Behavioural science 2024(By Kenneth Owusu Ansah).pptx

Behavioural Science

1. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Some Misconceptions By Mr. Kenneth Owusu Ansah

2. Some Misconceptions Psychology is mind reading It is about magic, tricks and mysticism Some also believe it is about fortune telling (Soothsayers) NB: Psychology is rather about the whats , hows and whys of human behavior.

3. Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and other lower organisms (Coon, 2004). It comes from two Greek words “psyche” and “Logos” . Psyche means mind and Logos means knowledge or study. That is, its about understanding people and the mind.

4. Is Psychology a Science? Psychology is a science because it accepts the scientific assumptions, adhere to the characteristics and follow the scientific steps in studying human behavior.

5. Characteristics of a Scientific Study Empirical Evidence: they are verifiable by means of scientific experimentation. Thus, testable through the use of observations, interviews and psychological testing.

6. What makes Psychology a Science? Replicability: All the procedures of the study must be described so that anyone who want to repeat the study could come out with similar results. Thus, spelling out the methodology of the work.

7. What makes Psychology a Science? Quantifiability: Variables to be studied must be in quantifiable units. Must be transformed into a numerical form Generalizability: Findings gained from the study, must be extended to a larger population.

8. What is Behavior Refers to the way in which an individual responds to a stimulus. The way an individual responds can be perceived by ones’ senses or can be inferred by using instruments.

9. Types of Behaviors Two main Types Overt Behavior: This can be observed easily by the senses. Eg : Talking, dancing etc Covert Behavior: These cannot be easily observed by the senses. We need instruments to observe them. Eg : thinking, intelligence and love

10. Types of Behaviors Two main Types can be categorized into : Reflex Behavior: This occurs automatically in response to a stimulus. For eg : producing saliva in response to the taste of food, jumping when one gets a pin prick.

11. Types of Behaviors Goal-Directed Behavior: This is where there is a need in an individual and the person strives to satisfy it with certain behavioral pattern. For a child who is hungry will cry until he is fed.

12. Types of Behaviors Frustration Behavior: This is suggested by Maier (1949) when he said the goal of the behavior is specific and the person tries several times but the need is not met. Finally when the need met, the person does not appreciate it again.

13. Types of Behaviors Conditioned Behavior: This consists of behavior patterns exhibited by the individual due to long standing habitual practices adapted by the individual.

14. Goals of Psychology Description: The first task of a psychologist is to gather information about the behavior being studied and to present what is known For eg : Symptoms of depression are weight loss, problems with sleeping patterns, difficulty concentrating

15. Goals of Psychology Understanding/Explanation Requires knowledge of why the phenomenon exists or what causes it Finding explanations is an important step in the process of forming theories A theory is a general explanation of a set of observations or facts.

16. Goals of Psychology Prediction: The ability to anticipate an event prior to its actual performance based on knowledge of underlying causes The knowledge of what causes depression for instance help to anticipate future occurrence of behavior or not This helps to control or modify the behavior to make it much more adaptive

17. Goals of Psychology Creating Changes: To influence or control behavior in helpful ways They are interested in discovering ways to use what is already known about people to benefit others

18. Use of Animals in Research Psychologist do research to learn more about behavior in order to advance the welfare of humans. Researchers and other scientists frequently use animals to conduct research that cannot be carried out with humans. Eg : Experiments on brain lesion

19. Use of Animals in Research Other groups (animal activists) are against using animals in research

20. Why Psychologists Study Animals 1. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

21. Why Psychologists Study Animals Darwin’s theory states that there are some form of similarities and continuity among all animals and all known animals have evolved from a common ancestor. Eg. Humans and chimpanzees are more similar This continuity and commonalities imply that knowledge gained from animals could be beneficial to understanding of some aspects of humans.

22. Why Psychologists Study Animals 2. Structure and Function of the CNS

23. Why Psychologists Study Animals Evidence from research has shown that the structure and functions of the central nervous system of both humans and animals are similar. This evidence reinforces Darwin’s theory that both species have a common ancestry.

24. Why Psychologists Study Animals 3. The Principle of Parsimony Scientists should prefer the theory that explains the results using the simplest assumption Thus, if animals are lower than humans on the evolutionary ladder, then knowledge gained from the study of animals might provide insight as to what might be the case in humans.

25. Why Psychologists Study Animals 4. No need for Consent A researcher does not need any consent from animals before conducting an experiment. 5. Cost of research: Conducting research involves huge sums of money. The use of animals in research minimize some of the costs involved.

26. Why Psychologists Study Animals 6. Ethical Reasons At times it is unethical to perform certain experiments on humans. Example, investigating the effect of marijuana on the brain. It is therefore humane to carry out the experiment and understand the phenomenon with animals. 7. Test of new drugs and studies involving irreversible damage (brain lesion) 8. Similar principles of learning and motivation among lower animals and humans (perception, motivation and learning are the same)

27. Arguments against the use of animals In 1980s, people for the Ethical Treatment of Animals and the Animal Right Coalition protested against the use of animals in research. They raised a lot of concerns about the use of animals in research and some of them are as follows.

28. Arguments against the use of animals 1. Culture and animal Studies They argued that culture plays a role in behavior. It is therefore unacceptable to study animals in areas such as language and emotions and then assume that the outcome could be applied to humans. Both species have different levels and forms of language. This assertion is supported by various unsuccessful attempts made by psychologists to train chimpanzees to learn human language (Premack, 1976).

29. Arguments against the use of animals 2. Equal Treatment Animals like humans are part of creation. They are individuals on their own right and must be treated in ways humans are treated. What is unacceptable to humans in terms of research must also be unacceptable to animals. This point is forcefully made by McCabe 1986 that there is no rational basis for separating out animals; for a rat is a pig as do is a boy. In other words, they are all mammals.

30. Arguments against the use of animals 3. Laboratory Animals Critics have also argued that the use of animals raised in confinement are not likely to behave in the same manner as those in the wild. Because of their confinement and special case, these animals may lose significant aspect of their natural characteristics and behavior.

31. Arguments against the use of animals 4. Similarities in the Central Nervous System Challenged They challenged the claim that there is similarities in the CNS of animals and humans This is because even though they might be of the same structure, when it comes to behavior there are still differences.

32. Arguments against the use of animals 5. Knowledge gained from animal are not useful to human beings. Thus, the two species are not the same . Animals are animals, and humans are humans.

33. PARA & PSEUDO PSYCHOLOGY They are two broad areas which fall outside the scope of psychology. Para psychology literally means “beyond psychology”. Pseudo psychology is termed as “false Psychology” because the methods employed by practitioners are not scientific. Scientific methods are currently the only method endorsed and used by credible psychologists. Para and Pseudo deal with behaviors and phenomena which cannot be verified by others.

34. PARA PSYCHOLOGY It goes beyond the 5 senses. We call such processes Extrasensory Perception (ESP) ESP is the unproven ability to communicate, gain knowledge and information outside the use of the five (5) senses. Reported ESP experiences involve telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, psychokinesis, etc.

35. Telepathy This is known as thought transfer from one person to another without the mediation of any known channel of communication. One is said to experience this when a thought you have or something you are thinking also occurs to another person at the same period.

36. Clairvoyance This is the ability to see what is happening at a particular place at a certain time without having any prior knowledge of the events. It involves being able to see or give Example: while studying here in this lecture an account of an ongoing events at room, one can perceive and tell exactly another place irrespective of the what is happening in the office of the distance and physical barrier. President of the Republic of Ghana. A key ingredient is the absence of prior information of the event.

37. Precognition This is the ability to perceive and accurately predict or foretell events or the acquisition of information about events which will exist or occur in the future without any prior knowledge In religion this may be called prophesy Example of precognition A prediction no matter how accurate Accurately foretelling the scoreline of a it is, is not considered as precognition football match based on means which are if it is based on the known. not scientific. For instance, Prediction of Ghana’s population and growth rate in 2013 cannot be a precognition.

38. Psychokinesis

39. Psychokinesis Simply means the power of the mind over matter. The ability of an individual to exert influence over animate and inanimate objects by will power. Others call it mental influence over physical events without the intervention of any known physical force. This cannot be verified by science.

40. PSEUDO PSYCHOLOGY Means false psychology hence it refers to unsubstantiated, false or fake psychology. It involves practices which are given semblance of psychology by which in real sense of the world are not. They are given some manifestation of science but do not satisfy scientific requirements. It has been referred to as dubious and unfounded system, which relies on some physical features of a person to predict his/her future. Egs include, Graphology, palmistry, Phrenology etc.

41. Graphology The believe that one’s handwriting reveals one’s personality traits and could also be used to predict job performance. Note that this is different from an aspect of forensic psychology in which an expert in handwriting can determine one’s signature. Graphology relates to using the size slant and other aspect of handwriting to make predictions about the person. Forensic (authenticity of signatures)

42. Palmistry It is the claim and believe that lines and the pattern of the individual’s palm have something to do with their personalities and that the nature of the lines and the pattern could be used to predict one’s future or destiny

43. Phrenology It is the belief that the bumps on one’s head and shape of one’s skull determine one’s personality, intelligence, and other individual characteristics. Based on this we may often hear people describe others as stupid or intelligent because of the shape of the head.

44. Problems with Para and Pseudo Psychology They lead to ready acceptance of chance events as evidence of paranormal phenomena Paranormal activities cannot be replicated There seem to be no explanation of paranormal phenomena It has been found that such processes are used to perpetrate fraud on others

45. Fields of Psychology All psychologists study organisms’ behavior However, they pursue knowledge in different ways, in different settings and from different perspectives Hence the different fields of psychology Some psychologists teach and conduct research, others provide psychological services to persons who are challenged and organizations.

46. Fields of Psychology There are two broad fields: Basic and Applied Fields. Basic Field: Doing research to increase knowledge and understanding of psychological phenomena Applied Field: The use of psychological principles and theories to overcome problems in life.

47. Fields of Psychology The field include areas such as: Clinical psychology Counseling psychology Industrial and organizational psychology Occupational health psychology Forensic psychology Engineering psychology Educational psychology Community psychology and many others

48. Clinical Psychology Uses psychological techniques to assess and treat persons with mental disorders. Use of psychotherapy to help solve challenges and to help people cope better with stress They do diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.

49. Counseling Psychology Focus on helping people with adjustment problems Provides advise for college students on adjustment, choice of subjects, vocational decision etc

50. School Psychology Work in school settings where they help children with academic, emotional and behavioral problems Also help with placement in special education problems. They team up with teachers to identify children who are needy and those with learning disabilities.

51. Educational Psychology Applies the principles of psychology in the classroom. Develops tests that measure intellectual ability or academic potential, help teachers enhance teaching methods and learning process, motivation in the classroom, etc.

52. Developmental Psychology Concerned with human dev’t ( eg. Physical, social, cognitive. language dev’t , etc ) from conception to the end of life. Also, they may specialize on dev’t in childhood, adolescence or adulthood.

53. Social Psychology How our behavior and attitudes are influenced by others. For eg .,at the stadium, how do people become influenced by those around them? Areas of study include conformity, aggression, leadership prejudice, attitudes, etc.

54. Environmental Psychology Studies relationships between the physical environment and behavior E.g. the link between noise, temperature, air pollution, housing, designs, overcrowding, etc and behavior

55. I/O Psychology Studies behavior at the workplace Focus is on how to increase motivation, job satisfaction, or decrease absenteeism among employees. Also, training workers to increase productivity, personnel selection, job attitudes, etc.

56. Forensic Psychology Deals with criminal behavior and the legal system Help law enforcement agencies in conducting profiles of possible suspects for a crime. Give expert testimony in court on psychological issues etc.

57. Sports Psychology Work with sportsmen and women and sports programs and teams Focus is on injury recovery, team building, motivation, performance enhancement techniques, and how fans influence athlete performance.

58. Personality Refers to “the sum total of the typical ways of acting, thinking and feeling that makes each person unique” (Lahey, 1994, pg. 460) That is, an individual’s most striking and dominant characteristics. For example, if one is shy, then his most dominant attribute is shyness.

59. Why study Personality? We all wish to know more about ourselves than we do now: Why am I having difficulty living with my room mate? Why am I having difficulty dating that guy everyone finds attractive? Why don’t I understand my friends? I can’t stand the look of blood, why is my friend interested in becoming a medical doctor?

60. Why study Personality? We are also interested in knowing more about others: We wonder, why does my room mate keep doing what she knows I hate? We wonder, why does he divorce this beautiful wife of his? We wonder, will Mr. Owusu Ansah be a hard grader ? We wonder, why does he want a career in only boxing?

61. Personality Assessment It is the process of evaluating individual differences among human beings by means of psychological tests, interviews, observations, and recordings of psychophysiological processes. Psychologists working in various fields frequently have to make important decisions about individuals. Psychologists must be able to provide a picture of their client’s personality. To do this, they rely on various test to assess people’s personality.

62. Personality Assessment Types of personality test: Interviews: It is the subjective method of personality assessment that involves questioning techniques designed to reveal the personality of the client Observation: Involves watching a person’s actual behavior in a natural setting or simulated situation. E.g. Holmes-Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale

63. Personality Assessment Types of personality test: Projective tests (inspired by Psychoanalysis): They are tests that use ambiguous stimuli designed to reveal the contents of the client’s unconscious mind. E.g., Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Rorschach Inkblot Test Objective Tests: These are highly structured paper and pencil or online questionnaires, usually true or false, or multiple choice, personality inventories

64. MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY

65. Theories of Personality Psychologists have developed several theories to explain the structure and growth of personality. These theories seek to explain how human personality originates, develops and operates: Psychoanalytic Theory Neo-Freudians Psycho-Social Theory Humanistic Theory

66. Psychoanalytic Theory

67. Assumptions of Psychoanalytic Theory Origin of human personality lies in the unconscious mind (instinctual drives; eros and Thanatos). Eros: Preserve Life (satisfy hunger, thirst and sexual needs) Thanatos: For destructiveness and death . Goal of returning all beings to its original lifeless state Thus, within the unconscious mind, personality is determinant of intrapsychic conflicts between id, ego and superego Freud further asserts that individuals’ personality is influenced by their childhood experiences

68. Levels of Consciousness Conscious mind: Portion of the mind containing memories of which you are presently aware of. Preconscious Mind: The portion of the mind containing memories which are not presently conscious but can be easily brought into consciousness. It is a vast storehouse of memories that were once conscious and can easily be brought into consciousness when needed. Unconscious Mind: the portion of the mind which we can never be directly aware of. it is the storehouse of instinctual memories and emotions that are so threatening to the conscious mind that they have been repressed.

69. Structure of Personality Three basic components of personality Id: It is the origin of personality and it is present at birth. Demands satisfaction of physical drives ( eg ; sex, hunger); psychological drives ( eg : protection from danger). The id operates on the pleasure principle (i.e., it seeks to achieve pleasurable feelings quickly and immediately by reducing pain, discomfort, or tension).

70. Structure of Personality

71. Structure of Personality Ego: Controls id’s impulses from being executed until a suitable object is available It guides id’s impulses in realistic directions If the ego is unable to hold id’s demands in check, the individual will experience anxiety.

72. Structure of Personality Superego: It represents the norms and values of society and their influence on human personality It acts as society’s code of conduct regarding what is right or wrong (moral values).

73. Defense Mechanisms To help minimize anxiety, the ego calls on various defense mechanisms for help. Can be viewed as psychological strategies for coping with threatening id instincts. Xtics of defense mechanisms Normal and universal Lead to unhealthy and compulsive behavior Operates in the unconscious level Protects the ego against anxiety. They are helpful to the person, harmless to society

74. Defense Mechanisms

75. Defense Mechanisms

76. Defense Mechanisms

77. Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development Freud theorized that human personality develops through 5 sequential stages. Of the 5 stages of development, Freud says 4 are related to “erogenous zones”. The libido (energy drive of the id) moves from one region to the other. Moves from the mouth then to the anus and finally to the genitals.

78. Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months) Breast Sucking:

79. Oral Stage Thumb Sucking:

80. Oral Stage Bottle Sucking:

81. Oral Stage Biting Sucking:

82. Oral Fixation Fixation: The impairment of development at a particular stage because its satisfaction is frustrated, resulting in a permanent investment of libidinal energy in that stage (e.g. 12 year-old sucking thumb). Oral-receptive personality: resulting from over-indulgence of food in the mouth and ingestion. Leads to gullibility, excessive dependence, smoking, biting of nails. Oral-aggressive personality: Due to under-indulgence of feeding. Leads to envy, suspiciousness and sarcasms.

83. Anal Stage (1 and half to 3 years) Sexual gratification comes from defecating, which eases tension in the bowels while stimulating the anus. Toilet training

84. Anal Fixation Anal-retentive personality: the person delays satisfaction to the last moment. Leads to compulsive cleanliness, orderliness and stinginess. Anal-expulsive personality: Person rebels against rules of appropriate behavior just as he/she insists on defecating without interference from parents. Leads to disorderliness, messiness and carelessness.

85. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) Satisfaction comes from stimulation of the penis or clitoris, through masturbation. What are their hands doing there?

86. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) The gods are not to blame- by Ola Rotimi

87. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) Oedipus complex: The process through which boys develop feelings of love for their mother and view their father as their rival. Electra complex: The process through which girls develop feelings of love for their father and view their mother as their rival. Castration anxiety: Boys fear of losing their most prized penis. They fear that their father might “cut off” their penises if he gets to know that they love their mother the way he (father) does.

88. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) Oedipus complex: The process through which boys develop feelings of love for their mother and view their father as their rival. Electra complex: The process through which girls develop feelings of love for their father and view their mother as their rival. Castration anxiety: Boys fear of losing their most prized penis. They fear that their father might “cut off” their penises if he gets to know that they love their mother the way he (father) does.

89. Latency Stage (6 to 11 years) During this period, the sexual interests stop and are converted into interest in school, playing and riding. He then socializes with members of the community. Fixation at this stage may lead to extroversion, introversion, or neurotic behavior.

90. Genital Stage (11 years and above) All the stages then fuses and the individual is capable of making genuine love. If he fails to go through the stages successfully, he will have sexual and relationship problems.

91. Critical Evaluation Clinical Applications Cause a major change in people’s life perspective on disorders such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, dissociative identity disorder Limitations Over-emphasis on sexual drives Low cure rate esp. borderline and psychotic disorders Lack of scientific proof

92. NEO-FREUDIANS Freud was an authoritarian individual who tolerated little disagreement from other. Some of his followers disagreed with him on the issue of sexual motivation and he dismissed them from his royal field. Thus, they made more emphasis that the ego has more control than the id on day to day activities. They made the following contributions

93. NEO-FREUDIANS Alfred Adler (1870-1937): developed individual psychology. Regarded people are inextricably tied to their society because fulfillment was found in doing things for the social good. Carl Jung (1875-1965): Believed there is a collective unconscious (archetypes) that is common to all humans. He catalogued personality traits such as introversion vs extraversion. Anna Freud (1895-1982): emphasized the role, operation and importance of the ego (Defense Mechanisms).

94. NEO-FREUDIANS Karen Horney (1885-1952): Often considered as a feminist psychologist who rejected Freud’s notion of penis envy. Emphasized on womb envy Stressed that behavior disorders are due to disturbed interpersonal relationships

95. Psychosocial Theory According to Erik Erikson, humans go through 8 stages of physical development. Each of these stage has a dev’tal task to be accomplished. The personality of the individual depends on how adequately one handles these challenges. If they are successfully handled, virtues result. If on the other hand, it is not well resolved, maladaptation (excess of the positive) or a malignancy (excess of the negative) develops.

96. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 18 months)

97. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 18 months) Infants have sense of trust that family members will care for them and protect them from harm. Infant’s basic needs are either met or not met by the parents Infants learn whether or not people are reliable

98. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 18 months) If the family members are over protective, the child will develop maladaptation of sensory distortion. Thus, the child will be gullible to ideas. Overly trusting (cannot believe anyone would mean them harm)

99. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 18 months) On the other hand, if family members are under protective (inadequate care), the child will develop mistrust. Thus, malignancy of withdrawal. Such a child will be suspicious, depressed or have difficulty relating with people. When crises are resolved, one develops virtue of hope. Thus, awareness that not everyone can be trusted.

100. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (18 months to 3 years) Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities Their energy is directed towards mastering physical skills such as walking, grasping and muscular control

101. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (18 months to 3 years) Too much of autonomy will lead to maladaptation of impulsiveness. Such people will embark on enterprises without proper consideration of their abilities. Overprotecting them from exercising their independence will lead to malignancy of compulsiveness. Feels as if their entire being rides on everything they do, and so everything must be done perfect

102. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (18 months to 3 years) Healthy resolution leads to will power Such individual follows his will power in taking decisions but will not avoid criticisms from others.

103. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years) Take initiative and learn new skills in both their social and physical environments (plays, ask questions, use imaginations). An excess of initiatives without any restraint leads to maladaptation of ruthlessness. Does not care who he/she steps to get what he/she wants

104. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years) A sense of guilt may happen if they are severely punished, prevented to play and discouraged from asking questions. An excess of guilt results in malignancy of inhibition. An unwillingness to take risk (holds back; doesn’t try much) Child who was assisted to undertake goal-directed behaviors develops virtue of courage. The ability to take actions despite one’s limitations.

105. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years) Relationship expands from immediate family to neighbors and school. Make efforts to produce new things, want to see tasks completion and be the best in any activity. Also self-imposed segregation of sexes. Conflict at this stage is fear of not being able to do enough or to be as good as others of the same age. Excess inferiority leads to malignancy of inertia Such a child always give up after an experience of failure.

106. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years) Excess inferiority leads to malignancy of inertia Such a child always give up after an experience of failure Inferiority complex

107. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years) Children who become too much industrious develop maladaptation of narrow virtuosity. Have only one specific area of competence like riding A healthy resolution leads to competence Thus, a balance of confidence despite frustrations ( eg. Thomas Edison)

108. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 years) The individual is caught between adulthood and adolescent. The mental and physiological changes come along with new feelings, attitudes and body image.

109. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 years) A sense of confusion result when the individual fails to reach any clarity about roles that they have to play in life. Support from parents is crucial. Right passages are useful in helping the adolescent to redefine their identities.

110. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 years) Maladaptation is Fanaticism They believe their way of seeing or doing things is the only way. They cannot tolerate those they disagree ( eg. Freud). Malignancy at this stage is repudiation . They refuse to accept a role in the adult world. A healthy resolution results in virtue of fidelity. Thus, the ability to live by societal standards despite its imperfections.

111. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 to 30 years) Period of courtship leading to family life. They form new relationship of trust and intimacy with others as partners in friendship, sex and cooperation

112. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 to 30 years) The maladaptation (excess intimacy) is promiscuity. The tendency to share oneself too easily and with little depth. This person has many friends but does not share their deeper feelings. Individuals who do not seek out such intimacy or whose repeated trials have failed may retreat into isolation.

113. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 to 30 years) The malignancy (excess of isolation) leads to exclusion. This person cuts himself from love, friends and community. Virtue from this crisis is love . The ability to share oneself fully but with a limited number of people. They put aside their differences for the sake of the relationship called mutuality of devotion.

114. Generativity vs. Stagnation (30 to 55 years) Aimed at establishing and guiding the next generation Raising and taking care of the children, engaging in forms of productivity like farming, teaching and nursing Interested in the welfare of the society.

115. Generativity vs. Stagnation (30 to 55 years) Maladaptation is overextension Some people try to be generative that they no longer allow time for themselves, for rest and relaxation (attending social functions, church activities etc )

116. Generativity vs. Stagnation (30 to 55 years) Persons who fail to establish the sense of caring for others or going into productive businesses become pre-occupied with their own personal needs and interests above those of others. This leads to malignancy of rejectivity . They do not participate/contribute to anything to the society. A healthy virtue is care in which one cares for others.

117. Integrity vs. Despair (55 years and above) Culmination of the proceeding stages. With integrity, the individuals look back at their lives with happiness and accept that they lived lives worth emulating. Too much Ego integrity (maladaptation of presumption) Presume that life is great not acknowledging the difficulties of old age The person often try to act young to avoid facing the reality of being elderly Avoid difficulties that come with old age

118. Integrity vs. Despair (55 years and above) Too much despair leads to malignancy of disdain Person is preoccupied with past failures & mistakes Usually losing interest in life, and act as if they don’t care for their life anymore The person will become depressed and can cause him to be spiteful and paranoid

119. Integrity vs. Despair (55 years and above) A healthy resolution is virtue of wisdom Feel whole, complete, and satisfied with their achievements Adapted skills to deal with triumphs and disappointments

120. Humanistic Theory Abraham Maslow and Caryl Rogers They emphasized on people’s basic goodness and their tendency to grow to a higher level of functioning They believed that human nature is good They also stress on the uniqueness of the individual and his/her freedom to make choices.

121. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Maslow’s Basic Assumptions Maslow was of the view that psychologists like Freud ignored positive human qualities such as happiness, peace of mind etc. (Schultz & Schultz, 2005). For Maslow, individuals are basically good and consciously strive for self-enhancement. But because they are also weak, they can easily get distracted from this self-enhancement.

122. Maslow- basic assumptions Maslow identified 5 innate needs. The individuals are constantly motivated to meet these biological and psychological needs. This needs satisfaction is a dynamic process However, individuals will seek to attain lower need (at least partially) before striving to achieve higher needs. Needs satisfaction can be affected by learning, social expectation and fear of disapproval. Needs satisfaction are learned and thus, it may vary from person to person.

123. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Maslow categorized human needs into 5 levels Physiological needs Safety needs Belongingness and Love Esteem needs Self-actualization

124. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 1 . Physiological Needs Directly related to survival Includes the need for food, water, sleep When physiological needs are not fulfilled, they can dominate a person’s life. E.g. constantly working to feed yourself rarhe than saving uo to get married.

125. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs For a person who cannot satisfy these needs, issues such as democracy and justice, self-enhancement etc. may not mean much Once physiological need ( eg. Hunger), is satisfied, that need no longer directs or controls one’s behavior

126. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Nurses require a safe working environment You can take breaks to eat, use the bathroom, and catch their breath If physical issues are dealt with in the healthcare industry, nurses will be able to recover time for basic human needs such as rest and meals As a result, they will be able to give more time to patient care

127. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 2. Safety Needs Relates to shelter and security as well as the need for order, stability and predictability, freedom from fear and structure or routine Examples- having a place to live and being free from the fear and threat of danger Knowing one can settle into a routine, adds a sense of stability and security to one’s life (Carducci, 2009)

128. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Changes such as burglary, terrorists attack (e.g. 9/11), the threat of contracting Ebola etc. violates one’s sense of security as they disrupt the person’s familiar routine Having a sense of control and predictability therefore adds to our feeling of safety and security (Carducci, 2009) That is why an individual will save towards the future, buy insurance or be in a secured job

129. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Other examples of safety needs are: Emotional security Financial security (employment social welfare) Law and order Freedom from fear Social stability Health and wellbeing (safety against accidents and injury)

130. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 3. Belongingness and Love Needs Relates to the desire to feel accepted by others and have meaningful interpersonal relationship Includes the need to feel part of a reference group (family, religious group) and to be able to give and receive love (friendship formation) (Carducci, 2009) These needs can be expressed through a close relationship with a lover, a friend, a roommate or through other social relationships

131. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Nurses should also feel empowered at work, knowing that their opinions and feelings are valued This level of nurses’ needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. Belongingness refers to a nurse’s emotional need for social relationships, affiliating, connectedness, and being part of a group in a healthcare environment

132. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Examples of belongingness needs include Trust Friendships Acceptance Receiving and giving affection

133. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 4. Esteem Needs This need comes in two forms- Esteem needs from others in the form of: achieving status and recognition or social success in a group and Being perceived as worthy and able person/member e.g. holding a position and executing your duties well.

134. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 2. Esteem and respect from oneself This is having a self-esteem or self-worth that reflects the individual’s confidence in his/her own abilities to perform When an individual satisfies self-esteem needs he/she feels confident Lack of self-esteem results in feeling inferior, less confident in one’s abilities and discouraged (Schultz & Schultz, 2005)

135. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Of the two types of esteem, the latter depends on the former- self-esteem depends on esteem from others For instance, individuals want to be seen by others as competent, capable, able to achieve, and also feel respected etc. This when achieved translates into self-esteem where they, worthwhile, valuable and competent (Larsen & Buss, 2008)

136. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Nurses are going to college with the idea that they will spend their life caring for patients. When patients are pleased and the results are excellent they will believe their mission is complete

137. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 5. Self-actualization Needs The highest on the hierarchy of needs The individual strives to attain maximum realization of his/her potentials, talents and abilities According to Maslow, if an individual satisfies the first four needs but does not self-actualize, that person will feel frustrated and discontent

138. Categorization of needs Maslow distinguished between deficiency needs and being needs Deficiency Needs They are lower and more basic needs that the individual has to satisfy in order to survive ie . Hunger, thirst and safety 2. Growth or Being Needs Higher needs which motivate individuals to engage in behaviors that will bring self- fufilment of self-enhancement (Carducci, 2009)

139. Characteristics of needs The lower the need on the hierarchy, the greater its strength, potency, priority and influence on behaviors, than higher needs. Higher/growth needs are weaker needs while lower/deficiency needs (physiological and safety needs) are stronger needs. Lower need arise in infancy while growth needs appear later in life. Unlike deficiency needs, growth needs are not necessary for survival.

140. Characteristics of needs Failure to satisfy needs can produce a crises or a deficit hence the name deficiency needs. Being needs are not necessary for survival but fulfilling them can improve health and longevity, hence the name growth needs.

141. Conclusion Although Maslow’s needs are hierarchical, it does not mean that an individual has to completely satisfy one before moving to the rest The more relief one has from lower needs, the more attention he/she will devote to higher needs Eg. Satisfying your hunger and studying

142. Conclusion Sometimes an individual may be working at satisfying multiple needs at a time E.g. Eating and fixing an electrical problem E.g. President of neighborhood watch- i.e. esteem and safety needs Thus, it is possible to satisfy more than one need at a time. However one will dominate a person’s personality E.g. if you are unable to fix the electrical problem, you may give up eating.

143. Learning Relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience Some learning involves dev’t of skills (e.g. learning to drive a car) Some involves changes in existing behavior (e.g. learning to control temper) Some learning involves simple association

144. Behavioral Theory Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning

145. Classical Conditioning Credited to Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) He was a Russian physician/ neurophysiologist. He won a Nobel prize in 1904 He studied digestive secretions

146. Classical Conditioning Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat powder (by which dogs fed), the dogs began to salivate in the presence of the lab technician who normally fed them. He decided to study these effect in his lab He developed a device for recording salivation Through constant pairing, he found that organism comes to associate two stimuli; a natural one and one that already causes a reflexive response.

147. Classical Conditioning A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.

148. Terms in Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response E.g. dogs salivate when they see meat Unconditioned Response (UCR) It is an unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus. E.g. salivating when food is in the mouth

149. Terms in Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS) A stimulus that originally does not elicit, but after association with UCS, comes to trigger a conditioned response. Conditioned Response (CR) A learned response to previously neutral conditioned stimulus Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that does not generate any response

150. Terms in Classical Conditioning

151. Terms in Classical Conditioning

152. Terms in Classical Conditioning

153. Applications of CC Used to treat addiction; Disulfiram (Antabuse), Naltrexone, Acamprosate, Metronidazole

154. Applications of CC Exposure Therapy Flooding : exposing clients directly to their worst fears Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure of clients to their worst fears

155. Applications of CC Diana was ecstatic when she learned her family was going to United States next weekend. When her family arrived at United States the temperature was in excess of 100  F, but Diana didn't care because she was finally there. Diana stopped and watched some clowns performing next to the carousel. As she watched the silly antics of the clowns with the carousel music playing in the background, Diana got more and more sweaty and uncomfortable. Eventually, she fainted from the heat. After that trip to the state fair, every time Diana hears carousel musical, she feels a little dizzy.

156. Applications of CC Find the following Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response

157. Operant Conditioning Credited to B.F Skinner Type of learning in which behavior if strengthened is followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment. Developed Skinner Box

158. REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement A stimulus that which increases the likelihood that a response will occur. Positive Reinforcement: presenting a desirable stimulus following a behavior so as to increase the likelihood of the behavior occurring again. E.g. You do a favor for a friend and she buys you lunch in return You increase profits and receive GH2000 as a bonus

159. REINFORCEMENT Negative Reinforcement Removing an undesirable stimulus following a behavior so as to increase the likelihood of the behavior occurring subsequently E.g. Females who hate biology practical E.g. You are allowed to skip the final exams because you did well on your mid-semester exams

160. PUNISHMENT Positive Punishment Presenting an undesirable stimulus following a behavior so as to decrease the likelihood of the behavior occurring again. E.g A parent spanking the child

161. PUNISHMENT Negative Punishment Removing a desirable stimulus following a behavior so as to decrease the likelihood of the behavior occurring again. E.g. decrease pay following late-coming Being Grounded

162. Applications of OC Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Reduce addiction (token economy)

163. Observational Learning Albert Bandura-Bobo Doll Experiment

164. Observational Learning Begins early in life where children learn by observing others The process of learning through observing and imitating a specific behavior is called modeling

165. Observational Learning Observational learning depends on the following Attention: the extent to which we focus on other’s behavior Retention: our ability to retain a representation of others’ behavior in memory Production processes: the ability to act on the memory represented in memory Motivation: the usefulness of the information we have acquired

166. Applications of Observational Learning Media violence leads to an increased expression of violence Thin media on body image dissatisfaction and eating disorders Advertisement for consumers

167. MEMORY Memory remains one of the greatest mysteries, given its importance to individual identity and human psychology in general. Memory is a cognitive process, which means that it is understood as a series of mental actions or mental operations.

168. MEMORY Memory is typically conceptualized as: Stages- sensory, short-term, long-term Processes- encoding, storage, retrieval Types- implicit memory (procedural memory), explicit memory (semantic memory, episodic memory)

169. STAGES OF MEMORY Memory is thought to be a sequential process, with any given memory starting as sensory input like a sight, sound, smell, taste or tactile sensation which is then processed in short-term memory before it is eventually stored in the long term memory, or forgotten

170. STAGES OF MEMORY Sensory memory: has unknown capacity and a duration of less than a second Short-term memory (STM) memory: has limited capacity of either 7+-2 items or 4 ‘chunks’ and a duration of about 30 seconds Long-term memory (LTM): has an unknown capacity and an unknown duration

171. STAGES OF MEMORY Most sensory inputs are forgotten almost instantly. There are too many sensory inputs at any given moment, and most of them do not matter in the long run E.g., the steady hum of an air conditioning unit/ The scratchy feeling of jeans are best forgotten instantly This is because otherwise they would be too distracting

172. STAGES OF MEMORY For a long time, it was believed that short-term memory could hold 7+-2 bits of discrete information, but modern research suggest instead that it might be 4 ‘chunks’ instead. A chunk is a collection of associated items, and it is thought that these chunks make it easier to remember a wider range of items E.g. the letter string FBICIAIRSNSA has 12 letters, which is beyond the STM capacity of most individuals. However, if the string is broken into chunks, it is more easier recalled: FBI-CIA-IRS-NSA The same thing happens with phone numbers, where 0244155826 might be more easily retrieved when chunked as 0244-155-826

173. STAGES OF MEMORY STM is also known as working memory Because it does not hold memory permanently nut temporarily, and most of what happens in the STM is processing. It is the part of memory that ‘works’ to interpret incoming information

174. MEMORY PROCESSES Just as there are three main stages of memory, there are also three main processes involved in memory: Encoding Storage Retrieval It is important to note that any memory process is dependent upon attention as a first step in the formation of a memory. A given stimulus has to be noticed before it can be processed in the STM or LTM.

175. MEMORY PROCESSES The first process is encoding , which is where memory begins Encoding is the process of converting or transforming incoming information into a mental construct that can be stored in the brain. There are several types of encoding, but some of the more common types include:

176. MEMORY PROCESSES Acoustic encoding: which usually applies to incoming auditory inputs like music or a lecturer’s voice Visual encoding: which transforms incoming visual inputs including images, faces and words printed on a page

177. MEMORY PROCESSES Elaborative encoding: which connects or relates new input to existing memories, which in turn makes the new inputs easier to remember. E.g. A teenager remembering the name “Hunter” Semantic encoding: which focuses on the meaning of an input or how it might be applied.

178. MEMORY PROCESSES Encoding happens in the STM, where the main process is rehearsal of acoustic information – even words read on a screen are “sounded out” as they are encoded.

179. MEMORY PROCESSES Once a memory is encoded, the next process is storage in the long-term memory, which is also known as consolidation. The evidence so far suggests that some level of semantic processing is involved in the storage of a memory In other words, the meaning (or the application) of a new memory influences how it is stored and what other memories it connects to

180. MEMORY PROCESSES The third main process is retrieval, which refers to how memories are brought back from long-term memory into consciousness Retrieval operates differently in STM and LTM Various experiments on word lists and serial position effects and so on have indicted that retrieval from STM memory is sequential. In other words, items or chunks are remembered in the order in which they were presented Eg. , the letter string above is likely to be remembered as FBI-CIA-IRS-NSA but not NSA-FBI-IRS-CIA

181. MEMORY PROCESSES By contrast, retrieval from LTM appears to be based on association, meaning that it depends which other memories a given memory is connected to. For example, the smell of a freshly mown football pitch might awaken memories of a summer day in high school between campus buildings with friends, studying for a particular exam, all because of a lawnmower.

182. TYPES OF MEMORY Memories come in many different forms and the LTM is divided into several types Memories of personal experiences tend to be remembered as episodes that play out like a mini-movie or TV show Other memories are more procedural, like how to ride a bike Yet other memories relate to facts and knowledge about the world

183. TYPES OF MEMORY Explicit memory (declarative memory) Requires some level of conscious thought, like remembering an elementary school teacher or the details of a study on a psychology exam Explicit memory include; Sematic memory: for facts, events, and accumulated knowledge Episodic memory: for personal experiences, usually remembered as events

184. TYPES OF MEMORY Implicit Memory (Procedural memory) It’s memory not in conscious awareness but still shaping behavior, like how to drive a car or ride a bicycle without even thinking about the mechanics of it

185. MEMORY MODELS A model is simply a representation of a theory, that explains how the theory works Models are often visual, but anything that explains the theory in some logical sequence works There are several models of memory, and some of the earliest ones were shaped by the drawn of computer processing Two of the most important models are The multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968) The working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)

186. MULTI-STORE MEMORY MODEL It is the first memory model theorized by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) It suggests that information flows through three memory stores or stages, each of which has different capacity and duration

187. MULTI-STORE MEMORY MODEL The model functions like a single computer There are any number of inputs from the senses which are detected (on a computer these could be a keyboard, mouse, camera, etc ) If they are attended to, they’re temporarily processed by STM (which sort of works like a RAM), and then stored more permanently in the LTM (like a hard drive on a computer) The memory stores operate in sequence, and each has its own specialized functions and characteristics, just like on a computer

188. MULTI-STORE MEMORY MODEL Table 1: Functions and characteristics of each memory Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-term Memory Has an unknown capacity, but can handle any number of sensory inputs and store them for a fraction of a second (approximately 500 milliseconds) Has a capacity of 7+-2 items or chunks of information, and a limited duration of about 30 seconds Capacity is unknown, but it is thought by many psychologists to be unlimited The key process here is attention Information that is attended to is transferred to the STM. Information in the STM is encoded phonetically and or visually. The key process is rehearsal-if the information is rehearsed in the STM it is transferred to LTM Information in LTM is processed semantically (by meaning). Memory loss can happen in LTM due to interference, decay etc.

189. MULTI-STORE MEMORY MODEL The model suggests that rehearsal is the main process involved in encoding Maintenance rehearsal: Refers to the simple repetition type of rehearsal that keeps a stimulus through the STM, and it is not thought to be effective for LTM encoding Elaborative Rehearsal: Refers to thinking about the meaning of a stimulus item like a word, and that semantic element may be involved in LTM encoding.

190. WORKING MEMORY MODEL The working memory model focuses more on processing in the STM It’s related to cognitive processes involved in conscious awareness right here, right now The working memory allows us to make sense of the world It also allows for communication, problem solving and critical thing E.g. a student can listen to a teacher’s lecture, evaluate its pros and cons, and ask questions about it, all while monitoring messages on a social platform

191. WORKING MEMORY MODEL Baddeley and Hitch (1974) were motivated to develop a more complex model of memory They argued that the STM is not a static store, but a complex and active information processor, composed of several dynamic subsystems

192. WORKING MEMORY MODEL Central Executive: It monitors and coordinates the functioning of the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop It also acts as a go-between for information moving between these two parts of working memory and LTM It therefore functions like the “boss’ of the STM.

193. WORKING MEMORY MODEL Phonological Loop: Deals with operation and comprehension of verbal and written material. It has the articulatory control, whereby numbers or words can be rehearsed or repeated for retention in the STM, or transferred to the phonological store. The material is rehearsed again and again in a loop.

194. WORKING MEMORY MODEL Visuospatial sketchpad: deals with visual information and spatial awareness. It comes into action with visual stimuli like a map, or a diagram, or a painting or somebody face.

195. WORKING MEMORY MODEL It is generally agreed that STM is a “working memory” with processing and filtering powers The model is based on two premises of Dual Tasking If two tasks make use of the same component or working memory, they cannot be performed successfully together If two tasks make use of different components, it should be possible to perform them as well together as separately These premises appear to hold in real life Eg. Reading a text while trying to hold a conversation

196. WORKING MEMORY MODEL Class task Pat your stomach and Rub your head simultaneously Pat your head and say the Alphabet

197. TYPES OF FORGETTING Some memories are forgotten almost immediately, because of interference or decay in STM that causes memories to vanish into thin air. The more serious types of forgetting are known as amnesia , which refers to the partial or total loss of memory – as the definition suggest, amnesia varies in degree. It might be mild, or it might be severe

198. TYPES OF FORGETTING Amnesia also varies by type, as one form of amnesia applies to new memories and another applies to old memories Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory before a specified time or event, often a brain injury Anterograde amnesia: Loss of memory after a specified time or event.

199. TYPES OF FORGETTING E.g., if someone bumps their heads, blacks out, then comes around but cannot remember their name or where they live, they may have retrograde amnesia. By contrast, if the same person has trouble remembering new information after bumping their head, like remembering today’s date or what they had for breakfast this morning, then they may have anterograde amnesia

200. TYPES OF FORGETTING Patient henry Molaison (HM) had partial retrograde amnesia, and complete anterograde amnesia.

201. TYPES OF FORGETTING Decay Theory: Memories fade with time Very old memories are difficult to remember without periodic rehearsal. eg. , reciting the national pledge, kindergarten rhymes/poems.

202. TYPES OF FORGETTING Interference: happens when different memories integrate with one another and become indistinguishable Types Retroactive interference: New information hinders recall of old information E.g. difficulties recalling a former girlfriend’s name Proactive interference: Old information hinders recall of new information Always calling the old contact of a Pizza joint

203. TYPES OF FORGETTING Cue-dependent or context-dependent forgetting A memory cant be retrieve because some missing stimulus, cue, or context (which was probably used to encode the memory is the first place) This is based on context-dependent memory: when you learn something in one context, you will more easily remember in that same context E.g., some people will chew a particular flavor of um or drink certain type of tea while studying. When taking an exam covering that material, they will chew that same gum or drink the same tea to help jog their memory

204. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Psychological disorders are persistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, or actions that are deviant , distressful , and dysfunctional . Key terms • Disorder refers to a state of mental/behavioral ill health. • Persistent means the pattern of thought, feeling or action should be continuous • Patterns refers to finding a collection of symptoms that tend to go together, and not just seeing a single symptom.

205. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS For there to be distress and dysfunction , symptoms must be sufficiently severe to interfere with individual’s daily life and well being . • Deviant means differing from the norm as defined by culture, context or typical developmental pathway .

206. CLASSIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Classification of disorders is important because: Diagnoses create a verbal shorthand for referring to a list of associated symptoms. Diagnostic classification helps to describe a disorder, predict its future course, imply appropriate treatment, and stimulate research into its causes

207. CLASSIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS The two commonly used diagnostic manuals are The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ( DSM ; by the American Psychiatric Association) and the International Classification of Diseases ( ICD ; by the World Health Organisation )

208. ANXIETY It is a common problem in human as well as other animals It is an exaggerated feeling of apprehension, uncertainty and fear. Physical and emotional distress which interfere with normal life.

209. ANXIETY Anxiety is anticipatory; the dreaded event or situation has not yet occurred. Fear is the more intense emotion an individual feels when he/she is actually faced with a threatening situation. If either fear or anxiety becomes overwhelming, a panic attack can occur.

210. ANXIETY Panic attacks are experienced as intense fear accompanied by symptoms such as pounding heart, trembling, shortness of breath, or fear of losing control or dying. Types Situational bound attacks occur before or during exposure to a feared stimulus. Situational predisposed: Attacks occur usually, but not always, when encountering the feared situation.

211. ANXIETY Unexpected or uncued attacks: occur spontaneously and without warning. Panic attacks can occur in individuals with or without disorders

212. EMOTIONAL SYMPTOMS Irrational and excessive fear and worry Irritability Restlessness Trouble concentrating Feeling tense

213. PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS Sweating Tachycardia Stomach upset Shortness of breath Frequent urination or diarrhea Sleep disturbances (Insomnia) Fatigue

214. TYPES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS Social anxiety disorder Panic disorder Agoraphobia Generalized anxiety disorder Substance/ medication-induced disorder

215. SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER An intense, excessive fear of being scrutinized in one or more social or performance situations. Some people literally sick with fear when performing activities such as eating in public, standing in line at a ticket counter, or walking in a mall. Types Performance: excessive anxiety over activities such as playing a musical instrument, public speaking, eating in a restaurant, using public restrooms.

216. SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER Limited Interactional: Excessive fear only in specific social situations, such as going out on a date or interacting with an authority figure. Generalized: Extreme anxiety displayed in most social situations.

217. SPECIFIC PHOBIAS An extreme fear of a specific object or situation. DSM-IV-TR divides into 5 types Animal (spiders and snakes) Natural environment (earth quakes, thunder, water) Situational (fear of traveling in planes and elevators) Blood/injection or injury Other (Phobic avoidance of situations that may lead to choking, vomiting, or contracting an illness)

218. PANIC DISORDER Recurrent unexpected panic attacks. An abrupt surge of intense fear or intense discomfort that reaches a peak within minutes, and during which time 4 or more of the ff symptoms occur. Palpitations, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, feelings of choking, chest pain, nausea, chills or heat sensations, tingling sensations, fear or losing control

219. PANIC DISORDER At least one of the attacks has been followed by 1 month or more of one or both of the ff Persistent concern or worry about additional panic attacks Maladaptive change in behavior such as avoidance exercise or unfamiliar situations.

220. AGORAPHOBIA Marked fear or anxiety about 2 or more of the ff five situations: Using public transportation Being in open spaces (parking lots, marketplaces, bridges) Standing in line or being in a crowd Being outside of the home alone

221. AGORAPHOBIA The individual fears or avoids these situations because of thoughts that escape might be difficult or help might not be available in the event of developing panic-like symptoms. The fear or anxiety is persistent, typically lasting for 6 months or more.

222. GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER Excessive anxiety and worry, occurring for at least 6 months, about a number of events or activities (such as work or school performance) The individual finds it difficult to control worry The anxiety is associated with 3 or more of the ff Restlessness or on the edge, easily fatigue, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance.

223. OBSSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER Obsessions: intrusive repetitive thoughts or images that produce anxiety (involve germs/dirt and disease) Compulsions: The need to perform acts or to dwell on thoughts to reduce anxiety (ritualized washing, repeating rituals, checking behaviors) Although obsessions and compulsions can occur separately, they frequently occur together.

224. OBSSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER The inability to resist or rid oneself of uncontrollable, alien, and often unacceptable thoughts or to keep from performing ritualistic acts over and over again arouses intense anxiety. In general, these thoughts and impulses are recognized as being unreasonable, although a minority of individuals with OCD do not recognize their symptoms as being senseless.

225. ETIOLOGY Biological Dimension Brain structure Amygdala (formation and memory of emotional events), hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (2 pathways) One goes directly from the frightening sensory stimulus to the amygdala Second travels first to the prefrontal cortex which evaluates the stimulus and can override the initial fear response.

226. ETIOLOGY Genetic Influences Heritability of characteristics of anxiety by examining families, siblings, twins (35%-50% MZ). Serotonin transporter gene: reduction in serotonin activity; increase fear and anxiety related behaviors Individuals with short allele of this gene show more reactivity of the amygdala when exposed to threatening visual stimuli. Reduction of GABA receptors in the hippocampus and amygdala

227. ETIOLOGY Psychological Dimension Psychoanalytic theory Focus on the importance of parent-child relationship in the development of anxiety disorders. Might be due to problematic childhood experiences. Represent problems with parents over issues of separation, autonomy, and managing anger.

228. ETIOLOGY Psychological Dimension Psychoanalytic theory Phobias are expressions of wishes, fears and fantasies that are unacceptable to the patient. These unconscious conflicts are displaced from their original internal source to an external object or situation. The phobia is less threatening to the person than recognition of the underlying unconscious impulse.

229. ETIOLOGY Psychological Dimension Psychoanalytic theory Fear of knife for eg may represent castration fears produced by an unresolved Oedipus complex or aggressive conflicts.

230. ETIOLOGY Behavioral Perspective Classical Conditioning Phobias are conditioned responses. Fear of snakes. Observational Learning Learning through modeling and vicarious experiences

231. ETIOLOGY Social and Sociocultural Perspectives Many patients with panic disorder report a disturbed childhood environment that involved family conflicts, separation anxiety, school problems, leaving home or the loss of a loved one. Such environment could create a predisposition to developing anxiety reactions and subsequently a panic disorder.

232. ETIOLOGY Individuals who report panic attacks indicate that they faced major life changes just before the attacks began Women have a prevalence rate of panic disorder Asian and Hispanic adolescents report higher anxiety sensitivity than white adolescents (culture)

233. SCHIZOPHRENIA They are a group of mental disorders characterized by gross distortion of reality and comprising hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder and marked by bizarre behaviour. Epidemiology Kaplan and Sadock (1994) emphasized that, the incidence is high according to: Age and Sex Men early onset (15 to 25 yrs ) Women early onset (25 to 35 yrs ) Men: Negative symptoms Women: Better recovery

234. SCHIZOPHRENIA Season of birth Southern Hemisphere (Schizophrenics are born from July to September) Northern Hemisphere (June to April) Suicide: men and women are equally affected Substance Abuse: More than three-quarters of all schizophrenics smoke

235. SCHIZOPHRENIA Population Density 1% of the general population has schizophrenia. Common in urban areas among those with low socio-economic status Explained by the downdrift hypothesis: Causation hypothesis: Mental Hospital Bed They occupy about 50% of all mental hospital beds and account for about 16% of all psychiatric patients who receive any type of treatment.

236. SCHIZOPHRENIA Prognosis 25% complete recovery 50 to 65% residual symptoms and relapse 10% chronic Course of Schizophrenia Prodromal Phase : Onset and build of the symptoms. Thus, social withdrawal and isolation, inappropriate affect, poor communication patterns etc Active Phase: Shows full blown symptoms. Severe disturbances in thinking, poor social relationships, flat affect Residual: Symptoms are no longer prominent. Severity declines and the individual shows milder impairment.

237. SYMPTOMS Positive Symptoms: Increase with stress and tend to disappear with treatment. Delusions: are false personal beliefs that are firmly and consistently held despite disconfirming evidence or logic. Delusions of grandeur: Belief that you are famous or powerful person Delusions of control: Belief that other people, animals or objects are trying to influence or take control of you. Delusions of thought broadcasting: Belief that others can hear the individual’s thought Delusions of Persecution: Belief that others are plotting against, mistreating or even trying to kill them. Thought insertion: belief that some information or thoughts are being enclosed into his/her mind Thought withdrawal: belief that his/her thoughts are being removed from his/her mind.

238. SYMPTOMS Hallucinations: sensory perceptions that are not directly attributable to environmental stimuli. May involve a single sensory modality or combination. Visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile and gustatory hallucinations. Disorganized Thought and Speech: Jump from one topic to another, speak in an unintelligible manner, or reply tangentially to questions. Cognitive Slippage: continual shifting from topic to topic without apparent logical or meaningful connection between thoughts. Also known as loosening of association. May be shown by incoherent speech or bizarre, idiosyncratic responses

239. SYMPTOMS Interviewer: You must be an emotional person, that’s all. Patient: Well, not very much I mean, what if I were dead. It’s funeral age. Well I um. Now I had my toenails operated on. They got infected and I wasn’t able to do it. But they wouldn’t let me at my tools” Have difficulty with abstractions. e.g A rolling stone gathers no moss. Disorganized Motor Disturbances: Show extremes in activity level (usually high or usually low), peculiar body movements or postures, strange gestures and grimaces or a combination of these. Catatonic symptoms Bizarre Behavior Clothing appearance Aggression Mannerisms

240. SYMPTOMS Negative Symptoms Affective Flattening: Inappropriate affect like silly giggling, lack of vocal inflections, poor eye contact, unchanging facial expressions Alogia: Poverty of speech, thought blocking Avolition: Inability to take action. Thus, not good personal hygiene and grooming, not going to work or school, no energy Anhedonia/ Associality : No recreational interest, no sexual interest, no closeness with friends and peers Attention: Social inattentiveness, inattentiveness during testing

241. DIAGNOSIS History Taking Through an interview, the hallmarks of schizophrenia as spelled out in the DSM-IV can be applied i.e. at least two of the following, each present for a significant potion of time during a 1-month period. Delusions Hallucinations Disorganized speech Grossly disorganized behavior Negative symptoms

242. DIAGNOSIS Psychological Testing Neuropsychological test: Bender-Gestalt Intelligence Test: Projective Tests

243. CLINICAL TYPES Catatonic Type: onset is acute and starts around 15-25 yrs. Acute stage is responsive to therapy. Mainly characterized by behavioral or psychomotor symptoms. Manifest in 2 forms. Catatonic Stupor (withdrawal: immobility, mutism and negative behavior Withdrawals from the environment and becomes motionless for hours staring into the space Catalepsy: Sits/lies down assuming an uncomfortable position for several hours Waxy flexibility: remain in any position that he/she has been placed

244. CLINICAL TYPES Catatonic Negativism: resistant to all instructions or attempts to be moved Echolalia: repeats all words/phrases he/she hears Echopraxia: Mimics all actions of the people who are speaking to him but does not answer them . In severe cases, he/she can lie down for hours or days. Catatonic Excitement Characterized by unpredictable, unorganized, impulsive or sometimes destructive behavior. Exhibit auditory hallucinations during this stage

245. CLINICAL TYPES Disorganized Type (hebephrenic Type) This is the severe form of schizophrenia with poor prognosis. They manifest the negative and positive symptoms in extreme forms. Paranoid Type The onset of this condition is usually severe in later adult life 30-35 years but can occur at any age. They add suspicious projection and delusions of persecution to the basic schizophrenic symptoms. They show less regression of their mental facilities, emotional response and behavior than do the other types of schizophrenic patient.

246. CLINICAL TYPES Clinical Symptoms Overuse of projection as a defense mechanism where they blame others for their failures or ideas of reference Have auditory hallucinations of voices commanding them to defend themselves against their enemies. Argumentative behavior: tend to argue all the time to defend the suspected harm to be done to them. Delusions: Occupy prominent place in their lives and hallucinations are tied in these delusions Disorders of gender identity: frequently question their masculinity or femininity Does not exhibit signs such as grossly disorganized behavior, inappropriate affect , incoherent speech

247. CLINICAL TYPES Residual Type This can be described as a state of partial remission of the schizophrenic patient. The patient has a history of at least one previous schizophrenic but no longer exhibits obvious or intense psychotic symptoms. In this patient, there is absence of the prominent symptoms like delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized behaviour. However, there is presence of negative symptoms like social withdrawal, illogical thinking, odd behaviour or delusions or hallucinations in indiscernible forms.

248. CLINICAL TYPES Undifferentiated Type This category includes the following conditions: Schizophreniform disorders Schizoaffective disorders Delusional disorders Brief Psychotic disorders Shared psychotic disorders Schizophreniform Disorder This is where the patient exhibits signs of schizophrenic for more than one week but less than 6 months which can’t allow a diagnosis of schizophrenia to be made.

249. CLINICAL TYPES Schizoaffective Disorder This is a mixture of symptoms of major depression and the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia. This client has a better prognosis than the schizophrenic ie patient. Delusional Disorder The individual has a fixed, false belief about a possible real-life situation eg if he thinks the government is not good for at least one month. This centres mostly on religion, politics or another person. The individual becomes convinced that a certain event is true and will not accept any proof that the belief is wrong. He may act on the belief but does not exhibit psychotic symptoms. Brief Psychotic Disorder This is when an individual exhibits psychotic symptoms like illogical thinking, inherent speech, delusions, hallucinations, disorganised behaviour as a response to a severe emotional stress like death of a loved one, failing in life. The symptoms normally disappear within one month and he returns to his previous level of functioning.

250. CLINICAL TYPES Shared Psychotic Disorder ( Folie a deux) This is a rare condition that occurs mostly among 2 persons: a dominant person (the inducer) and submissive person who is the patient with the shared psychotic disorder. The dominant member who has a pre-existing psychotic disorder is usually older, more intelligent and possesses stronger personality than the submissive person who is usually dependent as the dominant person. The submissive person may have dependent suggestive qualities. He may end up with the same psychotic symptoms like the dominant member

251. ETIOLOGY Biological factors Family studies have shown that there is a genetic predisposition in the causation of schizophrenia. This is because there is a 1% life time risk of getting the conditions in general population whereas the incidence is higher in persons with a first or second degree relative with the conditions as seen below. The reason could be from an interaction of unknown influences with some genes, which affects the function of the brain.

252. ETIOLOGY Genetic Risk of Schizophrenia Person of Risk Percentage of Risk - Monozygotic twin affected 50% - Dizygotic twin affected 15% - Sibling affected 10% - One parent affected 15% - Second degree relative 35% - No affected relative 2-3% Source: Stuart & Laraia , 1993

253. ETIOLOGY Biochemistry Another biological factor is biochemistry. Several brain chemicals have been implicated in the causation of schizophrenia as follows: An excess of the dopamine on the brain cells. There is an imbalance between dopamine, serotonin and glutamate. There are problems of the dopamine receptors

254. ETIOLOGY This is because according to Carpenter & Buchanan (1994) drugs that cause increased levels of dopamine in the brain can produce psychosis and drugs that minimise dopamine functions have anti-psychotic effects. Therefore substances similar to hallucinogens or mind-altering drugs which accumulate excessively in the brain can precipitate the release of excess dopamine. According to this theory, the excessive dopamine allows nerve impulses to bombard the brain leading to schizophrenic symptoms. Organic functions such as trauma to the brain of birth and adult life can bring about functional changes in the brain leading to psychosis.

255. ETIOLOGY Neurostructures : Smaller cortical regions (Hippocampal and medial temporal lobe, orbitofrontal cortices, and prefrontal lobes). Enlargement of ventricles Substantia N igra /basal ganglia and arcuate nucleus

256. ETIOLOGY Environmental Factors There is a compelling evidence for both genetic and environmental factors in the causation of schizophrenia since identical twins share 100% of genes but only 50% of the risk of developing the condition. These environmental factors include: Emotional stress like disappointments, failures, marriage problems Living in a city or loneliness Poor upbringing of children (separation, child abuse, hostile parents, insensitive parents) Cocaine, amphetamines, alcohol and especially cannabis seems to increase the chances of developing a psychotic disorder

257. ETIOLOGY Personality of the Individual It has been found that the following personality traits can easily predispose one to the development of schizophrenia Negative thoughts about oneself like “I’m a failure”, “I am hopeless’, `Poor me” Schizoid personality (social isolation, emotional coldness, indifference to others) Shy and withdrawn Highly dependent and obedient Highly individualistic, aesthetic, temper tantrums Looks miserable

258. ASSIGNMENT A CLIENT CAME TO THE HOSPITAL AND HAS BEEN GIVEN A CONVENTIONAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUG. WHAT ARE THE LIKELY COMPLAINTS THAT HE WILL PRESENT TO YOU? AND WHAT WILL BE YOUR COUNSELLING FOR SUCH CLIENT?

259. QUIZ ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS TIME ALLOWED: 40 MINUTES

260. Ivan Pavlov's theory of how people learn or acquire uncomplicated habits and reflexes is called Positive reinforcement. Classical conditioning. Operant conditioning. Modeling. 2. Each of the following is a stage in Erikson's eight-stage theory of development except Trust versus mistrust. Industry versus inferiority. Inferiority versus isolation. Generativity versus self-absorption

261. 3. All of the following are true about learning through modeling except Skills are learned by observing another person perform the skill. It is commonly used to learn simple habits and reflexes. It is considered a form of social learning. Skills are learned in the presence of others 4. Tiana is a psychologist who has specialized in among others, personnel management, workplace environment, and what type of environment results in high levels of employee productivity and efficiency. What type of psychologist is Tiana? Consumer psychologist Industrial/Organizational psychologist Environmental psychologists Counseling psychologists

262. 5. At what time does Erikson's stage of Industry vs. Inferiority occur? Old age Adolescence Infancy School-age 6. Which of these are projective tests? Thematic Apperception test Rorschach Inkblot Test Both a and b None of the above

263. 7. The MMPI is used to measure: Unconscious drives The Big Five Traits Personality and psychological disorders Leadership potential 8. Ellen is the head of the nursing committee at her job. The committee’s goal is to plan celebrations, group events, and team-building activities. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the committee is fulfilling what needs for the employees? Esteem needs Safety needs Social needs Physiological needs

264. 9. In which stage of psychosexual development, the sexual motives are considered to recede to the background and the child becomes preoccupied with developing different skills? Genital stage Phallic stage Latency stage Oral stage 10. This psychologist ran a study with children and modeled behavior using Bobo-doll. Ivan Pavlov B.F. Skinner Albert Bandura Abraham Maslow

265. 11. According to the psychoanalytic approach, an attempt to integrate values learned from parents and society is called? The id Sublimation The oral stage The superego 12. Mr. Oduro had a hectic day in his office. His boss shouted at him and he was unable to react back. In an angry burst, he went to the bathroom and broke the since. Mr. Oduro exhibits which type of defense mechanism? Displacement Repression Sublimation Projection

266. 13. A Skinner box is most likely to be used in research on _______________ conditioning Classical Operant Fear Taste-aversion 14. Which of the following is involved in a Thematic Apperception? Black and white pictures of people in vague or ambiguous situations Black and white pictures of people in compromising situations Colour photographs of a scenic view Colour photographs of a catastrophic event

267. 15. According to Maslow, some needs grow stronger when unsatisfied. Maslow called these: Being needs Deficiency needs Growth needs Primary needs 16. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, if a person’s esteem needs have been satisfied, then it is safe to assume that all of the following needs have also been satisfied except: Belonging Safety Physiological Self-actualization

268. 17. In classical conditioning, UR and CR are: Opposite behaviors The opposite stimulus Same behaviors The result of extinction 18. During which of Erikson's stages do children begin to identify their strengths and take pleasure in their accomplishments? Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Initiative vs. guilt Industry vs. inferiority Trust vs. mistrust

269. 19. Vincent always feels angry. However, instead of recognizing his anger, he believes that the people around him are angry. He is utilizing the defense mechanism of projection rationalization sublimation Displacement 20. You are online one evening when an advert appears showing your favourite movie star wearing a new brand of sunglasses. The advertiser hopes that your positive feelings toward the movie star will make you want the sunglasses. In this situation, the sunglasses would be the: US UR CS CR

270. 21. A 38-year-old woman quits her high-paying marketing job to focus on her children and become a school counselor. What stage would Erikson consider this to be: Identity vs. role confusion Generativity vs. stagnation Ego integrity vs. despair Industry vs. inferiority 22. People who have a lot of dental problems often come to dislike even the smell of their dentist’s office. The smell represents a(n): US UR CS CR

271. 23. Psychologists call behavior that receives feedback in the form of a reinforcing or punishing consequence _______________ behavior Respondent Classical Operant Involuntary 24. Loneliness or depression may occur when _________, or love and belonging needs are not met. Safety Esteem Physiological Social

272. 25. Someone who feels as though they are not living up to expectations would be described by Adler as having: Low self-realization An Adlerian complex An inferiority complex Low actualization 26. Dr. Owusu’s major research interest is in the long-term effects of child-upbringing practices on the psychological adjustment of children and later adult life. It is most likely that Dr. Ann is a _____________ psychologist. Cognitive Developmental Personality Child psychologist

273. 27. Which of these is a feature of unconditioned response? Natural Automatic Both Neither of these 28. Which psychological approach might attribute Ben’s obsession with keeping a spotless house to the fact that he experienced harsh potty training? Humanistic approach Psychoanalytic approach Cognitive approach Psychosocial approach

274. 29. Hopefully, right now the words in this exam question are in your _________ awareness Superego Preconscious Unconscious Conscious 30. Which of the following is an important theme addressed by developmental psychologists? Physical, intellectual, and emotional growth across the lifespan The roles of nature and nurture Connecting stages of child and infant development with a more complete understanding of what it means to be human All the answers are important themes addressed by developmental psychology

275. Fill in the Bank Space 31 . The proponent who rejected Freud’s notion of penis envy and emphasized womb envy is _______________________________ 32 . In Erikson’s psychosocial development, a successful transition in a stage leads to ________________ whereas an unresolved crisis could either lead to _____________________ (excess positive) or ___________________ (excess negative) 33 . Gradual exposure of someone to a feared situation is referred to as _________________________________ 34 . Mention any drug used in treating alcohol addiction. __________________________________ 35 . An unlearned stimulus is referred to as _____________________________

276. Read the preamble below and answer the questions When Alfred gets back to the dormitory after jogging around the campus, he likes to take a quick shower before going to class. One morning while taking a shower he hears someone flushing a nearby toilet. Suddenly, extremely hot water comes rushing out of the showerhead and Alfred experiences excruciating pain. After muttering a few obscenities, he continues showering. A few minutes later, Alfred hears another toilet flush and he leaps out of the shower.   Identify the following 36. Unconditioned stimulus ________________________________________ 37. Conditioned stimulus _________________________________________ 38. Neutral stimulus_____________________________________________ 39. Unconditioned Response___________________________________________ 40. Conditioned Response______________________________________________