Biological Control of Insects

Biological Control of Insects and weeds

1. S.I. AHMED
Biological Control of Insects
Biological control: Definition; History. Biological Control Agents: Parasitoids and
Predators. Mass production and release of commonly used Parasitoids and
Predators. Advantages and disadvantages of biological control.

2. Biological control of insect pests
Biologicalcontrolcanbedefined
astheuseofnaturalenemiesto
reducethedamagecausedbya
insectpestpopulations.
BCisatactic/approachthatfits
intoanoverallInsectPest
ManagementSystem(IPMS),and
representsapotentialALTERNATIVE
STRATEGYtocombatwiththe
insectpestdamagestothe
agriculture&forestryecosystems.

3. Introduction
ManipulationofnaturalenemiesunderBC
approachforinsectpestcontrolcanbeachievedbyintroducing,
augmenting,orconservingnaturallyavailablebioagentsororganisms
BCAisessentiallyrequiredasthereisanampleofscopefor
furtherimprovementthroughadvancedresearchontheecologyof
interactionsbetweennaturalenemiesandinsectpestspopulations.
BCApproachesdrawtheoryandpracticetogether,
indicatingwhereadvancementinunderstandingmaycontributefor
improvementsinmanagement

4. Plantprotectionisbased,firstofall,onagooddealof
knowledgeonForestandagro-ecosystemsaswellas
informationaboutthe
IdentificationofTargetinsectpests,
Assessmentofdamagecaused
Preventivemeasures,
Interactionsofplant-environment-pestand
useofthepermissiablebio-controlagents
The Role of BC in Plant Protection

5. Beginnings.
BCBeganinthelateeightycenturywithintroductionof
Vedalieabeetle(Rodoliacardinalis)intoCentralAmericafrom
Australiaforcontrolofcottonycushionscale(Iceryapurchasi)
oncitrus.
Patterns of success.
By1986(Greathead,1986),1162successfulintroductionsof
predatorsandparasitoidsundertakenindifferentpartsofworld
25% Successfully regulated target pests
69% Intermittent or partial control
6% Failed to provide any control at all
History of Biological Control

6. The history of BC may be divided into 3
periods
The preliminary efforts:(From 200 A.D. to 1887)when living
agents were released haphazardly with no scientific approach.
Little precise information exists on successes during this time.
The intermediate period:(from 1888 to 1955)BC started with the
introduction of the Vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis, for control
of the cottony cushion scale in 1888. Period extended. Proper
records maintained.
The modern period:(from 1956 to date)characterized by more
careful planning and more precise evaluation of natural enemies.
Period

7. Preliminary Period
(Early History: 200 A.D. to 1887 A.D.)
200 A.D. to 1200 A.D: BC agents were used in augmentation
Chinesewerethefirsttousenaturalenemiestocontrol
insectpests.Nestsofanantsp,Oecophyllasmaragdina
weresoldnearCantoninthe3rdcenturyforuseincontrol
ofcitrusinsectpestssuchasTesseratomapapillosa
(Lepidoptera)
Antswereusedin1200A.D.forcontrolofdatepalm
pestsinYemen(southofSaudiaArabia).Nestswere
movedfromsurroundinghillsandplacedintrees
HISTORY OF BC

8. 1300 A.D. to 1799 A.D.: BC was just beginning to be
recognized.
ThefirstinsectpathogenwasrecognizedbyDeReaumurin1726.Itwas
aCordycepsfungusonanoctuid
In1734,DeReaumursuggestedtocollecttheeggsofan"aphidivorous
fly"(actuallyalacewing)andplacethemingreenhousestocontrol
aphids
Themynahbird,Acridotherestristis,wassuccessfullyintroducedfrom
IndiatoMauritius(offcoastofMadagascar)forcontrolofthered
locust,Nomadacrisseptemfasciata,in1762
Inthelate1700's,birdsweretransportedinternationallyforinsect``
control
Controlofthebedbug,Cimexlectularius,wassuccessfullyaccomplished
byreleasesofthepredatoryPentatomidpicromerusin1776inEurope

9. 1800 A.D. to 1849 A.D. During this period advances
were made in applied and basic approaches of BC
Inthe1800’s,Darwindiscussed"Ichneumonids"asnatural`
controlfactorsforcabbagecaterpillars
Hartig(Germany)suggestedtherearingofparasitesfrom
parasitizedcaterpillarsformassreleasesin1827
Kollar(Austria)putforththeconceptof"naturalcontrol"in1837
Verhulst(1838)describedthelogisticgrowthequationbuttheidea
remaineddormantuntil1920whenrediscoveredbyPearl.
Expressedideaof"environmentalresistance".
Duringthe1840'sreleasesofpredatorswereusedforcontrolof
thegypsymothandgardenpestsinItaly

10. 1850 to 1887. During this time the focus on BC was more
emphasised through host specific natural enimies
1
st
successfulmovementofparasitesforbiologicalcontrolwhen
parasitesweremovedfromKirkwood,Missouri,tootherpartsof
theUSforcontroloftheweevil,Conotrachelusnenupharin1870
SecondsuccessfulmovementIn1873Rileysentthepredatorymite,
TyroglyphusphylloxeraetoFrancetocontrolthegrapemite.
ThirdsuccessfulmovementTrichogrammasp.(eggparasites)were
shippedfromtheU.S.toCanadaforcontroloflepidopterouspestsin
1882
ForthsuccessfulmovementIn1883theUSDAimportedApanteles
glomeratusfromEnglandforcontrolofcabbageworm.

11. The Intermediate Period
(1888 to 1955)
1888 to 1889: The Cottony Cushion Scale Project
Cottonycushionscale,IceryapurchasiMaskell,wasintroducedinto
CaliforniainCA.1868aroundtheMenloPark(CA)area(nearSan
Francisco)controlledbyusingVedalieabeetle(Rodolia
cardinalis)
C.V.Riley(ChiefoftheDivisionofEntomology,USDA)employed
AlbertKoebeleandD.W.Coquillettinresearchoncontrolofthe
cottonycushionscale
Hesent12,000individualsofCryptochaetumiceryaeand129
individualsofRodoliacardinalis(thevedaliabeetle)
Thevedaliabeetlecontrolsthescalemainlyintheinlanddesert
areasandC.iceryaecontrolsitinthecoastalareasofCalifornia.

12. 1900 to 1930: New faces and more BC projects
TheLantanaWeedProjectinHawaii(1902)Firstpublishedworkon
BCofweeds.
TheSugar-caneLeafhopperProjectinHawaii(1904-1920).Awaiian
SugarPlantersAssociation(HSPA)createdaDivisionofEntomology
in1904.
BerlinerdescribedBacillusthuringiensisin1911ascausativeagent
ofbacterialdiseaseforcontrolofMediterraneanflourmoth
USDAlaboratoryforbiologicalcontrolestablishedinFrancein
1919.

13. 1930 to 1955: Expansion of BC projects
From1930to1940therewasapeakinBCactivityintheworldwith
57differentnaturalenemiesestablishedatvariousplaces.
In1947theCommonwealthBureauofBiologicalControl(CBB)
wasestablishedfromtheImperialParasiteService.
In1951thenamewaschangedtotheCommonwealthInstitutefor
BiologicalControl(CIBC).Headquartersarecurrentlyin
Trinidad,WestIndies.
In1955,theCommissionInternationaledeLutteBiologique
contrelesEnemisdesCultures(CILB)wasestablished.Thisis
aworldwideorganizationwithheadquartersinZurich,Switzerland.
InternationalOrganizationforBiologicalControl(IOBC)initiated
thepublicationofthejournal“Entomophaga”in1956,ajournal
devotedtobiologicalcontrolofarthropodpestsandweed
species.

14. The Modern Period: 1957 to Present.
In1959,VernSternetal.(1959)conceivedtheideaofeconomic
injurylevelandeconomicthresholdwhichenablethegrowersto
takedecisionsandapplycontroltactics.
Duringthe1970’sand1980’s,BrianCroftandMarjorieHoymade
impactsbyusingpesticideresistantnaturalenemiesincropping
systems.
In1983,FrankHowarthpublishedhislandmarkpaperentitled
“BiologicalControl”
From1990todate,twoadditionalbiologicalcontroljournals
appeared,“BiologicalControl-TheoryandApplicationinPest
Management” (AcademicPress)and“BiocontrolScienceand
Technology”(Carfax Publishing).additionally“Entomophaga”
changeditsnameto“Biocontrol”.
InIndia,manymoreScientificResearchOrganisationsinitiated
specificworkonBiologicalControlofinjuriousinsectpests

15. 3-Approaches to achieve potential
BC
Three ways to enhance effectiveness of natural enemies in
insect pest management
Classical biological control
Augmentive biological control
Conservation of indigenous natural enemies

16. Classical Biological Control
Importationbiologicalcontrolmeanstointroduceanewexotic
naturalenemyfromoneenvironmenttoanewecosystem.
Controlbyintroducingandestablishingeffectivenatural
enemiesfrompest’sareaoforigincalledclassicalinviewoffirst
usein1800s
Somebiologicalcontrolpractitionersconsiderthisas"true"
biologicalcontrolapproach.
Exoticpestinvadesregionwithouttheiradaptednatural
enemycomplex,and,inabsenceofeffectivenaturalenemies,
reachveryhighpopulationlevels

17. Systematic steps to be taken in a Classical
Biocontrol Programme
1.Evaluate the pest problem in the target region for the biocontrol
program. Establish taxonomic identity of pest and area of origin.
2.Foreign exploration for the pest in the area of origin. Surveys to assess
the complex of natural enemies of the pest, their impact and degree of
specialization
3.Selection of enemies from this complex for importation and
establishment in the target region.
4.Quarantineforremoving hyperparasitoids, plant pathogens and insect
pathogens from culture
5.Release natural enemies cleared from quarantine in the target region.
6.Regular monitoring should be done after establishment of the natural
enemy and pest population

18. Augmentative Biological Control
Augmentationbiologicalcontrolbasically
meansaddingnaturalenemies,either
wheretheyarenotpresent,orarepresent
butinsmallnumbers.
Augmentationhasbeenusedmore
extensivelyinagro or forest
ecosystem,butthereareexamplesof
successfuluseinnearlyallsettings.

19. Two ways of Augmentation:
Inoculation:Beginswithasmallnumberandallowsthe
naturalenemypopulationstoincreaseover
time.Inthiscase,thepestpopulationdoes
notdecreasequickly
Inundation:Introductionofalargenumberofnatural
enemies,withtheintentionofreducingthe
pestpopulationquickly.

20. Conservationbasicallymeanskeepingaliveand
enhancingtheeffectivenessofthosenatural
enemiesthatarealreadypresentintheecosystem.
Reductionofpesticidesuseisoneofthemost
importanttoolsinconservationapproach.
Useof"soft"pesticidessuchasthosebasedon
naturalproducts.
Integrationofothercontrolmeasureslikeplantorigin
insecticides.
Conservation of indigenous
natural enemies

21. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS
Parasitoids,Parasites,
Predators
Entomo-Pathogens , Comptitors &
Natural Products

23. Parasitoids:
An organism that, during its development, lives in or on the body of
a single host individual, eventually killing that individual.
Major characteristics:
They are specialized in their choice of host , smaller than host,
Only the female searches for host. Immaturesremain on or in
host; adults are free-living, mobile, and may be predaceous.
Immaturesalmost always kill host.
Four of the most important groups are:
Ichneumonidwasps
Braconidwasps
Chalcidwasps:
Tachenidflies:
Ichneumonid wasps
Braconidwasps
Chalcidwasps:
TachenidfiY

24. Parasitoids
Parasitoidsareholometabolous,havingcomplete
development(egg,larval,pupalandadultstages).
AdultParasitoidsarefreeliving;somespeciesfeedonhosts
(predators),inadditiontoovipositinginoronthehosts.
Onlyfemalesparasitoidsaresignificantplayers,astheyare
theonesthatfindandattackhosts.
ThenumberofspeciesofParasitoidsisunknownand
speculative,rangingfromanestimateof8,00,000toasmany
as25%ofallinsects.

26. Parasite
Parasiteisanorganismwhichlivesinoronanotherorganism
(itshost)andbenefitsbyderivingnutrientsattheother's
expense.
ThegreatestdiversityofparasitesisfoundinHymenoptera.
Ichneumonidwasps,Braconidwasps,Chalcidwasps,Tachenid
flies,Dryinidae,Bethylidae,Chrysididaeandwasps
SeveralDipterafamilieshavemembersthatareparasitic:
Acroceridae,Bombylidae,Cecidomyiidae,Cryptochetidae,
Phoridae,Pipincluidae,Tachinidae,andSarcophagidae.
RarerepresentativetaxaarealsofoundintheColeoptera,
LepidopteraandNeuroptera.

27. Hymenoptera parasitic families
Source: Copping, (2004), The Manual of Biocontrol AgentsBraconidae, 7/
13%
Dryinidae, 1/
2%
Encyrtidae, 1/
17%
Ichneumo-
nidae, 1/
2%
Eupelmidae, 1/
2%
Mymaridae, 1/
9%
Bethylidae, 1/
2%
Aphidiinae, 1/
2%
Aphidiidae, 4/
8%
Aphelinidae, 10/
18%
Tachinidae, 1/
2%
Trichogra-
mmatidae, 6/
11%
Pteromalidae, 1/
2%
Platyga-seridae,
1/
2%
Eulophidae, 1/
8%

28. Placeofoviposition:
Ectoparasite(ExternalParasite):Parasitedevelops
externallyonthehostwithitsmouthpartsinsertedintothe
host'sbody.
Endoparasite(InternalParasite):Parasitelarvadevelops
insidethehost'sbody.
Ecto/Endo-Parasite:
Ahyperparasiteisaparasitewhosehostisalsoaparasite.This
formofparasitismisespeciallycommonamong
entomophagousparasites
Hyperparasite:

29. Types of Parasites
Basedontheirmodeofparasitism,parasitesare
usuallystudiedasto:
whattypeoffeedinghabit,aparasitecontainsinits
immaturestage(egg,larval,pupalparasite,etc.).
Whetheroneormoreparasitesprogenyemergefrom
thehost(solitaryvs.gregarious).

30. The feeding habit of the immature stages
of inset parasites:
Eggparasite:Adultparasiteattacksthehostegg,andtheparasite
progenyemergefromtheeggonly.
Egg-larvalparasite:Adultparasitesattacksthehostegg,butthe
parasiteprogenyemergefromthelarva.
Larvalparasite:Adultparasitesattacksthehostlarva,andthe
parasiteprogenyemergefromthelarva.
Larval-pupalparasite:Adultparasitesattacksthehostlarva,but
theparasiteprogenyemergefromthepupa.
Pupalparasite:Adultparasitesattacksthehostpupa,andthe
parasiteprogenyemergefromthepupa.

31. Number of parasites’ progenies:
Gregarious parasite: Multiple parasite eggs are deposited,
the larvae feed together on a single host, and multiple parasite
offspring emerge.
Solitary parasite: Only one parasite egg is deposited per
oviposition event and generally only one progeny emerges from the
host.
Polyembryonic parasite: Many (up to several thousand)
parasites emerge from a host, having arisen from asexual
division of one or two parasite eggs. Restricted to four families of
parasitic Hymenoptera (Braconidae, Dryinidae, Encyrtidae,
Platygastridae).

32. Number of parasites’ progenies :
Multi-parasitism:Asinglehostisattackedbymorethanone
speciesofparasites,andthesecondparasitespeciesfeedsonthe
originalhost,nottheotherparasitespecies.
Super-parasitism:Severalfemalesofonespeciesofparasite
attackthesamehost,oronefemaleovipositsmorethanoneegg,with
onlyoneegglaidatatime.Inthiscase,often,onlyoneprogenywill
survive.Thisisnotthesameasgregariousparasitism,whereasingle
femalelaysmanyeggsinoneovipositionbout(sessionorstretch).

33. Host-parasite interactions:
Primaryparasite:Theparasiteattacksanddevelopsinoronahost,and
thathostisnotaotherparasite.
Cleptoparasite:Aparasitethatrequiresahosttobeparasitizedalready.
Facultativehyper-parasite:Candevelopeitherasahyperparasiteina
hostalreadyparasitizedbyaprimaryparasite,oritcandevelopasaprimary
parasiteinanun-parasitizedhost.
Heteronomousparasite:(AutoparasiteandAdelphoparasite):Females
developasprimaryparasitesofhomopterans(whiteflies,scales),butmales
developasahyperparasiteoffemaleprimaryparasitesofhomopterans.
Heterotrophicparasite:Thefemaleisaprimaryparasiteof
homopterans,butthemaleisanobligateparasiteofacompletelydifferent
host,suchaseggsofLepidoptera.

34. Host-parasite interactions:
Idiobiontparasite:Parasitepreventscontinuedgrowthbythehost.
Hostsareoftenparalysed.Oftenegg,pupal,andadultparasites.
Koinobiontparasite:Parasiteallowscontinuedgrowthand
developmentofthehost.Hostnotparalysed.Egg-larval,larval-pupal
parasites,andlarvalparasites.Theparasitelarvaeithersuspends
developmentasafirstinstar,ortheparasitelarvaavoidsfeedingonvital
organsuntillateindevelopment.
Obligatehyperparasite:Thehyperparasitecanonlydevelopasa
parasiteofaprimaryparasite.
Secondaryparasite(Hyperparasite):Theparasiteattacksa
hostthatisanotherparasite.

36. Predators:
Predationcanbedefinedasatrophiclevel(consistingoforganisms
sharingthesamefunctioninthefoodchain)interactioninwhichone
speciesderivesenergyfromtheconsumptionofindividualsofanother
species.
Apredatorisconsideredanentomophagousspeciesthatgenerally
consumesmorethanonepreyindividualtocompleteits
development.
Someparasitoidshostsfeedasadultswhichcouldbeconsidereda
typeofpredation.
Over16ordersofinsectscontainpredaceousmembers,in
approximately200families.Includingspidersandmites,thereare
probablyinexcessof2,00,000speciesofarthropodpredators.

37. Predators groups
Source: Copping, (2004), The Manual of Biocontrol AgentsHeteroptera,
2/ 
4%
Coleoptera,
17/ 
32%
Acari, 10/
19%
Thysano-
ptera, 2/ 
4%
Orthoptera, 1/
2%
Neuroptera,
2/ 
4%
Diptera, 3/
6%
Gastropoda,
1/
2%
Hemiptera, 9/ 
17%
Meso-
stigmata,5/ 
10%

38. Predators’ characteristics
killandconsumemorethanonepreyorganismtoreachmaturity
Relativelylargesizecomparedtoprey
Predaceousasbothlarvaeandadults
Larvaeareactivewithsensoryandlocomotoryorgans
Exceptforpredatorywaspsthatstorepreyforimmaturestages,prey
aregenerallyconsumedimmediately.
Frequencyofindividualpreyitemsinthedietmaybeinfluencedby:
Preyenvironment
Preypreferences
Competitionwithotherpredators
Suitabilityofprey.
Generally speaking the most common features of insect
predators are:

39. Types of Entomophagous
Predators
Monophagy:Ahighlyspecializedpreyrange,thepredator
mayfeedononeoraverylimitednumberofspecieswithinthe
samegenera.
Oligophagy:Asemi-restrictedpreyrangeofapredator.For
example,aphidophagouspredatorsfeedprimarilyonaphidspreys,
or,generaofcoccinellidsfeedprimarilyonwhitefliesorscales.
Polyphagy:Abroadpreyrange,mayincludeplantmaterials
(fluids,nectars,pollen),insectsandfungi,ageneralistpredator.

40. Advantages & Disadvantages Biological
Control
Advantages
Low cost
Has the potential to be
permanent
Not harmful to non-target
organisms
No toxicity or residue
problems
The pest is unable (or very
slow) to develop a resistance.
Selectivity, it does not
intensify or create new pest
problems.
Disadvantages
Not always applicable
Level of control may not be
sufficient
Research costs are high and
sometime may not produce
results
It requires expert
supervision.
It is difficult and expensive to
develop and supply

41. Mass production and release of
commonly used Parasitoidsand
Predators

42. Natural Suppliers and producers of
Bio-control agents
Parasitoids and predatorsare living organisms which can intervene
the life cycle of insect pests in such a way that the crop damage is
minimized
In nature every ecosystem exists in a balance. Growth and
multiplication of each organism depends on the food-chain, its
predetors, parasites, parasitoids, competitors etc.
In biological control system, these interrelations are exploited. The
natural enemy of a pest, disease or weed is selected,
Among the alternatives, biological control of pests is one of the
important means for checking pest problems in almost all agro-
ecological situations.

43. Mass Rearing of Bio-Control Agents
an essential tool in the pest management to bring about changes from
Natural to A Specific
Biological Control
Hence,
Information on
Importance, Biology, Rearing Technique,
Equipments and Facilitates
required for mass multiplication of biocontrol agents are most important.

44. Scope for Commercial Production of
Bio-control Agents
About 140 bio-control agents production units existed in India
as on today
They are able to meet the demand of only less than 1% of
cropped area.
There exists a wide gap, which can only be bridged by setting
up of more and more units for production of bio-control agents.
Production and marketing of Trichoderma viride(against few
fungal diseases) and Trichogramma (against sugarcane early
shoot borer) has been started in India.
Enhancement of production and use of biological control agents
is on the increase every year in India

45. Mass-Production of Parasites and Predators
is useful to increase parasitism or predation by mass releases of
entomophages
over a wide area at a time in the season when these natural enemies are
few or absent.
When natural host plants or target host insects are unavailable
suitable alternate hosts, or artificial diets are to be utilised for
Mass-production of parasites and predators

46. Parasitoids & Predators are preferred over chemical pesticides for the following
reasons
No harmful residues
Target specific and safe to beneficial organisms like pollinators,
predetors, parasites etc
Growth of natural enemies of pests is not affected, thus reducing
the pesticide application
Environmental friendly
Cost effective
Important component of IPM as 1
st
line and 2
nd
line of defence
chemicals being the last resort
Major Advantages of Mass Production &
Release of bio-control agents

47. Growthoflantanaweedwascontrolledbyusingthe
bugTelonemiascrupulosa
Sugarcanepyrillahasbeensuccessfullycontrolledinanumberof
StatesbytheintroductionofitsnaturalenemyEpiricania
melanoleucaandTetrastictuspyrillae.
Trichogramma,aneggparasitoid,hasbeenusedagainstthe
borersinthestatesofTamilNadu,Rajasthan,UP,Biharand
Haryanaagainstmanyinjuriousinsectpests
SimilarlyTrichogramma,Bracon,ChelonusandChrysopaspp.
arebeingusedforthecontrolofcottonbollworms.
Trichogrammahasalsobeenusedagainstricestemborerand
leaffolder.
Thesugarcanescaleinsecthasbeencontrolledwiththehelpof
predatorycoccinellidbeetlesinUP,WestBengal,Gujaratand
Karnataka.
Examples of successful utilisation of bio
control agents in India

48. INSECT PREDATORS IN AUGMENTATIVE
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Insects Order and Family Name Prey Insect
Coleoptera
i) Coccinellidae(Lady bird beetle)
Coccinellaseptumpunctata
C. rependa
Crytolaemusmontrouzieri
Scymnuscoccivora
RodoliacardinalisTapioca scales
Menochilussexmaculata
Chilocorusnigritus
Aphids
Aphids
Grape vine mealy bug
Mealy bugs and scales
Cottony cushion scale
Grape vine mealy bug
Neuroptera
Chrysopidae(Lace wing fly)
Chrysoperlacarnea
All soft bodied insects
Several species of insect predators are economically important
biological control agents
Most are polyphagous, feeding on a wide array of arthropod prey;
many species can also exploit plant resources (omnivory)
Examples of some most important predators used in augmentative
biological control include:

49. Major types of bio-agents available for
commercial production in India
Parasitoids Predators Insect Pathogens
Trichogrammachilonis,
T.brasiliensisand
T.pretiosum(egg parasites)
-for tomato fruit borer
Trichogrammachilonis–
for brinjalshoot and fruit
borer, shoot borers of
cotton, sugarcane, rice etc.
Cryptolaemusmontrouzieri
(Austrtralianladybird beetle)
for control of several
species of mealy bugs and
soft scales
Chrysopaspp. (green
lacewing bug) -for the
control of aphids, white
flies etc.
Virus: Nuclear
PolyhedrosisVirus(NPV) -
for major polyphagouspest
like Helicoverpaarmigera
(gram pod borer) and
Spodopteralitura(Tobacco
caterpillar)
Bacteria: Bacillus
thuringiences(B.t) -for
control of lepidopterouspests
Fungi:Trichodermaviride
and Trichodermaharziarum
against soil borne fungal
diseases
Namatodes:for control of
soil-borne grubs,
lepidopteransand some
foliar pests

50. PREDATORY INSECTS IN AUGMENTATIVE
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Orius laevigatus Arma chinensis
Zelus sp.
Coccinella septempunctata
Coccinella repanda Crytolaemus montrouzieri

51. Ideal Locations of Bio-control Units
Care be taken to set up biocontrol production units s in areas
which have appropriate climatic conditions. (where there is no
extreme conditions)
The proximity of the location of biocontrol production units
and consumer market (farming areas) is amongst the most
important aspects.
Care be taken to prevent the contamination in production
facilities to be caused by insecticides from the farming areas.
Air pollution can damage biocontrol agents, the production
should be located away from industrial and urban areas

52. REARING OF PARASITOIDS & PREDATORS
FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
The main challenge for augmentative biological
control is a wide availability of cheap and effective
natural enemies for the growerscost-effective and
reliable mass production of high-quality natural
enemies is essential
Insect predators can be reared in mass scale keeping
the following aspects in view:
Foods: natural, factitious, artificial
Plant materials and alternatives
Rearing techniques and colony maintenance
Quality assurance

53. REARING SYSTEMS FOR BIOCONTROL
AGENTS, BASED ON THEIR FOOD TYPES
Natural rearing systems: use the natural or target prey for
production of the parasitoids and predators, usually on a host
plant
Systems using factitiousprey:organism that is unlikely to be
attacked by a natural enemy in its natural habitat, but that
supports its development and/or reproduction; usually a species
that is easier and less expensive to rear; with or without plant
materials
Artificial rearings systems: use inanimate (lifeless) artificial
foods and preferably no plant materials

54. REARING OF PREDATORY BUGS FOR
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
The main challenge for augmentative biological
control is a wide availability of cheap and effective
natural enemies for the growerscost-effective and
reliable mass production of high-quality natural
enemies is essential
The present paper will review developments in the
rearing of predatory bugs as related to:
Foods: natural, factitious, artificial
Plant materials and alternatives
Rearing techniques and colony maintenance???
Quality assurance

55. FACTITIOUS, UNNATURAL OR ALTERNATIVE
FOODS
The use of factitious foods may allow some rationalization
or automation of production or release
Factitioushostor prey: organism that is unlikely to be
attacked by a natural enemy in its natural habitat, but that
supports its development and/or reproduction
Usually a species that is easier and less expensive to rear
Examples:
Storage mites for predatory mites (Phytoseiidae, Laelapidae)
Eggs of lepidopterans for insect predators
Brine shrimp cysts for predatory insects and mites

56. Trichogrammaegg parasite
Trichogrammaspp.belongstothecategoryofeggparasitoidofbiological
agents.Trichogrammaspp.,themostwidelyusedbio-controlagentinthe
worldandiseffectiveagainstbollwormsofcotton,stemborersof
sugarcane,fruitborersoffruitsandvegetables.
Itoffersalowercostbutmoreeffectiveplantprotectionoptionin
comparisontoinsecticides.Twospeciesi.e.,T.chilonisandT.japonicum
arepredominantlyusedinIndia.
Trichogrammaaredarkcolouredtinywaspsandthefemalewasplays
20-40eggsintothehost'seggs.
Theentirecycleiscompletedwithin8-12days.Thetinyadultwasps
searchforthehost(pest)eggsinthefieldandlaytheireggsintothe
eggsofthepests.

57. NATURAL REARING SYSTEMS
In natural rearing systems the beneficial is reared on its target prey or hosts,
which itself is maintained on its host plant (or on plant parts) "tritrophic"
system
These systems can be economically viable: Encarsia formosa, Phytoseiulus
persimilis
Possible drawbacks are:
•tritrophic rearing systems are expansive due to space and labour needed for plant
production
•there may be discontinuity problems at one or more of the trophic levels to be
maintained (e.g. diseases or other pests attacking host plants)
•plant materials should be free of pesticide residues
•there are risks of contamination associated with the release of beneficials reared on
natural substrates
Tritrophicinteractions as they relate to plant defense against herbivory describe the ecological
impacts of three trophic levels on each other: the plant, the herbivore, and its natural enemies,
predators of the herbivore.

58. FACTITIOUS, UNNATURAL OR ALTERNATIVE
FOODS
The use of factitious foods may allow some rationalization
or automation of production or release
Factitioushostor prey: organism that is unlikely to be
attacked by a natural enemy in its natural habitat, but that
supports its development and/or reproduction
Usually a species that is easier and less expensive to rear
Examples:
Storage mites for predatory mites (Phytoseiidae, Laelapidae)
Eggs of lepidopterans for insect predators
Brine shrimp cysts for predatory insects and mites

59. Eggs of lepidopterans asfactitious food (artificially
created or developed)for insect predators
Eggs of several easily reared lepidopteran species can be used as a
factitious food (artificially created or developed)for insect predators and
Trichogrammaegg parasitoids such asCorcyra cephalonica, Sitotroga sp etc
Eggs are frozen or (UV, gamma) irradiated for use
Eggs of Corcyra cephalonica are a nutritionally adequate food for > 10 spp.
of predators and several Trichogrammaspp.
Production poses possible health hazards for workers (allergy to scales)
72% water; dry matter: 46% protein, 34% fat (>50% is 18:1), 8.5% carbohydrates

60. ARTIFICIAL DIETS
The availability of an artificial diet may offer further
possibilities to automate the rearing process
Types of diets:
Diets with and without insect components (e.g., whole
insect bodies, hemolymph...)
Oligidic, meridic and holidic diets:
-Holidic:chemically defined diets (amino acids, fatty acids,
sugars, vitamins, minerals...)
-Meridic:holidic base with one or more unrefined or chemically
unknown substances (e.g., yeast, liver extract...)
-Oligidic: containing only crude organic materials (e.g., meat
diets)

61. Digestive enzymes
of the predator
ARTIFICIAL DIET
HOLISTIC METHOD FOR DEVELOPING AN ARTIFICIAL DIET
Biochemical analyses
of preferred food
(amino acids, fatty acids,
sugars, …)
Biochemical composition
of the artificial diet
(amino acids, fatty acids,
sugars,…)
Copy Copy
Growth factors
(vitamins, minerals,
proteins…)
Water content
Computing
Mix of fats and oils
Mix of proteins
Physical properties
(gelling or filling agents,
encapsulation…)
Preservation
Biochemical analyses of
natural enemy
fed on artificial diet
The right components, in the right proportions and takingaccountof
possible interactions amongthe components