BIOETHICS.pptx............................................

This talks about bioethics..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1. BIOETHICS

2. The word "bioethics" comes from the combination of the Greek words "bios" meaning "life" and "ethos" meaning "ethics ."

3. Bioethics is the study of the ethical issues arising from advances in biology and medicine.

4. Example The decision of whether or not to get a genetic test to determine the risk of developing a hereditary disease. This raises bioethical questions about the individual's right to know their genetic information, the potential for discrimination based on genetic data, and the responsibilities of healthcare providers in counseling patients about genetic testing .

5. THE HISTORY OF BIOETHICS CAN BE DISCUSSED FROM THREE MAIN PERSPECTIVES:

6. The emergence of the concept of bioethics : The term "bioethics" was first used by German theologian Fritz Jahr in the 1920s and 1930s, who advocated for a more ethical approach to human and environmental issues. The modern concept of bioethics is often attributed to the work of Van Rensselaer Potter ("Bioethics, the Science of Survival") and Daniel Callahan ("Bioethics as a Discipline") in the 1970s.

7. Fritz Jahr Van Rensselaer Potter Daniel Callahan

8. The establishment of bioethics as an academic field : Bioethics emerged in the United States in the second half of the 20th century, initially as a subfield of medical ethics. The demand for ethical guidelines was fueled by negative events like the Nazis' research experiments and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Influential works like the Nuremberg Code, the Declaration of Helsinki, and "Morals and Medicine" helped shape the development of bioethics. Bioethics programs were established in the 1970s and 1980s, solidifying it as an academic field .

9. The institutionalization of bioethics : Bioethics is rooted in the Hippocratic Oath and the Code of Hammurabi, which addressed ethical issues in healthcare. Modern moral philosophy, utilitarianism, and animal rights movements have influenced the idea of protecting animals and nature. Philosophers like Aristotle, Aquinas, and Kant have also contributed to the development of ethical views on animal morality. The rapid technological advancements in the 20th century have further influenced the need for the institutionalization of bioethics .

10. What are the general goals of bioethics ?

11. Discipline : Bioethics provides a disciplinary framework for the whole array of moral questions and issues surrounding the life sciences concerning human beings, animals, and nature .

12. Inter-disciplinary Approach : In order to solve a particular ethical problem, bioethics considers a variety of applied ethics disciplines, including research ethics, information ethics, social ethics, feminist ethics, religious ethics, political ethics, and ethics of law. It also integrates empirical data from relevant natural sciences, most notably medicine in the case of medical ethics .

13. Ethical Guidance: Bioethics offers ethical guidance in a particular field of human conduct.

14. Clarification : Bioethics points to many novel complex cases, for example, gene technology, cloning, and human-animal chimeras and facilitates the awareness of the particular problem in public discourse .

15. Structure : Bioethics elaborates important arguments from a critical examination of judgements and considerations in discussions and debates.

16. Internal Auditing : Bioethics in conjunction with newly discovered data from the natural sciences may influence in certain instances the central ideas and methodologies of basic ethics by offering solid proof for crucial details. For instance, the widely recognized notion of personhood may be inadequate, overly restrictive, or morally dubious when applied to individuals with disabilities, necessitating revisions.

17. Sub-disciplines in Bioethics

18. Medical ethics deals with ethical issues like euthanasia and abortion, addressing decisions in medical circumstances, physician-patient relationships, and healthcare systems.

19. Animal ethics has evolved from utilitarianism to Darwin's evolutionary theory, address issues like livestock farming, xenotransplantation, meat consumption, zoos, and environmental concerns, focusing on animal welfare .

20. Environmental ethics explores the moral relationship between humans and non-human nature, encompassing anthropocentrism, non-anthropocentrism, holistic approaches like ecofeminism, deep ecology, and land ethics, addressing global threats and ecosystem destruction.

21. Here are some Theory in Bioethics

22. Deontological approaches refers to an ethical framework that evaluates the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to a rule or rules, rather than the action's consequences. Deontology in bioethics emphasizes the importance of moral duties, obligations, and principles in guiding ethical decision-making. The key idea is that certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their outcomes. For example, a deontological approach in bioethics might hold that it is always wrong to lie to a patient, even if the lie could potentially lead to a better outcome. The focus is on the moral duty to be truthful, rather than on the consequences of the action.

23. Immanuel Kant

24. Utilitarianism refers to an ethical framework that evaluates the morality of an action based on its consequences, specifically its ability to maximize overall utility or well-being. The utilitarian approach in bioethics focuses on achieving the greatest good for the greatest number of people. It holds that the right course of action is the one that produces the most favorable outcomes, such as reducing suffering, increasing happiness, and promoting the overall welfare of individuals and society. For example, a utilitarian approach in bioethics might justify the allocation of scarce medical resources to treatments that would save the most lives or improve the quality of life for the greatest number of people, even if it means denying treatment to some individuals .

25. Jeremy Bentham John Stuart Mill

26. The four-principle approach refers to the framework of four fundamental ethical principles that guide decision-making in healthcare and medical research: 1. Respect for Autonomy: This principle emphasizes the importance of respecting the self-determination and decision-making capacity of individuals, particularly patients and research participants. 2. Beneficence: This principle requires healthcare providers and researchers to act in the best interests of the patient or research participant, promoting their wellbeing and minimizing harm .

27. The four-principle approach 3. Non-maleficence: This principle obligates healthcare providers and researchers to avoid causing harm or inflicting unnecessary risk or burden on patients and research participants. 4. Justice: This principle demands that the benefits and burdens of healthcare and research be distributed fairly, without discrimination or bias. The four principles provide a comprehensive ethical framework for addressing a wide range of bioethical issues, such as informed consent, end-of-life decisions, the allocation of scarce resources, and the protection of vulnerable populations in research.

28. The four-principle approach This approach, developed by philosophers Tom Beauchamp and James Childress, is widely used in bioethics to guide decision-making and provide a common language for discussing and resolving ethical dilemmas in healthcare and medical research . Tom Beauchamp James Childress

29. The four-principle approach Here's an example of how the four principle approach in bioethics can be applied: Let's consider the case of a terminally ill patient who is in severe pain and has expressed a desire to end their life through euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide. Respect for Autonomy: This principle would require respecting the patient's right to make an informed decision about their own end-of-life care, including their request for euthanasia, as long as they have the mental capacity to do so.

30. The four-principle approach Beneficence : This principle would involve the healthcare team's obligation to act in the patient's best interests, which may include providing palliative care to alleviate their suffering, but could also potentially justify honoring the patient's request for euthanasia if it is deemed the most compassionate course of action. Non-maleficence: This principle would require the healthcare team to avoid causing harm or inflicting unnecessary suffering on the patient, which could support the patient's request for euthanasia if it is determined to be the best way to relieve their pain and distress. Justice: This principle would consider the fair and equitable access to end-of-life options, ensuring that the patient's request for euthanasia is not denied due to discrimination or bias, and that the decision-making process is transparent and consistent with established guidelines and policies.

31. Virtue ethics refers to an approach that focuses on the moral character of the individual, rather than on the consequences of their actions or the adherence to moral rules and duties. The key idea behind virtue ethics in bioethics is that the moral worth of an action is determined by the virtues or moral qualities of the person performing the action, such as compassion, integrity, courage, and wisdom. Virtue ethicists in bioethics argue that the development and cultivation of these moral virtues should be the primary focus of ethical decision-making in healthcare, rather than the application of abstract principles or the maximization of overall utility.

32. Virtue ethics For example, in a medical situation where a patient's treatment options are unclear, a virtue ethics approach would emphasize the importance of the healthcare provider's character and their ability to exercise practical wisdom, empathy, and moral discernment in making the best decision for the patient, rather than simply following a set of predetermined rules or guidelines.

33. Casuistry refers to an approach that focuses on the analysis of specific cases or situations to determine the appropriate ethical course of action, rather than relying solely on abstract moral principles. Casuistry in bioethics involves the careful examination of the unique details and contextual factors of a particular case, and then drawing analogies to similar cases to determine the most appropriate ethical response. The key idea behind casuistry is that ethical decision-making should be grounded in the specific circumstances of a situation, rather than the rigid application of universal rules or principles. Casuists argue that the nuances and complexities of real-world situations often require a more flexible, case-by-case approach to ethics.

34. Casuistry For example, in a bioethical dilemma involving end-of-life decisions, a casuistic approach would involve carefully considering the specific details of the patient's condition, their personal values and preferences, the available treatment options, and the potential consequences of different courses of action, rather than simply applying a general principle like "do no harm."

35. Feminist bioethics refers to an approach that emphasizes the unique experiences, perspectives, and concerns of women in the field of medical ethics and healthcare. Feminist bioethics emerged in the late 20th century as a response to the perceived male-centric bias in traditional bioethical frameworks. It combines the idea that men and women are equal yet different, and focuses on core values such as responsibility, relational autonomy, care, compassion, freedom, and equality. The key idea behind feminist bioethics is to address the oppression and marginalization of women in healthcare and to promote gender equality and empowerment. This approach challenges the traditional, often male-centric, view that prioritizes abstract principles over the contextual and relational aspects of ethical decision-making.

36. Feminist bioethics For example, in the context of reproductive rights, a feminist bioethical approach would emphasize the importance of women's bodily autonomy and their right to make informed decisions about their own bodies and reproductive choices, rather than prioritizing the fetus's right to life over the woman's right to control her own body.

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