BB Chapter Nine : Learning and Memory

1. Chapter Nine:
Learning and Memory
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2. Chapter 9:
Learning and memory
1.
Nature of learning
2.
Differences between classical conditioning,
operant (instrumental) conditioning and
cognitive learning
3.
Main characteristics of learning
4.
Understand how consumers learn
5.
How knowledge about learning can be
incorporated into marketing strategies
6.
Importance of brand image and product
positioning
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3. The Nature of Learning The Nature of Learning Learning Learning
is
any change
in the content or
organization of long-
term memory or
behavior and is the
result of information
processing.
Consumer behavior Consumer behavioris largely learned
behavior
.
Feelings Feelings
Symbolic Symbolic Meanings Meanings
Preferences Preferences
Behaviors Behaviors
Tastes Tastes
Values Values
Attitudes Attitudes
Learning Learning
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4. Learning as a key to consumer behaviour
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5. Learningresults from information
processing, causing memory changes
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6. The Nature of Learning and Memory The Nature of Learning and Memory
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7. Involvement and learning
•
Learning under
high-involvement
conditions
–
Consumer has a high motivation to learn
•
Learning under
low-involvement
conditions
–
Most consumer learning is in a low-involvement
context
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8. Learning Under High and Low Involvement Learning Under High and Low Involvement
AHigh
High
--
involvement learning involvement learning situation
is one in which
the consumer is motivated to process or learn the
material.
ALow
Low
--
involvement learning involvement learningsituation
is one in which
the consumer has little or no motivation to process or
learn the material.
Most consumer learning occurs in relatively low
involvement contexts.
The way a communication should be structured differ s
depending on the level of involvement the audience is
expected to have.
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9. Learning theories in high and low
involvement situations
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10. Types of learning
•
Conditioning
–
Classical conditioning
–
Operant conditioning
•
Cognitive learning
–
Iconic rote learning
–
Vicarious learning/modelling
–
Reasoning
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11. Conditioning
•
Conditioning is based on the
association
of a
stimulus (information) with a response
(behaviour or feeling)
•
It is a set of procedures that marketers can
use to
increase the chances
that an
association between two stimuli is formed or
learned.
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12. Learning Under High and Low Involvement Learning Under High and Low Involvement There are two types of conditioning: There are two types of conditioning: 1.1.Classical
Classical
Conditioning Conditioning
2.2.Operant
Operant
Conditioning Conditioning
Conditioning
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13. Classical
conditioning
•
Establishing a relationship between stimulus
and response to bring about the learning of
the same response to a different stimulus
•
Most common in low-involvement situations
•
Learning is more often a feeling or emotion
than information
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14. Consumer learning
through classical conditioning
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15. Learning Under High and Low Involvement Learning Under High and Low Involvement Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (or instrumental learning) inv olves
rewarding desirable behaviors such as brand purchases with a
positive outcome that serves to reinforce the behav ior.
Operant Operant
Conditioning Conditioning
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16. Operant
conditioning
•
Trial precedes liking
–
Reverse is often true for classical conditioning
–
Product sampling is an example of this type of learn ing
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17. How affective response leads
to learning
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18. Products using the Heart Foundation’s tick
are associated with good health
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19. The process of
shaping
in purchase behaviour
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20. An advertisement designed to induce trial
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21. Learning Under High and Low Involvement Learning Under High and Low Involvement
Cognitive Learning Cognitive Learning ••
Cognitive learning Cognitive learning encompasses all the mental
activities of humans as they work to solve
problems or cope with situations.
• It involves learning ideas, concepts, attitudes, a nd
fact that contribute to our ability to reason, solv e
problems, and learn relationships without direct
experience or reinforcement.
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22. Learning Under High and Low Involvement Learning Under High and Low Involvement 1.1.
Iconic Rote Learning Iconic Rote Learning
2.2.
Vicarious Learning/Modeling Vicarious Learning/Modeling
3.3.
Analytical Reasoning Analytical Reasoning
Cognitive Learning
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23. Cognitive
learning
•
Iconic rote learning
–
Association between two or more concepts
in the
absence of conditioning

a substantial amount of low-involvement
learning involves iconic rote learning

achieved by repeated advertising messages
•
In iconic rote learning there is neither an
unconditioned stimulus (classical) nor a direct rew ard
or reinforcement (operant) involved.
•
Repetition tends to be critical to iconic rote lear ning.
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24. Cognitive learning
(cont.)
•
Vicarious
learning/modelling
–
Observe others' behaviour and adjust their own
accordingly

common in both high-involvement and low-
involvementsituations
•
Reasoning
–
Most complex form of cognitive learning

most high-involvement decisions generate
some reasoning
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25. Learning Under High and Low Involvement Learning Under High and Low Involvement Vicarious learning Vicarious learning or
modeling modeling
can include observing the
outcomes of others’behaviors and adjusting their ow n
accordingly. In addition, they can use imagery to
anticipate the outcome of various courses of action .
This type of learning is common in both low-and hig h-
involvement situation.
Many ads encourage consumers to imagine the feeling
and experience of using a product. Such images not only
enhance learning about the product, but may even
influence how the product is evaluated after an act ual trial.
Vicarious Learning/Modeling Vicarious Learning/Modeling
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26. Learning Under High and Low Involvement Learning Under High and Low Involvement Analytical reasoning Analytical reasoning is the most complex form of
cognitive cognitive
learning learning.
•Individuals engage in creative thinking to restruc ture and
recombine existing information as well as new infor mation to
form new associations and concepts.
•Information from a credible source that contradict s or
challenges one’s existing beliefs will often trigge r reasoning.
••
Analogical reasoning Analogical reasoning
allows consumers to use an existing
knowledge base to understand a new situation or obj ect.
Analytical Reasoning Analytical Reasoning
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27. An advertisement using reasoning
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28. General
characteristics
of learning
•
The strength of learning is influenced by:
–
Importance and relevance

separates high and low-involvement learning
situations
–
Involvement
–
Mood
–
Reinforcement (or punishment)
–
Stimulus repetitions (practice sessions)
–
Imagery
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29. Learning Under High and Low Involvement Learning Under High and Low Involvement
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30. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval
Strength of Learning Strength of Learning

Memory Interference Memory Interference

Response Environment Response Environment
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31. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval What is required to bring about a long-lasting lear ned
response?
One factor is
strength of learning strength of learning.
The stronger the original learning (e.g., of nodes and links
between nodes), the more likely relevant informatio n will
be retrieved when required.
Strength of learning Strength of learning
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32. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Strength of learning is enhanced by six factors: Strength of learning is enhanced by six factors: 1.1.
Importance Importance
2.2.
Message Involvement Message Involvement
3.3.
MoodMood
4.4.
Reinforcement Reinforcement
5.5.
Number of stimulus repititions Number of stimulus repititions
6.6.
The amount of imagery contained in the material The amount of imagery contained in the material
Strength of Learning
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33. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Importance Importance
refers to the
value that consumers place
on the information to be
learned.
Importance Importancemight be driving
by inherent interest in the
product or brand, or might
be driven be the need to
make a decision in the near
future.
Importance Importance
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34. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval When a consumer is not motivated to learn the mater ial,
processing can be increased by causing the person t o
become involved with the message itself.
•
Example: Playing an instrumental version of a popu lar
song with lyrics related to product attributes may cause
people to “sing along,” either out loud or mentally.
Self referencing Self referencing uses second-person pronouns (you, your)
in ads to encourage consumers to relate brand infor mation
to themselves.
Message Involvement Message Involvement
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35. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval
A positive mood during the presentation of informat ion
such as brand names enhances learning.

A positive mood during the reception of information
appears to enhance its relational elaboration—it is
compared with and evaluated against more categories.

This produces a more complete and stronger set of
linkages among a variety of other brands and
concepts, which in turn enhances retrieval (access to
the information).
MoodMood
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36. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Reinforcement Reinforcementinvolves anything that increases the l ikelihood
that a given response will be repeated in the futur e.
Reinforcement Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement A pleasant or desired
consequence
Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement The removal or the
avoidance of an unpleasant
consequence.
Punishment Punishmentis the opposite of reinforcement. It is any
consequence that decreases the likelihood that a gi ven response
will be repeated in the future.
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37. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Repetition Repetition
enhances learning and memory by increasing
accessibility of information or by strengthening th e
associative linkages between concepts.

Repetition depends on importance and reinforcement.

Less repetition of an advertising message is needed if
importance is high or if there is a great deal of r elevant
reinforcement.
Repetition Repetition
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38. General characteristics of learning(cont.)
•
Extinction
–
Forgetting occurs when reinforcement for
learning is withdrawn
•
Stimulus generalisation
–
Brand equity
–
Brand leverage
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39. Spontaneous awareness: Brand A
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40. Spontaneous awareness: Brand B
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41. Changes in buyer commitment to the product
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42. Learning Under High and Low Involvement Learning Under High and Low Involvement
Learning to Generalize and Differentiate Learning to Generalize and Differentiate ••Stimulus generalization
Stimulus generalization
or rub or rub
--
off effect off effectoccurs
when a response to one stimulus is elicited by a
similar but distinct stimulus.
••Stimulus discrimination
Stimulus discrimination
or differentiation or differentiation refers
to the process of learning to respond differently t o
similar but distinct stimuli.
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43. Example of
stimulus generalisation
to launch a new product
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44. General characteristics of learning (cont.)
•
Stimulus
discrimination
–
Why your brand is different
•
Response environment
–
Strength of original learning
–
Similarity of original learning environment to the
retrieval environment
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45. The response environment
•
Strength of original learning affects ability to
retrieve relevant information
•
Similarity of the original learning and the type
of learning is important
•
Marketers aim to
replicate
these situations
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46. Memory and its connection to Consumer Information
Processing (Perception-previous lecture)
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47. Memory Memory
’’
s Role in Learning s Role in Learning
Memory consists of two interrelated components Memory consists of two interrelated components: 1.1.Short
Short
--
term Memory (STM) term Memory (STM)
a.k.a. working memory a.k.a. working memory
• is that portion of total memory that is currently activated
or in use.
2.2.Long
Long
--
term Memory (LTM) term Memory (LTM)
• is that portion of total memory devoted to permanent
information storage.
••
Semantic memory Semantic memory is the basic knowledge and
feelings an individual has about a concept.
••
Episodic memory Episodic memory is the memory of a sequence of
events in which a person participated.
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48. The Multiple Store Approach to
Memory
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49. Memory Memory
’’
s Role in Learning s Role in Learning

STM is Short Lived STM is Short Lived • Consumers must constantly refresh information through
maintenance rehearsal maintenance rehearsal or it will be lost.

STM has Limited Capacity STM has Limited Capacity • Consumers can only hold so much information in
current memory.

Elaborative Activities Occur in STM Elaborative Activities Occur in STM ••
Elaborative activities Elaborative activities serve to redefine or add new
elements to memory and can involve both
concepts concepts and
imagery imagery.
Short-Term Memory
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50. Short term memory
Two kinds of information processing: •
Elaborative activities
:
–
Use of previously stored experiences, values,
attitudes, beliefs and feelings to interpret and
evaluate information in the working memory.
•
Maintenance rehearsal
:
–
The continual repetition of a piece of information
in order to hold it in working memory to solve
problems. Repeating a brand name is an
example of this.
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51. Memory (cont.)
•
Long-term memory
–
Unlimited permanent storage
–
Schematic memory

linking to ‘chunks’of information
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52. Memory Memory
’’
s Role in Learning s Role in Learning

Schemas (a.k.a. schematic memory) Schemas (a.k.a. schematic memory)

Scripts Scripts

Retrieval from LTM Retrieval from LTM
Long-Term Memory
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53. Mental Processes Assisting
Learning
Repetition Repetition
Dual
Coding
Dual
Coding
Meaningful
Encoding
Meaningful
Encoding
Chunking Chunking
These rely on making associations. These rely on making associations.
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54. Cognitive Schemas
•Schema –a type of associative network
that works as a cognitive representation
of a phenomenon that provides meaning
to that entity.
•Exemplar–a concept within a schema
that is the single best representative of
some category.
•Prototype –characteristics more
associated with a concept.
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55. Memory Memory
’’
s Role in Learning s Role in Learning
A Partial Schematic Memory for Mountain Dew A Partial Schematic Memory for Mountain Dew
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56. A Typical Consumer’s
Associative Network Associated with
Mercedes
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57. Reaction to New Products/Brands
What is this?!? What is this?!?
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We find it strange if a brand doesn’t fit within th e
given associative network of attributes

58. The Knowledge for Snack Foods
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59. Category Exemplars
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60. Memory Memory
’’
s Role in Learning s Role in Learning
Explicit memory Explicit memory
is
characterized by the
conscious recollection of
an exposure event.
Implicit memory Implicit memory involves the
nonconscious retrieval of
previously encountered
stimuli.
Retrieval: Knowing versus Remembering Retrieval: Knowing versus Remembering
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61. Learning, Memory, and Learning, Memory, and
Retrieval Retrieval
Marketers want consumers to
learn and remember
positive
features, feelings, and behaviors associated with
their brands.
What happens when What happens when
consumers consumers
forget forget
??
Conditioned Learning Conditioned Learning
Extinction Extinction
Desired response decays or dies out
if not reinforced.
Cognitive Learning Cognitive Learning
Retrieval Failure Retrieval Failure
Information that is available in LTM
cannot be retrieved.
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62. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval
Forgetting over Time: Magazine Advertisement Forgetting over Time: Magazine Advertisement
Source: LAP Report #5260.1 (New York: Weeks McGraw-Hill, undated). Reprinted with
permission from McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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63. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval
Impact of Repetition on Brand Awareness for High Impact of Repetition on Brand Awareness for High
--
and Low and Low
--
Awareness Brands Awareness Brands
Source: A Study of the effectiveness of Advertisin g Frequency in Magazines, 1993 Time, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
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64. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval
Repetition Timing and Advertising Recall Repetition Timing and Advertising Recall
Source: Reprinted from H. J. Zielski, “The Remembering and Forgetting of Advertising,” Journal of Mark eting, January 1959, p. 240, with permission from T he American Marketing Association. The actual
data and a refined analysis were presented in J. L. Simon, “What Do Zielski’s Data Really Show about Pulsing?” Journal of Marketing Research, August 1979, pp. 415-20.
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65. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Memory interference Memory interference
occurs when consumers have
difficulty retrieving a specific piece of informati on because
other related information in memory gets in the way .
A common form of interference in
marketing is due to
competitive
advertising.
Competitive advertising makes it
harder for consumers to recall any
given advertisement and its
contents.
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66. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval
What Can Marketers Do to Decrease
Competitive Interference?
What Can Marketers Do to Decrease What Can Marketers Do to Decrease
Competitive Interference? Competitive Interference?
Avoid Competing Advertising
Avoid Competing Advertising Avoid Competing Advertising
Strengthen Initial learning
Strengthen Initial learning Strengthen Initial learning
Reduce Similarity to Competing Ads
Reduce Similarity to Competing Ads Reduce Similarity to Competing Ads
Provide External Retrieval Cues
Provide External Retrieval Cues Provide External Retrieval Cues
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67. Learning, Memory, and Retrieval Learning, Memory, and Retrieval
Response Environment Response Environment
Retrieval is also affected by the similarity of the retrieval
(response) environment to the original learning
environment and type of learning.
The more the retrieval situation offers cues simila r to the
cues present during learning, the more likely effec tive
retrieval is to occur.
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68. Product
positioning
strategy
•
Brand image
•
Product positioning
•
Perceptual mapping
•
Product repositioning
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69. Brand Image and Product Positioning Brand Image and Product Positioning Brand image Brand image
refers to the schematic memory of a brand.
Manufacturer Manufacturer
Marketer Marketer
Characteristics Characteristics
Users Users
Usage Situations Usage Situations
Benefits Benefits
Perceived Product Perceived Product
Attributes Attributes
Brand Image Brand Image
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70. Brand Image and Product Positioning Brand Image and Product Positioning Product positioning Product positioning
is a decision by a marketer to try to
achieve a defined brand image relative to competiti on
within a market segment.
An important component of brand image is the appropriate
usage situations for the product or brand.
Perceptual mapping Perceptual mapping
offers marketing managers a useful
technique for measuring and developing a product’s
position.
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71. Brand Image and Product Positioning Brand Image and Product Positioning
Perceptual Map for Automobiles Perceptual Map for Automobiles
Also refer to Figure 9.13 on page
286 of the text
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72. Brand Image and Product Positioning Brand Image and Product Positioning Product repositioning Product repositioning
refers to a deliberate decision to
significantly alter the way the market views a prod uct. This
can involve

level of performance

the feelings it evokes

the situations in which it should be used, or

who uses the product
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73. Brand Equity and Brand Leverage Brand Equity and Brand Leverage
Brand equity Brand equity
is the value consumers assign to a brand
above and beyond the functional characteristics of the
product.
Brand leverage Brand leverage
,often termed
family branding, brand family branding, brand
extensions, or umbrella branding extensions, or umbrella branding
, refers to marketers
capitalizing on brand equity by using an existing b rand
name for new products.
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