sources are cited in the same paragraph. Most information is paraphrased or summarized, not quoted. Connect info with commentary (or “How not to write like a scientist”) 

20. Your reason for using the information should always be clear to the reader! In other words, make comments about the information from a source. (An “information sandwich”)

21. Citing Information in the Text Source information should be added as you write the paper, not afterwards! Purpose: the reader can easily find the source on the “References” list at the end Can be done two ways : 1. parentheses at the end of the sentence 2. embedded in the sentence using various “reporting verbs”

22. Note: before you can refer to a source properly in your paper, you must have it in correct format for your growing “References” page. This is why developing a working bibliography as you find sources is important.

23. Textual Reference Use parentheses at the end when the author’s name is not given in the sentence Example: … Some researchers suggest that young children store memories less efficiently than adults because specific neural structures required for memory storage have not yet matured in children at these ages (Nadel & Morgan, 1984). Therefore, …

24. When the authors are mentioned in the sentence, the date of publication is given in parentheses. Example: Nadel and Zola-Morgan (1984) suggest that infants and young children ...

25. Other examples: As Smith (1990) points out ... A recent study (Smith, 1990) shows... Smith (1990) argues that … Every source cited in your paper---and only those sources cited in your paper---must be listed on the “References” page.

26. Author variations Two authors – use and in the parentheses; mention both each time Three to five authors – mention all the first time; use first author and “et al” the second time ( example below ) Six or more authors – use the first name and “et al.” No author – use the first words in the title, enough to identify the source

27. Example: three to five authors: In a famous case study of amnesia, Milner, Corkin , and Teuber (1968) describe ... (first citation of this article) … The results of the study by Milner et al. (1968) also show that ... (subsequent citation of the article)

28. “Problems”? Researcher who has written extensively – more than one reference in different years -- more than one reference in the same year

29. personal communication? (interviews, emails, etc.) Using abstracts and other forms of information? Online videos? Other variations? For questions on the References list or in-text citations, go to https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/

30. More textual variations (Smith 2012 p. 23) ( Short title 2003) (“Short title” 2003) (United Nations [UN] 2001) Next citation: (UN 2001) (APA 2003 chap. 2) (Benton and Wilson 2001; Jones 2000)

31. Quote with page number Rumbaugh (1995) reported that "Kanzi's comprehension of over 600 novel sentences of request was very comparable to [ Alia’s ]; both complied with requests without assistance … on approximately 70% of the sentences" (p. 722). Why is “…” in the quote? What does “[ Alia’s ]” mean? What about [sic]?

32. Important! A paragraph should not usually end with a quote or cited information. You should comment on the information for your reader. Why is the quote there? What are you trying to convey by using the information? How does it relate to what comes before/after?

33. Quotes vs. Paraphrases/Summaries Quotes need author, date, and page Direct quotes should be minimized; put the information in your own words Quotes should only be used when the language is as important as the information/idea No matter which is used, the source MUST be cited

34. Format of long quotes/other questions, see OWL.Purdue

35. Sample Reporting Verbs admit, argue, assert, assume, believe, claim, conclude, contend, counter, demonstrate, describe, emphasize, explain, imply, indicate, maintain, observe, point out, predict, propose, prove, report, show, state, suggest, think, write, …

36. It is important to understand the authors’ intentions when you report what they say. “Smith indicated that ...” (weaker opinion) is very different from “Smith emphasized that...” (stronger opinion).

37. Other Phrases Used for Sentence References According to X, … In X ’ view, … In X’s research, he found that … For X , … As X has shown/expressed, …

38. Paraphrasing Recognize your goal: present the idea of the author, often a bit more concisely. Make sure the sentence is not similarly structured Be sure to add the citation Steps . . .

39. II. Visualizing Your Paper and Its Organization

40. What type of research are you doing? Not all research is the same type of research: Descriptive Correlational Quasi-experimental Experimental

41. from the Center for Innovation in Research and Teaching https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/developmentresources/research_ready/quantresearch/approaches

42. Dissertations vs. Publications Differ in scope language use introductory material etc.

43. Dissertation Structure Abstract – written as you finish Introduction – not completely written as you begin Literature Review Methodology and Results/ Findings – steps taken/results; easier to write(?) Discussion/Conclusion – what it all means, future considerations References/Appendixes

44. Introduction Preliminary background information that “sets the stage” Clarify the focus of your specific research question/limits the scope Explains why your research is important in this context Explains your objectives for the research – what you aimed to accomplish

45. It will often include A “hook” General comments about the subject that lead into … Your thesis statement An ideas of the subtopics to be covered the outcome which will be discuss ed more in the conclusion

46. Thesis Statement Comes from your final Research Question. The thesis statement tells the reader what the paper will prove based on your research . Sometimes a writer will indicate the basic subtopics of the paper in the thesis statement or in the sentence(s) immediately afterward.

47. Find the thesis statement in the articles and dissertations you are reading: it should be the one (or two) sentence that tells you what the entire document is about.

48. Literature Review Expands the preliminary information from the introduction Comprehensive look at what other researchers have done before Is usually added to as you go through your research Dynamic! You will add pieces of information from research as you write up and explain your findings

49. What not to do… See Masood et al. article “ School performance, social networking effects, and learning of school children: Evidence of reciprocal relationships in Abu Dhabi” Retrieve on sciencedirect.com

50. Methodology and Findings Describes what you did/are doing Different for different types of research Enough information for replicating the study Reports your observations

51. How Many Chapters? Depends on your topic! May cover more research Subtopics are often chapters

52. Conclusion Discussion of your results Evaluates causes, effects, etc. Can be positive or negative Can suggest the impact for future Can make recommendations for further study

53. References Page References – lists sources cited in the text in alphabetical order Appendixes – If needed, charts, tables, etc. that do not belong in the text

54. Where do I start? Everywhere!!! (Just kidding, sort of…) Literature review? Methodology? Anywhere, several at once… (Just don’t start with the Conclusion!)

55. III. Drafting and Organizing Your Paper To draft a well constructed research paper, you must present your information in paragraphs, lead the reader through your information using strong transitions, clearly indicate the sources of your information, write an effective introduction and conclusion.

56. Write an Outline! First, write an outline. Put in the sections you will need. Use your planned subtopics these are probably going to turn into chapters. Add details of information at different levels. (Each level may become 1+ paragraphs you will write.)

57. Organization Chronological Cause to effect(s) Effect to cause(s) Least to most important Least to most detailed Comparison/contrast Item 1: a,b,c ; item 2: a,b,c , Aspect a: 1,2; aspect b: 1,2; aspect c:1,2

58. Check Your Outline Does it go from general to specific? Are sources appropriate? Is there enough information to cover topic? Plan details/examples/etc. Your outline is the “map” of your paper.

59. The “Working Outline” You may produce one for each chapter or section of your paper. Rename your outline document and write into the outline.

60. The process Rename your outline .doc Open your WB New .doc – References page

61. Next, add information from your Working Bibliography. Add notes about what information you still need to find. Put in comments to yourself! It is your “working outline” NIKE says, “Just do it!”

62. Levels of Writing Consider writing is made from WORDS to … PHRASES to … SENTENCES to … PARAGRAPHS to … CHAPTERS to … FINISHED PAPER

63. Consider your word level Accurate use Variety –connectors, reporting verbs, etc. Key words and phrases Avoid simple vocabulary (words like “good, bad, got, …) Avoid use of adverbs; when possible, find strong verbs Dictionary.com/Thesaurus.com

64. A word about using too many $10 words . . . Using a powerful vocabulary is good! Being wordy and trying to sound impressive is not!

65. Use thesaurus.com But be careful! “impact” “jolt”  

66. Sentences Correct, error free Varied sentence patterns Varied sentence beginnings Concise, even when longer Use phrases when appropriate

67. When do we use commas? Grammar and mechanics are important, but . . . Don’t worry about them until the editing process ( after you’ve written the rough draft).

68. Sentence Variety Sentence patterns: Simple Compound Complex Compound/complex DO the rewriting exercise in pairs

69. Combining Sentences Connect with different words Make information into phrases adverbial preposition “--- ing ” / “---ed” extra insert (use 2 commas!)

70. Is this a sentence? The chemicals reacted. The chemicals reacted to the catalyst in the solution during the experiment. They made a new compound. It can be used to cure cancer.

71. Minimize use of and, but, so, … Adverbial clauses add Flow Information Variety (before/after S+V) Words like because, since, wh --, …

72. Paragraphs A paragraph develops one main idea. This main idea is identified in a clear topic sentence . The following sentences develop and support this idea clearly. Transition words and other transition devices aid in identifying the information and leading the reader through the information presented. A  concluding sentence sums up the points made, and can often lead to the next paragraph in a paper.

73. Not every paragraph has a topic sentence. Sometimes groups of paragraphs work together in tandem to break up one large section of information. In this case, transition and coherence is particularly important.

74. Transitions: Linking Your Paper’s Content

75. 1. Transition words and phrases Don’t just use one type Know what they mean Guide you reader through your information and thoughts Sometimes called “discourse markers”

76. Discourse markers ( transition or signal words) which must have a   comma separating them from the rest of the sentence. These are words like however, therefore, and for example. Example: Totalitarian rulers throughout history have killed thousands of their own people with relative impunity. For example, Stalin murdered over 20 million people while he was in power.

77. Some transitions are clauses or phrases : t he ir meanings are similar, but they are not used the same way. (For example, although and including should never begin a sentence separated by a comma. ) Example: Totalitarian rulers throughout history have killed thousands of their own people with relative impunity, including Stalin, who murdered over 20 million people while he was in power. (be careful using including and especially)

78. Pr onoun Reference Pronoun reference 1. personal pronouns 2. demonstrative pronouns

79. Repeating key words and phrases As mentioned before, especially with professional terms…

80. Transition happens from Sentence to sentence Paragraph to paragraph Chapter to chapter By referring backward as you go forward . . .

81. Using Synonyms Synonyms link the paper’s content , but also add variety and additional shades of meaning. A writer can describe the “growth” in tourism, the “rise” of economic prosperity, the “increasing” benefits of development, etc. (Don’t overdo it!)

82. Jobs of words in research writing: citation information transition markers information from sources (paraphrase or quotation) writer’s own comments, summaries, ideas, evaluation, etc.

83. In the middle ages, the length of the toe on a person’s shoe was a sign of rank, which was more important than practicality. A commoner was allowed no more than six inches, a landlord could have points up to twelve inches, and only princes and kings could wear any length they wanted (Shoe history, n.d.). However, pointed shoes were forbidden to anyone who did not have an income at least 40 pounds per year (Shoe history, n.d.). According to Northampton Borough Council (2009), the longest toes were worn by the King and his courtyard. To show their rank, therefore, those of high society wore shoes which became increasingly impractical. For example, Dorfman (n.d.) states that “Two of the oddest creations from this colorful epoch were the peaked shoe or Crackow and the Duckbill shoe in Elizabethan England. The former was made with a toe so long that walking was extremely difficult if not impossible. ” These styles indicate that little attention was devoted to comfort during medieval times, since the sign of status was extravagance.

84. Editing Your Work How do we get a fresh eye? Sentence level/Paragraph level Make a list of your sentences Read your paragraphs aloud Read the topic sentence only out loud through the section/chapter

85. Notes to cover Thesis statement   Organizing the information: general to specific Logic line Type of info: chronological; order of importance, comparison (same order), cause effect (group to rising/falling importance);   Transitions at all levels  Good writing: words level: concise/ powerful verbs, not adverbs/   Sentences: variety/ no fragments/ concise   Paragraph writing = unified chunks of information; flow, start with topic sentence; don’t digress, can be groups if the topic covered is large chunk of information, but use t-word to signal reader you are still on the topic  

86. More Drafting tips: don’t bog down, go back to your research journal—write a note and move on! Generate your References page as you write Write from your outline, may be done in chunks Will probably be done out of order or simultaneaously   Publishing information in journals Abstract writing Title writing  

87. More examples Clark County schools teaching sign, integrating deaf and hearing students. (1996, January 29). Indiana Daily Student, p. 4. Levine, S. C. (1993). Effects of early unilateral lesions: Changes over the course of development. In G. Turkewitz & D. A. Devenny (Eds.), Developmental time and timing (pp. 143-165). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. National Parent Information Network. (n.d.) Character education: The role of parents, teachers, and the community . Retrieved October 18, 2001, from http:/npin.org/library/2001/n00584/n00534.html Swanson, H.L. (1999). What develops in working memory? A life span perspective [Electronic version]. Developmental Pyschology , 35 , 986-1000.

88. Examples for this presentation were taken from these Web sites: http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/apa_style.shtml http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/index.cfm?doc_id=796 http://www.dianahacker.com/resdoc/social_sciences/intext.html Most examples of reporting verbs and phrases were taken from Svobodova, Z., Katzorke, H., Jaekel, U., Dugovicova, S., Scoggin, M., & Treacher, P. (n.d.). Writing in English: A practical handbook for scientific and technical writers. Leonardo da Vinci Programme, European Commision

89. Thank you for your attention. Good luck on your papers!