Background to behavioural approach Psychotherapy

This PowerPoint discusses about behavioural approach

1. Dr. Sarah Javed Assistant Professor Department of Psychology Aligarh Muslim University Behavioural Approach: Classical Conditioining: Operant Conditioning

2. Introduction Behaviorism conceptualize psychological disorders as the result of maladaptive learning, as people are born tabula rasa (a blank slate). They do not assume that sets of symptoms reflect single underlying causes. Behavioral therapies (also called behavior modification) are based on the theories of classical and operant conditioning.  The premise is that all behavior is learned; faulty learning (i.e. conditioning) is the cause of abnormal behavior. Therefore the individual has to learn the correct or acceptable behavior.  An important feature of behavioral therapy is its focus on current problems and behavior, and on attempts to remove behavior the patient finds troublesome.

3. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT The origin of behaviour approach can be traced back to classical experiment of J.B. Watson (1913,1925), who demonstrated that abnormal behaviour can be learnt. It was during the 1970's that behaviour therapy became a talking point. Contemporary behaviour therapy emerged simultanously in America, South Africa, and England Joseph Wolpe  (1958) tried to apply Pavlovian conditioning to sensitive de-sensitization in South Africa, whereas, Eysenck (1960) started similar work in England. They were roundly criticized. During the 1960s, Julion Roter and Bendura , worked independently on a behavioural approach, that stressed the impact of social learning and the modelling concept, and proposed that behaviour is shaped by the inter-action of an individual personality and significant others. In 1965, John- Krumboltz (1966) introduced the term ' behaviour ' counselling for the first time, and suggested that counsellors should know that the purpose of their activity is to foster behavioural change in clients, thus all counselling is ultimately behavioural .

4. In 1970, Kanfer and Philips used Skinner's operant model, as a basis for developing the methods that came to be called " behaviour modification". Since then, a number of cognitive behaviour approaches were devised. Also, during this time, the behavioural approach established itself as a major force in psychology, and made a significant impact on psychiatry, psycho-therapy, social work and education. Today, behaviour therapy is quite accepted by professionals. Basically, classical conditioning, opérant conditioning, social working, and cognitive behaviour therapy, arc the four major areas of development that have contributed substantially to the emergence of behaviour therapy. Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura , and Elis are the architects of these developments

5. BASIC ASSUMPTIOMS OF BEHAVIOUR THERAPY Relative to psychotherapy, behavior therapy tends to concentrate on Maladaptive Behavior itself, rather than on some presumed underlying cause. Behaviour Therapy assumes that maladaptive behaviour are, to a considerable degree acquired through learning, the same way that any behaviour is learned. Behaviour therapy assumes that psychological principles, especially learning principles, can be extremely effective in modifying maladaptive behaviour . Behaviour therapy involves setting specific, clearly defined treatment goals. the importance of stimulus control Behaviour therapy nd trait psychology

6. 5. The behaviour therapist adapts his method of treatment to the clients problem. 6. Behaviour therapy concenterate on here and now. 7. It is assumed that any techniques subsumed under the label behaviour therapy have been subjected to empirical test and have been found to be relatively effective. 8. Behavior therapy expects the client to be active to deal with his or her problems and do something to bring the change

7. Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated . Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened ). Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a ' Skinner Box ' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.

8. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

9. Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is learning through association and was discovered by  Pavlov , a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. John Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was able to explain all aspects of human psychology. Everything from speech to emotional responses was simply patterns of stimulus and response. Watson completely denied the existence of the mind or consciousness. Watson believed that all individual differences in behavior were due to different learning experiences.

10. How Classical Conditioning Works Stage 1: Before Conditioning: In this stage, the  unconditioned stimulus  (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an organism. In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior / response which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been taught. In this respect, no new behavior has been learned yet. For example, a stomach virus (UCS) would produce a response of nausea (UCR). In another example, a perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness or desire (UCR). This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc. The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. For example, a stomach virus (UCS) would produce a response of nausea (UCR). In another example, a perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness or desire (UCR).

11. Stage 2: During Conditioning: D uring this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus, at which point it now becomes known as the  conditioned stimulus  (CS). For classical conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus should occur before the unconditioned stimulus, rather than after it, or during the same time. Thus, the conditioned stimulus acts as a type of signal or cue for the unconditioned stimulus. In some cases, conditioning may take place if the NS occurs after the UCS (backward conditioning), but this normally disappears quite quickly. The most important aspect of the conditioning stimulus is the it helps the organism predict the coming of the unconditional stimulus. Often during this stage, the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place. However, one trial learning can happen on certain occasions when it is not necessary for an association to be strengthened over time (such as being sick after food poisoning or drinking too much alcohol). For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS). Also, perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific person (CS).

12. Stage 3: After Conditioning: Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create a new conditioned response (CR). For example, a person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume (UCS) is now found attractive (CR). Also, chocolate (CS) which was eaten before a person was sick with a virus (UCS) now produces a response of nausea (CR).

13. OPERANT CONDITIONING

14. Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as  instrumental conditioning , is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light. But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such as classrooms or therapy sessions.

15. Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist  B.F. Skinner , which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning.  As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that it was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior. Through the first part of the 20th century, behaviorism became a major force within psychology. The ideas of  John B. Watson  dominated this school of thought early on. Watson focused on the principles of  classical conditioning , once famously suggesting that he could take any person regardless of their background and train them to be anything he chose. Early behaviorists focused their interests on associative learning. Skinner was more interested in how the  consequences  of people's actions influenced their behavior.

16. His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist  Edward Thorndike , who had proposed what he called the  law of effect . According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated. Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your polite behavior, you will be more likely to raise your hand the next time you have a question or comment. Because the behavior was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the preceding action is strengthened. Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to occur again in the future. If you shout out an answer in class and your teacher scolds you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the class again.

17. Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors Respondent behaviors  are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically and involuntarily. Operant behaviors , on the other hand, are those under our  conscious  control. Some may occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence whether or not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the environment and the consequences of that action make up an important part of the  learning process . While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it could not account for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant conditioning held far greater importance.

18. Components of Operant Conditioning There are four types of operant conditioning that can be utilized to change behavior: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. Positive reinforcers  are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer . Negative reinforcers  involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your child's).

19. Positive punishment , sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application. Negative punishment , also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.

20. Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Schedules Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number of factors that can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found that  when  and  how often  behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of  acquisition . In other words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and how old behaviors were modified. Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant conditioning process:

21. Schedules of Reinforcement ( A) Continuous Reinforcement : An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off. Response rate is SLOW Extinction rate is FAST (B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement : Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly. Response rate is FAST Extinction rate is MEDIUM

22. (C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement : One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Response rate is MEDIUM Extinction rate is MEDIUM (D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement: Behavior is reinforced after a varied number of responses.. For examples gambling or fishing. Response rate is FAST Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability) (E) Variable Interval Reinforcement: Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after a variable amount of time has elapsed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times. Response rate is FAST Extinction rate is SLOW