BEM4101 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION LESSON THREE-1.pptx

notes on environmental education

1. BEM4101:INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION LESSON THREE LECTURER: Dr. Ruth Thinguri EMAIL : [email protected] or CELL NO. 0725856627 SEMESTER : JANUANRY- APRIL 2017

2. DEFINITIONS Natural resources: Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind. They can also be said to be materials or substances occurring in nature which can be exploited for economic gain. An ecological resource is anything required by an organism for normal maintenance, growth, and reproduction. Examples include food, water, habitat and shelter. An economic resource is anything obtained from the environment to meet human needs and wants. Examples include food, water, shelter, manufactured goods, transportation, communication and recreation

3. TYPES OF RESOURCES In short human time scale, the resources got from the environment are classified as renewable, potentially renewable and non-renewable Renewable resources are those that can be formed or regenerated by natural process. Soil, vegetation, animal life, air and water are renewable primarily because they naturally repair and cleanse themselves. A potentially renewable resource can be replenished fairly rapidly (hours to several decades) through natural processes. Examples are forest trees, grassland grasses, wild animals, fresh lake and stream water, groundwater, fresh air and fertile soil. Potentially renewable resources can be nonrenewable resources if used for a prolonged at a faster rate than they are renewed by natural processes Nonrenewable resources are those that are not replaced by natural processes or whose rate of replacement is so slow as to be ineffective. Therefore, when nonrenewable resources are used up, they are gone, and a substitute must be found or we must do without. A nonrenewable resource is a resource of economic value that cannot be readily replaced by natural means on a level equal to its consumption. Most fossil fuels, such as oil, natural gas and coal are considered nonrenewable resources in that their use is not sustainable because their formation takes billions of years

4. TYPES OF RESOURCES

5. FOREST AS A RESOURCE The forest is a natural system that can supply different products and services. The working of this system is influenced by the natural environment: climate, topography, soil, etc., and also by human activity. Forests cover a third /30% of all land on Earth, providing vital organic infrastructure for some of the planet's densest, most diverse collections of life. They support countless species as well as 1.6 billion human livelihoods, yet humans are also responsible for 32 million acres of deforestation every year. The United Nations declared March 21 the International Day of Forests in late 2012, part of a global effort to publicize both the value and plight of woodlands around the world. It was first celebrated March 21, 2013, nestling in between the U.N.'s International Day of Happiness on March 20 and World Water Day March 22 Most forest ecosystems have been modified by human activity. Originally, almost half of the United States, three quarters of Canada, almost all of Europe and significant portions of the rest of the world were forested. The forests were removed for fuel, building materials, to clear land for farming and just because they were in the way.

6. IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS/TREES In honor of this seasonal focus on trees and forests, here's a list of 21 reasons why they're important: 1. They help us breathe. Forests pump out the oxygen we need to live and absorb the carbon dioxide we exhale (or emit). Just one adult leafy tree can produce as much oxygen in a season as 10 people inhale in a year. Plankton are more prolific, providing half of Earth's oxygen, but forests are still a key source of breathable air. 2. They're more than just trees. Nearly half of all known species live in forests, including 80 percent of biodiversity on land. That variety is especially rich in tropical rain forests, from rare parrots to endangered apes, but forests teem with life around the planet: Bugs and worms work nutrients into soil, bees and birds spread pollen and seeds, and keystone species like wolves and big cats keep hungry herbivores in check. 3. People live there, too. Some 300 million people live in forests worldwide, including an estimated 60 million indigenous people whose survival depends almost entirely on native woods. Many millions more live along or near forest fringes, but even just a scattering of urban trees can raise property values and lower crime.

7. IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS/TREES 4. They keep us cool. By growing a canopy to hog sunlight, trees also create vital oases of shade on the ground. Urban trees help buildings stay cool, reducing the need for electric fans or air conditioners, while large forests can tackle daunting tasks like curbing a city's "heat island" effect or regulating regional temperatures. 5. They keep Earth cool. Trees also have another way to beat the heat: absorb CO2 that fuels global warming. Plants always need some CO2 for photosynthesis, but Earth's air is now so thick with extra emissions that forests fight global warming just by breathing. CO2 is stored in wood, leaves and soil, often for centuries. 6. They make it rain. Large forests can influence regional weather patterns and even create their own microclimates. The Amazon, for example, generates atmospheric conditions that not only promote regular rainfall there and in nearby farmland, but potentially as far away as the Great Plains of North America. 7. They fight flooding. Tree roots are key allies in heavy rain, especially for low-lying areas like river plains. They help the ground absorb more of a flash flood, reducing soil loss and property damage by slowing the flow.

8. IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS/TREES 8. They pay it forward. On top of flood control, soaking up surface runoff also protects ecosystems downstream. Modern stormwater increasingly carries toxic chemicals, from gasoline and lawn fertilizer to pesticides and pig manure, that accumulate through watersheds and eventually create low-oxygen "dead zones." 9. They refill aquifers. Forests are like giant sponges, catching runoff rather than letting it roll across the surface, but they can't absorb all of it. Water that gets past their roots trickles down into aquifers, replenishing groundwater supplies that are important for drinking, sanitation and irrigation around the world. 10. They block wind. Farming near a forest has lots of benefits, like bats and songbirds that eat insects or owls and foxes that eat rats. But groups of trees can also serve as a windbreak, providing a buffer for wind-sensitive crops. And beyond protecting those plants, less wind also makes it easier for bees to pollinate them. 11. They keep dirt in its place. A forest's root network stabilizes huge amounts of soil, bracing the entire ecosystem's foundation against erosion by wind or water. Not only does deforestation disrupt all that, but the ensuing soil erosion can trigger new, life-threatening problems like landslides and dust storms.

9. IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS/TREES 12. They clean up dirty soil. In addition to holding soil in place, forests may also use phytoremediation to clean out certain pollutants. Trees can either sequester the toxins away or degrade them to be less dangerous. This is a helpful skill, letting trees absorb sewage overflows, roadside spills or contaminated runoff. 13. They clean up dirty air. We herald houseplants for purifying the air, but don't forget forests. They can clean up air pollution on a much larger scale, and not just the aforementioned CO2. Trees catch and soak in a wide range of airborne pollutants, including carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. 14. They muffle noise pollution. Sound fades in forests, making trees a popular natural noise barrier. The muffling effect is largely due to rustling leaves — plus other woodland white noise, like bird songs — and just a few well-placed trees can cut background sound by 5 to 10 decibels, or about 50 percent as heard by human ears. 15. They are source of food. Not only do trees provide fruits, nuts, seeds and sap, but they also enable a cornucopia near the forest floor, from edible mushrooms, berries and beetles to larger game like deer, turkeys, rabbits and fish.

10. IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS/TREES 16. They give us medicine. Forests provide a wealth of natural medicines and increasingly inspire synthetic spin-offs. The asthma drug theophylline comes from cacao trees, for example, while a compound in eastern red cedar needles has been found to fight MRSA, a type of staph infection that resists many antibiotic drugs. About 70 percent of all known plants with cancer-fighting properties occur only in rain forests. 17. They help us make things. Where would humans be without timber and resin? We've long used these renewable resources to make everything from paper and furniture to homes and clothing, but we also have a history of getting carried away, leading to overuse and deforestation. Thanks to the growth of tree farming and sustainable forestry, though, it's becoming easier to find responsibly sourced tree products. 18. They create jobs. More than 1.6 billion people rely on forests to some extent for their livelihoods, according to the U.N., and 10 million are directly employed in forest management or conservation. Forests contribute about 1 percent of the global gross domestic product through timber production and non-timber products, the latter of which alone support up to 80 percent of the population in many developing countries.

11. IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS/TREES 19. They create majesty. Natural beauty may be the most obvious and yet least tangible benefit a forest offers. The abstract blend of shade, greenery, activity and tranquility can yield concrete advantages for people, however, like convincing us to appreciate and preserve old-growth forests for future generations. Our innate attraction to forests, part of a phenomenon known as " biophilia ," is still in the relatively early stages of scientific explanation. We know biophilia draws humans to water, woods and other natural scenery, though, and exposure to forests has been shown to boost creativity, suppress ADHD, speed up recovery, and encourage meditation and mindfulness. It may even help us live longer. 21. They're pillars of their communities. Like the famous rug in "The Big Lebowski," forests really tie everything together — and we often don't appreciate them until they're gone. Beyond all their specific ecological perks (which can't even fit in a list this long), they've reigned for eons as Earth's most successful setting for life on land. Our species probably couldn't live without them, but it's up to us to make sure we never have to try. The more we enjoy and understand forests, the less likely we are to miss them for the trees.

12. DEFORESTATION Deforestation , clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. [2] Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests. Whenever a resource is exploited, several different interests are put into conflict. Two major ones are economic interests and environmental interests. Economic factors are easy to measure. The cost of exploitation and the financial return for this expenditure are the primary issues. The environmental viewpoint is often difficult to put into monetary terms and must always rely on ethical or biological arguments to temper the economic arguments. Modern forest management practices in many parts of the world involve a compromise between these two points of view. The forests of the world are known quantities. The economic worth of the standing timber can be assessed, and the value of the forests for wildlife and watershed protection can be given a value.

13. CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION Deforestation occurs for multiple reasons: 1 trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel, (sometimes in the form of charcoal or timber), 2 while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and plantation. 3.Deforestation has also been used in war to deprive the enemy of cover for its forces and also vital resources. 4. one of the causes of deforestation is harvesting natural resources through logging. Wood is a valuable raw material in construction or manufacturing, and the practice of logging prepares the trees for those purposes.

14. CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION 5. forests are often cleared because those in charge of the woodland want to use the area for a different purpose. This is seen in all types of forests and all over the world, but arguably the most devastated forest areas are in the tropics. Tropical forests are forests that span both sides of the Equator, and they are the most diverse ecosystems on the planet. 6. In tropical forests, as well as forests farther away from the Equator, one of the main causes of deforestation is to make room for agriculture. Whether the farming is by individuals who wish to grow only enough food for their own use or performed commercially, agriculture is often cited as the leading cause of deforestation. 7/Cattle ranching is another cause of deforestation. Much like farmers, cattle ranchers clear forests to make room for grazing cattle. 8.Another cause of deforestation is mining. Tropical forests are the location of many deposits of minerals and metals, including diamonds, oil, aluminum and gold. The forests are removed to extract these materials from the ground. 9. Dams that are constructed for hydroelectric power plants are another reason for deforestation. When the dams are built, they flood large areas of forest, destroying the trees.

15. CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION 1.Continuing loss of natural systems could make human activities increasingly vulnerable to ecological surprises in the future. 2.The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. 3. It has adverse impacts on bio-sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

16. CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION 4..We mentioned that tropical forests are the most diverse ecosystems on the planet. They are the home to many different and unique species of plants and animals. One of the consequences of deforestation is the loss of biodiversity. Many species within a forest ecosystem are specialized to that habitat. When their habitat is lost, it can lead to their extinction. This can have a negative cascading effect on other species in the area. 5.When forests are cut down, another consequence that results is that it increases greenhouse gas emissions. Trees absorb carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas, from the atmosphere and turn it into energy. When trees are cut down, the stored carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere. The presence of atmospheric greenhouse gases is thought to contribute to the warming of the earth's surface.

17. CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION 6.The most immediate impact of deforestation occurs at the local level with the loss of ecological services provided by tropical rainforests , other forests and related ecosystems. Such habitats afford humans valuable services such as erosion prevention, flood control, water filtration, fisheries protection, and pollination—functions that are particularly important to the world's poorest people, who rely on natural resources for their everyday survival. 7.Forest loss also reduces the availability of renewable resources like timber, medicinal plants, nuts and fruit, and game. 8Over the longer term, deforestation of tropical rainforests can have a broader impact, affecting global climate and biodiversity. These changes are more challenging to observe and forecast from local effects, since they take place over a longer time scale and can be difficult to measure.

18. FOREST MANAGEMENT Forest management : It is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, economic, legal, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silvic-culture, protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for aesthetics, fish, recreation, urban values, water, wilderness, wildlife, wood products, forest genetic resources, and other forest resource values. Management can be based on conservation, economics, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of various species, cutting roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire. Forest Best management practices (FBMPs) are proactive and often voluntary practical methods or practices used during forest management to achieve goals related to water quality, silviculture , wildlife and biodiversity, aesthetics, and/or recreation. Forest Best management practices application - Harvesting, silviculture , and road design are tools to attain certain goals, but necessitate specific practices to ensure the continued quality and sustainable productivity of the forest. BMPs should be used, as warranted, under specific conditions and at appropriate times and sites.

19. FOREST MANAGEMENT There are eight major categories of forest best management practices(BMPs,) including: Timber harvesting. Pre-harvest planning. Streamside management zones. Forest wetlands protection. Road construction and maintenance. Revegetation. Fire management. Forest chemical management.

20. FOREST MANAGEMENT Timber harvesting. The process of cutting trees and transporting them through a forest will disrupt a forest watershed, but you can use Best Management Practices to minimize that disturbance and protect your waterways and wildlife habitat. There are BMPs that can be applied to many phases of timber harvesting including: planning cutting creation of skid trails creation of landings design and construction of roads.

21. FOREST MANAGEMENT Pre-harvest planning. Pre-harvest planning will help you avoid sensitive sites like wetlands and riparian areas, as well as important wildlife habitats. If these sensitive areas cannot be avoided, the planning process will help you fine-tune your harvest techniques and schedules to minimize disturbance of water resources and wildlife. This may mean harvesting in winter months when the ground is frozen and birds are not nesting; or using specialized machinery and techniques to avoid compaction, rutting and erosion. A good pre-harvest plan will outline the Best Management Practices that will be followed before, during and after the harvest. These should: Identify special areas of protection like wetlands, riparian zones and wildlife habitat. Outline the optimal timing of activities, when construction and cutting will cause the least disturbance to soil, water and wildlife. Describe special measures for road design and layout. Determine harvesting methods. Outline a plan for regeneration.

22. FOREST MANAGEMENT A pre-harvest plan may include topographic maps, aerial photographs and soil surveys, as well as an on-the-ground assessment of current conditions. Many resources are available online to assist you in the planning process. Your pre-harvest plan should consider the location of natural drainage channels, important wildlife habitat, topography and soil type. This will help you make informed decisions about: harvest location and boundaries location and design of infrastructure like roads and landings harvest method reforestation strategies.

23. FOREST MANAGEMENT Streamside Management : The lands that surround lakes and streams, often referred to as riparian areas or sometimes called Streamside, consist of complex habitats that provide food, breeding grounds and movement corridors for many wild creatures. A large percentage of threatened and endangered wildlife depends on riparian areas for survival. Riparian areas also play an important role in protecting waterways from erosion, sedimentation and other forms of pollution. Because of their importance in woodland ecosystems, these lands are the site of special best management consideration, and can be designated as Riparian Management Zones or RMZs, sometimes called Streamside Management Zones, are buffer areas of native vegetation that envelop and safeguard woodland waters. Within RMZs, management activities are modified to protect water quality and important wildlife habitat. 

24. FOREST MANAGEMENT here are some Best Management Practices to keep in mind: Locate infrastructure outside of RMZs. Unless it cannot be avoided, roads, landings, skid trails, buildings and other construction should be sited outside of the RMZ boundary you have set. Don’t dispose of slash or waste from road construction within RMZs. Avoid soil exposure and compaction of soil within RMZs. Avoid operating equipment within RMZs. When equipment operation is necessary in a riparian zone, limit activity to the coldest months when the ground is frozen. Do not harvest timber within an RMZ.  If you must harvest, do so selectively, and do not harvest woody material within 50 feet of the ordinary high water mark of a stream or lake. Promote long-lived native tree species in riparian zones. Do not use chemical fertilizers, pesticides or other hazardous materials inside of RMZs.

25. FOREST MANAGEMENT Forest wetlands protection. Wetlands serve many important functions in the woodland ecosystem, providing everything from wildlife habitat and water quality to flood protection, By employing Best Management Practices for wetlands you and your woodlands can enjoy all the no-cost services that wetlands provide. Protect your wetlands by: Avoiding construction of roads and landings in wetlands. Avoiding intense forest management activities in wetlands and their buffers. When activities are unavoidable, they should be limited to when the ground is frozen. Do not dispose of slash in wetlands. Do not use pesticides and other toxic chemicals in wetlands. Create buffer zones around wetlands to protect them from management activities. 

26. FOREST MANAGEMENT Road construction and maintenance. Often the greatest cause of pollution from forest management activities is poorly designed, constructed and maintained roads. Poor roads can increase erosion and alter the flow of water over and through the ground. Forest Management Practices can also guide this phase of the road project to protect your woodland water. Some of these practices are: Time your road construction for dry seasons. Wet soils are prone to rutting and compaction. Avoid road construction when fish are spawning. Added sediment in water can bury fish eggs. Poorly timed road construction can wipe out an entire generation of reproduction for your woodland fish. Store road construction waste and debris away from streams and wetlands, and any other place where this material can erode and run off into waterways. Employ the appropriate soil stabilization techniques after construction, keeping in mind that native plant regeneration, where possible, will give you the double benefit of soil stabilization and wildlife habitat.  Use gravel on the surface of roads that have steep grades and/or a high likelihood of erosion. Employ sedimentation capture techniques, like silt fences and hay bales, to capture soil before it can reach waterways or wetlands.

27. FOREST MANAGEMENT Revegetation will protect water resources while at the same time enhancing beauty, health and wildlife in your woodland.  Any woodland management that removes vegetation or compacts soil will impact soil and water dynamics. To restore woodland health, return native plants to the land as soon as possible so they can do their work to stabilize soil and slow water movement.

28. FOREST MANAGEMENT Some BMPs to be aware of when reestablishing plant cover: Use native plants and seed. Do not introduce invasive non-native species. Loosen soil and ensure soil quality prior to seeding. Remove and revegetate unneeded logging roads, landings and skid trails as soon as possible.

29. FOREST MANAGEMENT Fire management. Fire has played a role in woodlands for millions of years and it can be an important force in healthy forest management. But there are water quality implications for fire. A very hot fire can remove vegetation and damage soils, which may lead to erosion and sedimentation of waterways. Fire preparedness and firefighting techniques–like blading fire breaks and spraying fire retardants–can lead to erosion and impair water quality.  For all fire, BMPs include: Employing natural fire breaks rather than bladed or plowed fire breaks, especially in Riparian Management Zones and near waterways and wetlands. Plowing and blading disturbs soil structure and can lead to erosion and sedimentation of waters. Avoiding chemical fire retardants, especially near water surfaces. These toxins can pollute water and kill fish and other aquatic creatures. In wildfire, if they are unavoidable, try to avoid spraying near streams, lakes, wetlands and Riparian Management Zones. Using soil stabilization techniques where erosion is likely to occur and maintaining them until the land and vegetation recover

30. FOREST MANAGEMENT Forest chemical management Use the following BMPs to prevent chemical contamination of surface and ground waters: • Check local weather forecast before application. Do not apply if high wind or rain is predicted. • Avoid applying chemicals when temperatures are high or relative humidity is low, to avoid rapid evaporation of chemicals. • Abide by all restrictions on the label. • For aerial spray applications, mark and maintain a 100-foot buffer around all water bodies. Ensure that there is no application to water bodies.

31. FOREST MANAGEMENT • For ground spraying and other types of application, mark and maintain a 25-foot buffer. Ensure that there is no direct application of chemicals to the waterbody. • Calibrate spray equipment to apply chemicals uniformly and in correct quantities. • Prevent leaks from equipment. check all equipment for leaking hoses, connections, and nozzles. • Locate all mixing and loading areas out- side of filter or buffer strips, or riparian areas. • Dispose of pesticide wastes and containers according to labels and state/federal laws. • Develop a spill contingency plan. Have onsite a spill clean-up kit including: detergent or soap, hand cleaner and water, activated charcoal, adsorptive clay, saw dust, vermiculite, or other absorptive materials, lime or bleach to neutralize pesticides in emergency situations, tools such as shovels and containers for disposal, protective clothing/gloves/masks • Report spills immediately to the Pesticide Control Board and the Service Forester. • Apply slow-release fertilizers when possible. • Base fertilizer type and application rate on soil and/or foliar analysis when possible. • Do not use fertilizers within filter strip or riparian zone due to possible nutrient loading.

32. WATER AS A RESOURCES Water resources are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The majority of human uses require fresh water . There are more than 326 million trillion gallons of water on Earth. Less than 3 % of all this water is fresh water and of that amount, more than two-thirds is locked up in ice caps and glaciers. With so much water around it seems like there is enough to see us through for millions of years. But did you know that even water, which seems to be in abundance, might one day become scarce?

33. WATER AS A RESOURCES The Earth is a watery place. But just how much water exists on, in, and above our planet? About 71 percent of the Earth's surface is water-covered, and the oceans hold about 96.5 percent of all Earth's water. Water also exists in the air as water vapor , in rivers and lakes , in icecaps and glaciers , in the ground as soil moisture and in aquifers , and even in you and your dog. Water is never sitting still. Thanks to the water cycle , our planet's water supply is constantly moving from one place to another and from one form to another. Things would get pretty stale without the water cycle!

34. WATER USES/IMPORTANCE The Earth might seem like it has abundant water, but in fact less than 1 percent is available for human use. The rest is either salt water found in oceans, fresh water frozen in the polar ice caps, or too inaccessible for practical usage. While population and demand on freshwater resources are increasing, supply will always remain constant. And although it's true that the water cycle continuously returns water to Earth, it is not always returned to the same place, or in the same quantity and quality. 1. Hydropower generation: The most significant use of water is to produce hydropower by harnessing its energy. Compared to other resources that are used to produce energy and power, water is considered renewable as well as having the least solid waste during energy production. Electricity generation: We also use a significant amount of water to meet the nation's energy needs 2 Agricultural Purposes- farming gardening fisheries- Agricultural use: Water is used to grow our food, manufacture our favorite goods, and keep our businesses running smoothly. 3. Domestic Purposes- cooking, drinking, bathing, washing- An array of pipes, canals, and pumping stations managed by our public water systems are needed to bring a reliable supply of water to our taps each day 4. Industrial Purposes -manufacturing-Water plays a big role in supporting our communities. Without water there would be no local business or industry. Fire-fighting, municipal parks, and public swimming pools all need lots of water.  5.Recreation -swimming, rafting, boating

35. WATER USES/IMPORTANCE Different in average annual precipitation divides the world‟s countries and people into water haves and have-nots. For example, Canada, with only 0.5% of the world‟s population, has 20% of the world‟s fresh water supply. By contrast, China with 21% of the world‟s population has only 7% of the world‟s fresh water supply. Already more than 300 of China‟s 640 largest cities are short of water, and 100 of them are very short.  As population, irrigation and industrialization increase, water shortages in already water-short regions will intensify and wars over water may erupt. Projected global warming also might cause changes in rainfall patterns and disrupt water supplies in unpredictable ways.

36. WATER USES/IMPORTANCE Since 1950, the global rate of water withdrawal from surface and groundwater sources has increased almost fivefold and per capita use has tripled. According to a 1996 study, humans currently use about 54% of the global surface runoff that realistically available from the hydrological cycle. Because of increased population growth and economic development, global withdrawal rates of surface are projected to at least double in the next two decades and exceed the available surface runoff in a growing number of areas.   Uses of withdrawn water vary from one region to another and from one country to another. Worldwide, about 70% of all water withdrawn each year from rivers, lakes, and aquifers is used to irrigate 17% of the world‟s cropland. Some 60-80% of this water either evaporates or seeps into the ground before reaching crops. About 20% of the water withdrawn each year is used for industry and 10% is used by residences and cities.

37. WATER SHORTAGES AND INCREASE IN SUPPLY Water Shortages   According to water experts, there are for causes of water scarcity, these include; 1. Dry climate   2. Drought – a period in which precipitation is much lower and evaporation is higher than normal 3. Desiccation – drying of the soil because of such activities as deforestation and overgrazing by livestock 4. Water stress – low per capita availability of water caused by increasing numbers of people relying on limited levels of runoff.

38. WATER SHORTAGES AND INCREASE IN SUPPLY Since the 1970s water scarcity intensified by prolonged drought has killed more than 24000 people per year and created many environmental refugees. In water-short areas, many women and children must walk long distances each day, carrying heavy jars or cans, to get a meager supply of sometimes contaminated water. Millions of poor people in developing countries have no choice but to try to survive on drought-prone land. if global warming occurs as projected, severe droughts may become more common in some areas of the world. Evidence of water stress is seen in the draining of rivers and falling of water tables. The Nile, the largest river in the Middle East, has little water in it when it reaches the sea. Water tables are falling on every continent, including major food-producing areas such as North China Plain, the U.S. southern Great Plains, and most of India. A number of analysts believe that access to water resources, already a key foreign policy and environmental security issue for water-shortage countries, will become even more important over the next 10-20 years.

39. WATER SHORTAGES AND INCREASE IN SUPPLY Increase in Water Supply There are five ways to increase the supply of fresh water in a particular area, these include; 1. Build dams and reservoirs to store runoff. 2. Bring in surface water from another area. 3. Withdraw groundwater. 4. Convert salt water to fresh water (desalination). 5. Improve the efficiency of water use. In developed countries, people tend to settle where the climate is favourable and then bring in water from another watershed. In developing countries, most people (especially in the rural poor) must settle where the water is and try to capture and use as much precipitation as they can.

40. WATER-USE PLANNING Water-Use Planning Issues   In the past, wastes were discharged into waterways with little regard to the costs imposed on other users by the resulting decrease in water quality. With today's increase in demand for high quality water, and restrained waste disposal could lead to serious conflict about water uses and cause social, economic and environmental loses in both local and international levels. Water use planning will need to deal with a number of different issues such as the following: - Increased demand for water will force reuse of existing water supplies  - In many areas where water is used for irrigation, both the water and the soil because salty because of evaporation. When this water returns to a stream, the quality of water is lowered. - In some areas, wells provide water for all categories of use. If the groundwater is pumped out faster than it is replaced, the water table is lowered. - In coastal areas, sea water may intrude into the aquifers and ruin the water supply. - The demand for water based recreation is increasing dramatically and requires high quality water, especially for water recreation involving total body contact, such as swimming.

41. MINERAL AS A RESOURCE A mineral resource is a concentration of a naturally occurring solid, liquid and gaseous material in or on the earth‟s crust that can be extracted and processed into useful materials at an affordable cost. The earth‟s internal and external processes have produced numerous resources,. Which on a human time scale are essentially non-renewable because of the slowness of the rock cycle. Mineral resources include;  i . Energy resources (coal, oil, gas, uranium, geothermal energy) ii. Metallic mineral resources (iron, copper, aluminium ) iii. Non-metallic mineral resources (salt, gypsum, clay, sand, phosphorus)  We know how to find and extract 100 non-renewable minerals from the earth‟s crust. We convert these minerals into many everyday items that we either use and discard or learn to reuse, recycle, or use less wastefully.

42. COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH MINERAL EXPLOITATION Costs are always associated with the exploitation of any natural resource. These costs fall into three different categories Economic costs are those monitory costs necessary to exploit the resource. Money is needed to lease or buy land, build equipment, pay for labour and buy the energy necessary to run the equipment. Energy cost of exploiting the resource. concentrate and transport mineral materials to manufacturing sites. Since energy costs money, energy costs are ultimately converted to economic costs. When energy is inexpensive, inefficient processes may be profitable; however, when the cost of energy rises, energy-intensive processes will be eliminated. Environmental costs of resource exploitation. These costs are in terms of environmental effects. Air pollution, water pollution, animal extinction, and loss of scenic quality

43. COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH MINERAL EXPLOITATION Environmental costs are often differed costs. They may not even be recognized as costs at first but become important after several years. Environmental costs are also often represented by lost opportunities or lost values because the resource could not be used for another purpose. Environmental costs are also converted to economic costs as more strict controls on the pollution of the environment are enacted and enforced. It takes more money to clean up polluted water and air or to reclaim land that has been removed from biological production by mining.

44. MINERAL SUBSTITUTES IN TERMS OF MATERIAL REVOLUTION Some analysts may believe that even if supplies of key minerals become expensive or scarce, human ingenuity will find substitute. They point to the current materials revolution in which silicon and new materials, particularly ceramics and plastics are being developed and used as replacements for metals. Ceramics have many advantages over conventional metals. They are harder, stronger, lighter and longer lasting than many metals and they withstand intense and do not corrode. Within a few decades we may have high-temperature ceramics superconductors in which electricity flows without resistance. Such a development may lead to faster computer, more efficient power transmission, and affordable electromagnetic for propelling magnetic levitation trains. Plastics also have advantages over many metals. High-strength plastics and composite materials strengthened by lightweight carbon and glass fibers are likely to transform the automobile and aerospace industries. They cost less to produce than metals because they require less energy, don‟t need painting, and can be modeled into any shape. New plastics and gels are also being developed to provide superinsulation without taking up much space. One new plastic can withstand high temperatures and is not even affected by exposure to the most intense laser beams. Substitutes can undoubtedly be found for many scarce mineral resources. However, the such is costly and phasing a substitute into a complex manufacturing process takes time. While a vanishing mineral is being replaced, people and businesses dependent on it may suffer economic hardships. Moreover, finding substitutes for some key materials may be difficult or impossible. For example, even though aluminium could replace copper in electrical wiring, producing aluminium takes much more energy than producing copper, and aluminium wiring represents a greater fire hazard than copper wiring.

45. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF MINERAL EXTRACTION The mining, processing and use of crustal resources require enormous amounts of energy and often cause land disturbance, erosion, and air and water pollution. Mining can affect the environment in several ways, including; - Scarring and disrupting of the land surface - Underground fires in coal mines that cannot always be put out - Collapse or subsidence of land above underground mines, which can cause house to tilt, sewer line to crack, gas mains to break, and groundwater systems to be disrupted. - Wind- or water-caused erosion of toxin-laced mining wastes such as spoil heaps and tailings - Acid mine drainage, when rain water seeping through a mine or mine wastes

46. SOIL AS A RESOURCE Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and countless organisms that together support life on Earth. Soil has a layered structure, with the topsoil being around 4 in (10 cm) deep and rich in organic material. Then there is a layer between topsoil and subsoil through which dissolved or suspended matter moves. Below this is the subsoil, where humic compounds, clay, iron, and aluminum may accumulate after leaching from the upper layers. Finally there is the actual bedrock , which is the source of the soil through weathering processes. Soil is also classified according to the size of the particles it contains. A soil with a lot of clay has fine particles, while one with a lot of gravel is coarser.

47. SOIL AS A RESOURCE The coverage of Earth’s surface with soil varies from place to place. Tropical forests have thin soils that are poor in nutrients, while grasslands in temperate regions have soils that are rich and well able to support crops. There are several different classes of soil depending on how the soil is formed and where it is located. An understanding of which class of soil is found in a particular location is an important foundation to obtaining successful crop yields.

48. IMPORTANCE OF SOIL Soil is a natural body called the pedosphere which has several important functions: it is a medium for plant growth; it is a means of water storage, supply and purification; it is a modifier of Earth's atmosphere; it is a habitat for organisms; all of which, in turn, modify the soil. It provides nutrients and an anchor to the roots of plants and is therefore essential to their healthy growth and yield of food. It is a complex mixture of organic and mineral content which is constantly being formed by the weathering of rocks.

49. SOIL EROSION, CAUSES AND IMPACTS AND SOLUTIONS Soil resources need conserving as much as water resources do. Erosion is the key process by which soil is created from rock and destroyed. Wind and rain are the main factors that cause erosion of soil from agricultural areas, possibly converting them into new desert. Some modern agricultural practices leave soil exposed to the elements and thereby risk loss of long-term productivity because of soil erosion.

50. SOIL EROSION, CAUSES AND IMPACTS AND SOLUTIONS “ Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation. Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process on all land. The agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year. Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks. ” Soil erosion is, at its core, a natural process. Put simply, it is when topsoil, which is the upper-most layer of the ground, is moved from one spot to another. Why this matters is because topsoil is the part of the land that is highest in organic matter and best suited for farming and other fertile activities, which is why soil erosion can have the greatest impact on farmers and agricultural land. In other words, soil erosion is a naturally occurring and slow process that refers to loss of field’s top soil by water and wind or through conversion of natural vegetation to agricultural land.

51. SOIL EROSION, CAUSES AND IMPACTS AND SOLUTIONS The process of soil erosion is made up of three parts: Detachment: This is when the topsoil is actually “detached” from the rest of the ground. Movement: This is when the topsoil is relocated to another area. Deposition: Where the topsoil ends up after this process.

52. SOIL EROSION, CAUSES AND IMPACTS AND SOLUTIONS Some of the principal causes of soil erosion include: Rain and rainwater runoff: In a particular heavy rain, soil erosion is common. First of all, the water starts to break down the soil, dispersing the materials it is made of. Typically, rainwater runoff will impact lighter materials like silt, organic matter, and finer sand particles, but in heavy rainfall, this can also include the larger material components as well. Farming: When land is worked through crops or other agricultural processes, it reduces the overall structure of the soil, in addition to reducing the levels of organic matter, making it more susceptible to the effects of rain and water. Tilling in particular, because it often breaks up and softens the structure of soil, can be a major contributor to erosion. Farming practices that reduce this activity tend to have far less issues with soil erosion. Slope of the land: The physical characteristics of the land can also contribute to soil erosion. For example, land with a high hill slope will perpetuate the process of rainwater or runoff saturation in the area, particularly due to the faster movement of the water down a slope. Lack of vegetation: Plants and crops help maintain the structure of soils, reducing the amount of soil erosion. Areas with less naturally-occurring flora may be a hint that the soil is prone to erosion. Wind: Wind can be a major factor in reducing soil quality and promotion erosion, particularly if the soil’s structure has already been loosened up. However, lighter winds will typically not cause too much damage, if any. The most susceptible soil to this type of erosion is sandy or lighter soil that can easily be transported through the

53. SOIL EROSION, CAUSES AND IMPACTS AND SOLUTIONS Effects of Soil Erosion A major problem with soil erosion is that there is no telling how quickly or slowly it will occur. If largely impacted by ongoing weather or climate events, it may be a slow-developing process that is never even noticed. However, a severe weather occurrence or other experience can contribute to rapid-moving erosion, which can cause great harm to the area and its inhabitants. Some of the greatest effects of soil erosion include: Loss of topsoil: Obviously, this is the biggest effect of soil erosion. Because topsoil is so fertile, if it is removed, this can cause serious harm to farmer’s crops or the ability to effectively work their land. Soil compaction: When soil under the topsoil becomes compacted and stiff, it reduces the ability for water to infiltrate these deeper levels, keeping runoff at greater levels, which increases the risk of more serious erosion.

54. SOIL EROSION, CAUSES AND IMPACTS AND SOLUTIONS Reduced organic and fertile matter: As mentioned, removing topsoil that is heavy with organic matter will reduce the ability for the land to regenerate new flora or crops. When new crops or plants can’t be placed successfully in the area, this perpetuates a cycle of reduced levels of organic nutrients. Poor drainage: Sometimes too much compaction with sand can lead to an effective crust that seals in the surface layer, making it even harder for water to pass through to deeper layers. In some ways, this can help erosion because of the densely packed soil, but if it perpetuates greater levels of runoff from rainwater or flooding, it can negatively impact the crucial topsoil. Issues with plant reproduction: When soil is eroded in an active cropland, wind in particular makes lighter soil properties such as new seeds and seedlings to be buried or destroyed. This, in turn, impacts future crop production. Soil acidity levels: When the structure of the soil becomes compromised, and organic matter is greatly reduced, there is a higher chance of increased soil acidity, which will significantly impact the ability for plants and crops to grow. Long term erosion: Unfortunately, if an area is prone to erosion or has a history of it, it becomes even harder to protect it in the future. The process has already reduced the soil structure and organic matter of the area, meaning that it will be harder to recover in the long run. Water pollution: A major problem with runoff from soils – particularly those used for agricultural processes – is that there is a greater likelihood that sediment and contamination like the use of fertilizer or pesticide. This can have significant damage on fish and water quality

55. SOIL EROSION, CAUSES AND IMPACTS AND SOLUTIONS Solutions for Soil Erosion When it comes to finding solutions for soil erosion, the most useful techniques found tend to be those that emphasize reinforcing the structure of the soil, and reducing processes that affect it. Careful tilling: Because tilling activity breaks up the structure of soil, doing less tilling with fewer passes will preserve more of the crucial topsoil. Crop rotation: Plenty of crop rotation is crucial for keeping land happy and healthy. This allows organic matter to build up, making future plantings more fertile. Increased structure for plants: Introducing terraces or other means of stabilizing plant life or even the soil around them can help reduce the chance that the soil loosens and erodes. Boosting areas that are prone to erosion with sturdy plant life can be a great way to stave off future effects.

56. SOIL EROSION, CAUSES AND IMPACTS AND SOLUTIONS Water control: For those areas where soil erosion is predominantly caused by water – whether natural or man-made – specialized chutes and runoff pipes can help to direct these water sources away from the susceptible areas, helping stave off excess erosion. Having these filters in particular areas rather than leading to natural bodies of water is a focus to reduce pollution. Increased knowledge: A major factor for preventing soil erosion is educating more and more people who work with the land on why it is a concern, and what they can do to help reduce it. This means outreach to farmers in susceptible areas for ways that they can help protect crops from inclement weather, or ways that they can help make sure their soil remains compact without restricting their plant growing activities.

57. WILDLIFE AS A RESOURCE Wild life resources include all animals, which grow and propagate naturally without any sort of human interference. They remain in wild form without any sort of friendly association with man. Invariably they are in forests. Wildlife serves as a resource to maintain the ecological balance as well as source of entertainment besides acting as source to produce the meat, skins and other animal products. The animal species like lion, tiger, cheetah, deer, bear, jackal and number of wild birds are included in wild life wealth. Although 'wildlife' refers to any form of life living in its wild ( uninterfered ) or natural habitat, 'wildlife' in practice means a group of animals living in forests or other natural habitats. It usually signifies the animals in wild form without being domesticated. Once upon a time, the present day domestic animals like cattle, horse, buffalo, cat, dog were in wild form.

58. WILDLIFE AS A RESOURCE Wild life resources form important natural resource of a nation. Preserving the wild life is on prioritized agenda of many nations, including Kenya. Each species of wild life enjoys specific climate and specific agro ecological situation and therefore more acclimatized to such situation. Most of wild animals are confined to specific situation. Their breeding and feeding habits are adjusted to such situations. Wildlife includes several hundreds of types of birds, many types of amphibians, reptiles, mammalians and other species.

59. WILDLIFE AS A RESOURCE Based on the degree of threat rating on them, wildlife could be classified as Endangered Species Vulnerable Species Rare Species Endangered Species Their numbers have been reduced to a critical level pushing them to near extinction. They may become extinct very shortly. 81 species of mammalians, 38 species of birds, 18 species of amphibians / reptiles are identified as endangered species in India. Some of them are Nilgiri langur, clouded leopard, snow leopard, wolf, Himalayan brown bear, red panda, Asian elephant, one horned rhinoceros, Asiatic wild ass, wild buffaloe , Kashmir stag, slender loris , musk deer, peacock, hornbill, great Indian Bustard, Reticulated python, Indian rock python, Olive ridley sea turtle.

60. WILDLIFE AS A RESOURCE Vulnerable Species : Their population is still abundant but their habitat is adversely affected. They may become endangered if their habitat continues to be affected. Examples: Leopard and golden langur. Rare Species: They are such species - whose population is very thinly populated on a wide geographical area - affecting their natural reproduction. Examples: Snow loris , Indian desert cat and wild yak.

61. WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT Wildlife management attempts to balance the needs of wildlife with the needs of people using the best available science. Wildlife management can include game keeping, wildlife conservation and pest control. Game keeping is the management or control of wildlife for the well being of game and may include killing other animals which share the same niche or predators to maintain a high population of the more profitable species,

62. WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT Wildlife conservation aims to halt the loss in the Earth's biodiversity by taking into consideration ecological principles such as carrying capacity, disturbance and succession and environmental conditions such as physical geography, pedology and hydrology with the aim of balancing the needs of wildlife with the needs of people. Pest control is the control of real or perceived pests and can be used for the benefit of wildlife, farmers, game keepers or safety reasons.

63. WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT Wildlife Conservation and Management focuses on the ecology of wild animals, including the study of their biology and interrelationships with each other, with humans, and with the physical and biological environment that makes up their habitat. Managers and biologists are concerned with maintaining species diversity, improving conditions for declining and endangered species, managing populations that are hunted or fished, and coordinating other resource management activities to maintain environmental quality.

64. WILDLIFE EXTINCTION CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS What is the extinction of species? In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms (taxon), normally a species . The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species , although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point. Here are some of the factors that can cause a species to become extinct: New diseases. New predators. New, more successful competitors. Changes to the environment over geological time - such as a change in climate.

65. WILDLIFE EXTINCTION CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS Natural Causes of Extinction Climatic Heating and Cooling Climate Change is caused by a number of things. The effect that climate has on extinction is very big. The biodiverse Earth can't keep up with the rapid changes in temperature and climate. The species are not used to severe weather conditions and long seasons, or a changing chemical make-up of their surroundings. As more species die, it is only making it more difficult for the survivors to find food. The warmer climates we are used to present-day are perfect for diseases and epidemics to thrive. Changes in Sea Levels or Currents The changes in sea levels and currents is a result, in part, of the melting freshwater. The denser, saltier water sinks and forms the currents that marine life depends on. Ocean floor spreading and rising also affects sea level. A small rise in the ocean floor can displace a lot of water onto land that is all ready occupied. The gases from the volcanic activity can also be absorbed by the water, thus changing the chemical composition, making it unsuitable for some life.

66. WILDLIFE EXTINCTION CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS Asteroids/Cosmic Radiation Asteroids hit the earth with extreme force. The reverberations can be felt around the world. The impact site is completey destroyed. Cosmic Radiation is radiation being emitted from outer space and the Sun. It is hypothesized that being exposed to too much cosmic radiation can mutate genes, which can potentially weaken a species' genepool in the future. Since the radiation comes from space and the Sun, it is extremely difficult to avoid the radiation. Supernova remnants is one source of cosmic radiation. Acid Rain Acid rain forms when sulfur dioxide and/or nitrogen oxides are put out into the atmosphere. The chemicals get absorbed by water droplets in the clouds, and eventually fall to the earth as acid precipitation. Acid rain increases the acidity of the soil which affects plant life. It can also disturb rivers and lakes to a possibly lethal level.

67. WILDLIFE EXTINCTION CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS Disease/Epidemic Each species has defense mechanisms like immunities and the ability to fight disease. With the changing climate and landscape certain species are losing their ability to fend off disease. They are becoming more susceptible to disease and epidemics, which can lead to their eventual extinction. Spread of Invasive Species Invasive species invade foreign territory. They use resources that the other species depend on. Once competition gets too great, the survival of the fittest plan will begin, and one of the species, usually the natural one, will die off.

68. WILDLIFE EXTINCTION CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS Natural factors usually occur at a slower rate than human factors and therefore cause a lower extinction rate.  Human activities occur at a faster rate and cause higher extinction rates.  Human activities are mostly responsible for the present extinction rates. Human Causes of Extinction Top Human Causes of Extinction Increased human population Destruction/Fragmentation of Habitat Pollution Climate Change/Global Warming Extinctions caused by humans are generally considered to be a recent phenomena

69. WILDLIFE EXTINCTION CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS Our Approach to Endangered Species Protection Includes: Defending and strengthening the Endangered Species Act , which provides an essential legal safety net to prevent the loss of plant and animal species to extinction. Holding federal agencies and others accountable for complying with laws protecting rare and endangered species using cooperation, persuasion, and--where necessary--litigation. Advocating for increased funding for private landowner incentives and other conservation programs that benefit endangered species. Protecting and restoring the habitats on which endangered species and other wildlife depend for their survival, and encouraging wildlife-friendly land management practices. Reducing threats to wildlife that can lead to their endangerment and extinction, such as loss of habitat, contamination of water and spread of invasive species.

70. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE AS RESOURCE Fishery resources are those aquatic resources of value to fisheries . FAO Fisheries Glossary. According to the FAO, a fishery is typically defined in terms of the "people involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing , class of boats, purpose of the activities or a combination of the foregoing features". Fishery Resource : In general, refers to elements of a natural aquatic resource (e.g. strains, species, populations, stocks, assemblages) which can be legally caught by fishing

71. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE AS RESOURCE Aquaculture resources comprise a wide variety of animals and plants (and their genetic resources) such as fish; crustaceans, molluscs , seaweeds and other aquatic plants. Aquaculture production accounts for almost half of world fish supply and increases by 10%. It is expected to surpass capture fisheries production in the next 10 years. Further development of aquaculture is also expected to help us move away from dependence on overexploited capture fisheries resources and to enhance and conserve aquatic habitats and biodiversity; but this expansion should not exceed the carrying capacity of water resources.

72. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE IMPORTANCE Fisheries and wild aquatic resources are essential sources of nutrition for rural populations. Small-scale fisheries and aquaculture make critical contributions to development in the areas of Employment , with over 41 million people worldwide, the vast majority of whom live in developing countries, working in fish production; Food security and nutrition, with fish constituting an important source of nutrients for the poor and often being the cheapest form of animal protein; Trade, with a third of fishery commodity production in developing countries destined for export. With most capture fisheries worldwide considered fully exploited or overexploited, aquaculture will be central to meeting fish demand, which will continue to increase with population growth, rising incomes and increasing urbanisation .

73. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE CHALLENGES As aquaculture develops, however, governments will need to manage its potential ecological and social impacts. African aquaculture, which has grown much more slowly than in other regions, faces numerous challenges, including resource conflicts and difficulties in accessing credit, quality seed and feed, and information. Also key to meeting growing demand will be improvements in postharvest processing to reduce fish losses. Both fisheries and aquaculture are often neglected in national development policy and donor priorities, as policy makers often do not have access to data which reflect the importance of fisheries and aquaculture to development. Appropriate policies and regulation remain important, however, both in managing capture fisheries and ensuring that aquaculture development is pro-poor and sustainable.

74. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE CHALLENGES The current state of stocks can be at least partially attributed to the difficulties of regulating fisheries and preventing their overexploitation. Even with improvements in regulation, how- ever, pressures on capture fisheries will remain, due to continued population growth. Further development of sustainable aquaculture and improvements in the post-harvest sector to reduce losses could help to maintain fish supply and the contribution of fish to development.

75. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE CHALLENGES Degradation of these resources is as a result of: over-fishing use of illegal fishing gears introduction of exotic fish misuse of chemicals agro-industrial waste discharge deforestation breeding ground degradation dam construction that can lead to blocking of migratory pathways will have dramatic impacts on the nutritional and health status of rural people. Population growth, poverty, resource use conflicts illegal activities, pollution, biodiversity conservation, policy and institutional gaps conflicts are the major issues and problems in coastal management.

76. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE MANAGEMENT Fisheries management draws on fisheries science in order to find ways to protect fishery resources so sustainable exploitation is possible. Modern fisheries management is often referred to as a governmental system of appropriate management rules based on defined objectives and a mix of management means to implement the rules, which are put in place by a system of monitoring control and surveillance. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), there are "no clear and generally accepted definitions of fisheries management". [1] However, the working definition used by the FAO and much cited elsewhere is: The integrated process of information gathering, analysis, planning, consultation, decision-making, allocation of resources and formulation and implementation, with enforcement as necessary, of regulations or rules which govern fisheries activities in order to ensure the continued productivity of the resources and the accomplishment of other fisheries objectives