Biologi Dasar: A Hierarchy of Biological Organization

Membahas tentang fenomena kehidupan

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PowerPoint Lectures for
Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero
Chapter 1
Exploring Life

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•Overview: Biology’s Most Exciting Era
•Biology
–Is the scientific study of life

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•The phenomenon we call life
–Defies a simple, one-sentence definition
Figure 1.1

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•We recognize life
–By what living things do

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•Some properties of life
Figure 1.2
(c) Response to the
environment
(a) Order
(d) Regulation
(g) Reproduction(f) Growth and
development
(b) Evolutionary
adaptation
(e) Energy
processing

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•Concept 1.1: Biologists explore life from the
microscopic to the global scale
•The study of life
–Extends from the microscope scale of
molecules and cells to the global scale of the
entire living planet

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A Hierarchy of Biological Organization
•The hierarchy of life
–Extends through many levels of biological
organization

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•From the biosphere to organisms
Figure 1.3
1The biosphere

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•From cells to molecules
Cell
8Cells
6Organs and organ systems
7Tissues
10Molecules
9Organelles
50 µm
10 µm
1 µm
Atoms
Figure 1.3

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A Closer Look at Ecosystems
•Each organism
–Interacts with its environment
•Both organism and environment
–Are affected by the interactions between them

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Ecosystem Dynamics
•The dynamics of any ecosystem include two
major processes
–Cycling of nutrients, in which materials
acquired by plants eventually return to the soil
–The flow of energy from sunlight to producers
to consumers

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Energy Conversion
•Activities of life
–Require organisms to perform work, which
depends on an energy source

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•The exchange of energy between an organism
and its surroundings
–Often involves the transformation of one form
of energy to another

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•Energy flows throughan ecosystem
–Usually entering as sunlight and exiting as
heat
Producers
(plants and other
photosynthetic
organisms)
Consumers
(including animals)
Sunlight
Chemical
energy
Heat
Heat
Ecosystem
Figure 1.4

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A Closer Look at Cells
•The cell
–Is the lowest level of organization that can
perform allactivities required for life
25 µmFigure 1.5

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The Cell’s Heritable Information
•Cells contain chromosomes made partly of
DNA, the substance of genes
–Which program the cells’ production of proteins
and transmit information from parents to
offspring
Egg cell
Sperm cell
Nuclei
containing
DNA
Fertilized egg
with DNA from
both parents
Embyro’s cells
with copies of
inherited DNA
Offspring with traits
inherited from
both parentsFigure 1.6

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•The molecular structure of DNA
–Accounts for it information-rich nature
DNA
Cell
Nucleotide
A
C
T
A
T
A
C
C
G
G
T
A
T
A
(b) Single strand of DNA.These geometric shapes and
letters are simple symbols for the nucleotides in a
small section of one chain of a DNA molecule.
Genetic information is encoded in specific sequences
of the four types of nucleotides (their names are
abbreviated here as A, T, C, and G).
(a) DNA double helix.This model shows
each atom in a segment of DNA.Made
up of two long chains of building
blocks called nucleotides, a DNA
molecule takes the three-dimensional
form of a double helix.Figure 1.7
Nucleus

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Two Main Forms of Cells
•All cells share certain characteristics
–They are all enclosed by a membrane
–They all use DNA as genetic information
•There are two main forms of cells
–Eukaryotic
–Prokaryotic

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•Eukaryotic cells
–Are subdivided by internal membranes into
various membrane-enclosed organelles

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•Prokaryotic cells
–Lack the kinds of membrane-enclosed
organelles found in eukaryotic cells
EUKARYOTIC CELL
Membrane
Cytoplasm
Organelles
Nucleus (contains DNA)
1 µm
PROKARYOTIC CELL
DNA
(no nucleus)
Membrane
Figure 1.8

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•Concept 1.2: Biological systems are much
more than the sum of their parts
•A system
–Is a combination of components that form a
more complex organization

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The Emergent Properties of Systems
•Due to increasing complexity
–New properties emerge with each step upward
in the hierarchy of biological order

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The Power and Limitations of Reductionism
•Reductionism
–Involves reducing complex systems to simpler
components that are more manageable to
study

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•The study of DNA structure, an example of
reductionism
–Has led to further study of heredity, such as
the Human Genome Project
Figure 1.9

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Systems Biology
•Systems biology
–Seeks to create models of the dynamic
behavior of whole biological systems
•With such models
–Scientists will be able to predict how a change
in one part of a system will affect the rest of
the system

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CELL
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Outer membrane
and cell surface
Figure 1.10

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•Systems biology
–Is now taking hold in the study of life at the
cellular and molecular levels
–Includes three key research developments:
high-throughput technology, bioinformatics,
and interdisciplinary research teams

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Feedback Regulation in Biological Systems
•A kind of supply-and-demand economy
–Applies to some of the dynamics of biological
systems

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•In feedback regulation
–The output, or product, of a process regulates
that very process

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•In negative feedback
–An accumulation of an end product slows the
process that produces that product
B
A
C
D
Enzyme 1Enzyme 1
Enzyme 2
Enzyme 3
D
D
D D
D
D
D
D
DD
C
B
A
Negative
feedback
Figure 1.11

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•In positive feedback
–The end product speeds up production
WW
X
Y
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
ZZZ
Z
Z
Z Z
Z
ZZ
Z
Z
Z
Y
X
Enzyme 4
Enzyme 5
Enzyme 6
Enzyme 4
Enzyme 5
Enzyme 6
Positive
feedback
Figure 1.12

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•Concept 1.3: Biologists explore life across its
great diversity of species
•Diversity is a hallmark of life
Figure 1.13

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Grouping Species: The Basic Idea
•Taxonomy
–Is the branch of biology that names and
classifies species according to a system of
broader and broader groups

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•Classifying life
Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom Domain
Mammalia
Ursus
ameri-
canus
(American
black bear)
Ursus
Ursidae
Carnivora
Chordata
Animalia
Eukarya
Figure 1.14

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The Three Domains of Life
•At the highest level, life is classified into three
domains
–Bacteria
–Archaea
–Eukarya

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•Domain Bacteria and domain Archaea
–Consist of prokaryotes
•Domain Eukarya, the eukaryotes
–Includes the various protist kingdoms and the
kingdoms Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia

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•Life’s three domains
Figure 1.15
100 µm
0.5 µm
4 µmBacteriaare the most diverse
and widespread prokaryotes
and are now divided among multiple
kingdoms. Each of the rod-shaped
structures in this photo is a bacterial cell.
Protists(multiple kingdoms)
are unicellular eukaryotes and
their relatively simple multicellular
relatives.Pictured here is an assortment of
protists inhabiting pond water. Scientists are
currently debating how to split the protists
into several kingdoms that better represent
evolution and diversity.
Kingdom Plantaeconsists of
multicellula eukaryotes that carry
out photosynthesis, the conversion
of light energy to food.
Many of the prokaryotes known
as archaealive in Earth‘s
extreme environments, such as salty lakes
and boiling hot springs. Domain Archaea
includes multiple kingdoms. The photo
shows a colony composed of many cells.
Kindom Fungiis defined in part by the
nutritional mode of its members, such
as this mushroom, which absorb
nutrientsafter decomposing organic
material.
Kindom Animalia consists of
multicellular eukaryotes that
ingest other organisms.
DOMAIN ARCHAEA

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Unity in the Diversity of Life
•As diverse as life is
–There is also evidence of remarkable unity
Cilia of Paramecium.
The cilia of Paramecium
propel the cell through
pond water.
Cross section of cilium, as viewed
with an electron microscope
15 µm
1.0 µm
5 µm
Cilia of windpipe cells.The cells that line the human windpipe
are equipped with cilia that help keep the lungs clean by moving
a film of debris-trapping mucus upward.Figure 1.16

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•Concept 1.4: Evolution accounts for life’s unity and
diversity
•The history of life
–Is a saga of a changing Earth billions of years old
Figure 1.17

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•The evolutionary view of life
–Came into sharp focus in 1859 when Charles
Darwin published On the Origin of Species by
Natural Selection
Figure 1.18

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•The Origin of Speciesarticulated two main
points
–Descent with modification
–Natural selection
Figure 1.19

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Natural Selection
•Darwin proposed natural selection
–As the mechanism for evolutionary adaptation
of populations to their environments
Population
of organisms
Hereditary
variations
Differences in
reproductive success
Evolution of adaptations
in the population
Overproduction
and struggle for
existence
Figure 1.20

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•Natural selection is the evolutionary process that
occurs
–When a population’s heritable variations are exposed
to environmental factors that favor the reproductive
success of some individuals over others
1Populations with varied inherited traits
2Elimination of individuals with certain traits.
3Reproduction of survivors.
4Increasing frequency of traits that enhance
survival and reproductive success. Figure 1.21

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•The products of natural selection
–Are often exquisite adaptations of organisms to
the special circumstances of their way of life
and their environment
Figure 1.22

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The Tree of Life
•Many related organisms
–Have very similar anatomical features, adapted
for their specific ways of life
•Such examples of kinship
–Connect life’s “unity in diversity” to Darwin’s
concept of “descent with modification”

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•Darwin proposed that natural selection
–Could enable an ancestral species to “split” into two or
more descendant species, resulting in a “tree of life”
Large
ground finch
Small
ground
finch
Geospiza
magnirostris
Seed eater
Sharp-beaked
ground finch
Camarhynchus
psitacula
Green
warbler
finch
Large
tree finchLarge cactus
ground finch
Ground finches Tree finches
Insect eatersBud eater
Warbler finches
Common ancestor from
South American mainland
Gray
warbler
finch
Certhidea
olivacea
Certhidea
fusca
Geospiza
difficilis
Cactus flower
eater
Geospiza
scandens
Seed eater
Geospiza
conirostris
Geospiza
fortis
Medium
ground
finch
Geospiza
fuliginosa
Mangrove
finch
Cactospiza
heliobates
Cactospiza
pallida
Woodpecker
finch
Medium
tree finch
Camarhynchus
pauper
Small tree finch
Vegetarian
finch
Camarhynchus
parvulus
Platyspiza
crassirostris
Cactus
ground finch
Figure 1.23

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•Each species is on twig of a branching tree of
life
–Extending back in time through ancestral
species more and more remote
•All of life
–Is connected through its long evolutionary
history

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•Concept 1.5: Biologists use various forms of
inquiry to explore life
•At the heart of science is inquiry
–A search for information and explanation, often
focusing on specific questions
•Biology blends two main processes of scientific
inquiry
–Discovery science
–Hypothesis-based science

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Discovery Science
•Discovery science
–Describes natural structures and processes as
accurately as possible through careful
observation and analysis of data

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Types of Data
•Data
–Are recorded observations
–Can be quantitative or qualitative
Figure 1.24

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Induction in Discovery Science
•In inductive reasoning
–Scientists derive generalizations based on a
large number of specific observations

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Hypothesis-Based Science
•In science, inquiry that asks specific questions
–Usually involves the proposing and testing of
hypothetical explanations, or hypotheses

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The Role of Hypotheses in Inquiry
•In science, a hypothesis
–Is a tentative answer to a well-framed
question, an explanation on trial
–Makes predictions that can be tested

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•We all use hypotheses in solving everyday
problems
Observations
Questions
Hypothesis # 1:
Dead batteries
Hypothesis # 2:
Burnt-out bulb
Prediction:
Replacing batteries
will fix problem
Prediction:
Replacing bulb
will fix problem
Test prediction
Test does not falsify hypothesis
Test prediction
Test falsifies hypothesisFigure 1.25

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Deduction: The “If…then” Logic of Hypothesis-Based Science
•In deductive reasoning
–The logic flows from the general to the specific
•If a hypothesis is correct
–Then we can expect a particular outcome

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A Closer Look at Hypotheses in Scientific Inquiry
•A scientific hypothesis must have two important
qualities
–It must be testable
–It must be falsifiable

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The Myth of the Scientific Method
•The scientific method
–Is an idealized process of inquiry
•Very few scientific inquiries
–Adhere to the “textbook” scientific method

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•In mimicry
–A harmless species resembles a harmful
species
Flower fly
(non-stinging)
Honeybee (stinging)
Figure 1.26
A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating
Mimicry in Snake Populations

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•In this case study
–Mimicry in king snakes is examined
–The hypothesis predicts that predators in non–coral
snake areas will attack king snakes more frequently
than will predators that live where coral snakes are
present
Scarlet king snake
Scarlet king snake
Key
Range of scarlet king snake
Range of eastern color snake
Eastern coral snake
North
Carolina
South
Carolina
Figure 1.27

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Field Experiments with Artificial Snakes
•To test this mimicry hypothesis
–Researchers made hundreds of artificial snakes, an
experimental group resembling king snakes and a
control group of plain brown snakes
(a)Artificial king snake
(b)Brown artificial snake that has been attackedFigure 1.28

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•After a given period of time
–The researchers collected data that fit a key
prediction
Figure 1.29
In areas where coral
snakes were present,
most attacks were on
artificial king snakes
Key
% of attacks on artificial king snakes
% of attacks on brown artificial snakes
Field site with artificial snakes
17%
83%
North
Carolina
South
Carolina
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
XX
X
X
In areas where coral snakes
were absent, most attacks
were on artificial king snakes
84%
16%
Key

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Designing Controlled Experiments
•Experiments must be designed to test
–The effect of one variable by testing control
groups and experimental groups in a way that
cancels the effects of unwanted variables

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Limitations of Science
•Science cannot address supernatural
phenomena
–Because hypotheses must be testable and
falsifiable and experimental results must be
repeatable

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Theories in Science
•A scientific theory
–Is broad in scope
–Generates new hypotheses
–Is supported by a large body of evidence

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Model Building in Science
•Models of ideas, structures, and processes
–Help us understand scientific phenomena and
make predictions
To lungs To body
Right
artium
Right
artium
Right
ventricle
Right
ventricle
From
lungs
From
body
Figure 1.30

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The Culture of Science
•Science is a social activity
–Characterized by both cooperation and
competition
Figure 1.31

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Science, Technology, and Society
•Technology
–Applies scientific knowledge for some specific
purpose
Figure 1.32

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•Concept 1.6: A set of themes connects the
concepts of biology
•Underlying themes
–Provide a framework for understanding biology

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•Eleven themes that unify biology
Table 1.1