CCU-5-Edited(1).pptx history for fresh man student chapter 5

History for fresh man student

1. UNIT FIVE POLITICS, ECONOMY & SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM EARLY 16 th TO END OF 18 th CENTURIES 5.1. Conflict b/n Christian Kingdom & Sultanate of Adal rivalry to control trade & trade routes lay at heart of conflict. The desire to establish political hegemon y in the region was another factor religion provided ideological justification for the wars The conflict culminated in the wars b/n the two that lasted from 1529 to 1543 internal strife, corruption & anarchy among Muslim Sultanates intensified a new leadership

2. The Muslim Sultanates

3. The War of Ahmed Gragn He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa & Jigjiga & raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila . He was devoted Muslim & soldiers of Garad Abun of Adal Causes of his battles were to control long-distance trade route environmental pressure by Afar &Somali pastoralists Ahmed Gragn convinced & mobilize pastoral communities of Afar, Somali & Harari & others to a common cause, i.e. to control the territory of Christian Kingdom

4. King Libne Dingil , assisted by Queen Elleni ,& exploiting internal conflicts in Adal , scored significant victories in the early 16 th c against Adal Christian Kingdom could be able to establish its hegemony over the Ethiopian region & the Horn until 1529 Ahmed Gragn controlled Bali, Dawaro , Fatagar , Sidama , Hadiya & Kambata until 1527 Due to logistic & leadership problem, the Christian army failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force Ahmed Gragn of Adal defeated christian army of Libne Dingil at the Battle of Shimbra Kure, near Mojo in 1529

5. The Adal Empire

6. Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmed Gragn) established Adal’s hegemony from 1535-1543 a civil administrative bureaucracy. During his campaign, Bati Del Wanbara ( his wife) was one of the most illuminating figures. She delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 & 1533 in Ifat & Tigray respectively Causes for the success of Ahmed Gragn logistic & leadership problem of Christian army motivation& determination of Muslim army excellent leadership provided by the Imam

7. Libne Dingil asked Portuguese military assistance in 1535 when he was fugitive. In 1541, Portugal sent 400 soldiers under the command of Christopher da Gama. Ahmed ( Adal ) was assisted by Ottoman Turks, who provided him 200 Muslim musketeers ten cannons & infantry soldiers In August 1542, at the Battle of Ofla (in southern Tigray ), Adal army of Ahmed Gragn defeated & killed about 200 Portuguese including their commander Advised by his mother, Seble Wongel , Gelawdewos, son & successor of Libne Dingil, employed hit & run strategy & attacked & killed the Imam at the Battle of Woyna-Dega in 1543 , w/c marked the end of Adal’s hegemony

8. After the Battle of Woyna , Goyna Dega , Gelawdewos’s Christian Kingdom faced challenges from retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal , the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and Oromo advance into the center In 1559, the Adal (Muslim) army under the command of Nur Ibn al- Waazir Mujahid & his wife Bati Dil Wanbara beheaded Gelwdewos , which marked the end age-old hostility between the two forces in the region.

9. The Route of Portuguese Military Expedition

10. The Christian Kingdom after Gelawdewos (r.1540-59) King Minas (r.1559-1563) defeated the Ottoman Turkish force and reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa In early 1560s, Bahir Negash Yishaq, promised by Ottoman Turks , revolted & against Minas. King Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) fought with the Agaw , Gumuz , Bete -Israel, Sidama , Enarya & Orom o & defeated Turkish force in the north. But the Oromos defeated him near River Gojjeb The involvement the then global powers , Portugal & Ottoman Tusks made the conflict global in dimension

11. Consequences of Muslim-Christian conflict huge human & material cost destruction of churches & monastries contributed for success of Oromo movement cultural interaction among peoples of Ethiopia Linguistic & religious interactions accompanied by intermarriages among peoples of various cultural groups was one of these manifestations in the long history of Ethiopia & the Horn 5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies

12. Christian Kingdom rulers wanted to secure sufficient modern weapons & training from Roman Catholicism to restore its lost territories In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two separate , natures of Christ- divine & human, w/c was contrary to EOC’s Monophysite theology w/c taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature inseparable from the divine The leading Jesuit members who attempted Catholic evangelization ( Catholicization) of christian Kingdom were Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez & Alfonso Mendez .

13. The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos . However, he defended the teaching of EOC in a document entitled the “Confession of Gelawdewwos” Minas & Sertse-Dengel were busy fighting against Oromo & Turkish to engage the Jesuits in their courts The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been sympathetic to Catholicism . He was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7). Susenyos (r. 1607-32) defeated Yacob . Advised by Pedro Paez , Susenyos officially converted in to Catholicism in 1612 & announced it to be a state religion in 1622

14. Spanish Jesuit , Afonso Mendez ordered re-consecration of Orthodox priests & deacons & rebaptism of the mass. Alfonso Mendez called for suspension of male circumcision observance of the Sabbath on Saturday prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez fasting on Wednesdays & Fridays reverence (veneration) for Ethiopian saints reverence of Ark of Covenant ( Tabot ) eating pork Latin (Catholic) Mass adoption of Gregorian calendar Peasants, ecclesiastics nobility & Fasiledes oppoed the changes introduced by Jesuits Following Battle of Denqez , Susinyos abdicated his throne in favor of his so, Fasiledas in 1632. Fasiledes reversed Catholic transformation.

15. Measures taken by Fasiledes restored position of Orthodox Church expelled Jesuits punished local converts including his uncle, Se'ela Kristos, who was the most fervent supporter of Catholicism, introduced a “closed-door” policy , w/c isolated country from all Europeans. During this period, the two Europeans secretly visited ethiopia were a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet & Scottish traveler, James Bruce in 1700 & 1769 respectively initiated closer diplomatic relations with Islamic world

16. doctrinal divisions and controversy within EOC as a result of Jesuit intervention , w/c reached its peak during Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855) are 1. Tewahedo Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ eternity as a Divine Being & born from St. Mary as a perfect man. Thus, perfect man & perfect divinity united in one nature,i.e . Tewahido . Dominant in Tigray & Lasta 2. Qibat (Unction) ( Hulet Lidet -two birth ) eternal birth (1 st birth) & anointment by Holy Ghost (2 nd birth) Dominant in Gojjam 3 . Sost Lidet /Three Births ( Ya Tsega Lij /Son through Grace

17. Eternal birth as divine being (1 st birth), born from St. Mary (2 nd birth) & anointed by Holy Ghost (3 rd birth) Dominant in Gonder & Shawa 5.3. Population Movements The movements of people from one place to another have played important roles in shaping history of Horn of Africa People moved from place to place due to pull & push factors , w/c can be summed up as natural & social The causes of pop n mov’t in the region could be attributed to the region's long socio-political conditions involving m ilitary conflicts, drought & demographic factors

18. Effects of Pop n mov’t in Medieval Horn of Africa integration of peoples across ethnic & religious lines religious, ethnic & linguistic interactions & intermingling of peoples (major outlines) intermarriage of peoples change of abode & original culture evolution of new identities 5.3.1. Population Movements of Argoba , Afar & Somali Causes Christian-Muslim ( Adal ) conflicts in the late 15 th & early 16 th centuries pressure on environment was a major factor for pop n mov’t

19. A. The Argoba major agents of Islamic expansion, trade & formation Muslim in the Horn the sultanate of Ifat , in w/c Argoba were dominant, became center of Muslim resistance on the eve of Ahmed’s war, Argoba joined Afar & Somali against Christian Kingdom major center of christian-Muslim conflict since major caravan trade route passed through their territory B. The Afar Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through their territory. As a result, the region was center of competition b/n Christian Kingdom & Muslim sultanates to control trade routes

20. move into d/t directions to avoid risk of conflicts b/n Muslim & Christians pastoral economy helped them to survive the destructive effects of Christian-Muslim wars of the 16 th c C. The Somali their territory lay in the region traversed by major trade routes during medieval period before 16 th c, Christian-Muslim conflicts, there was environmental pressure on Somali inhabited areas their movement had become strong force for Ahmed’s military strength returned to their home base after defeat of Ahmed Gragn in 1543

21. 5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618) A. The Gadaa System Gadaa system was an institution through w/c Oromo socially organized themselves administered their affairs defended their territories maintained law and order managed their economies Studies do not clearly indicate when & how Gadaa system emerged

22. Abba Bahrey’s account indicates in early 16 th c, Gadaa system fully functioned b/c the Oromo were well organized. Therefore, according to him, Gadaa system began long before 16 th c Recent studies based on Gadaa calendar & Gadaa centers suggest that the system evolved from earlier Cushitic age-set social organizatio In Gadaa system , 8 years represented one Gadaa period , 5 -gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation & 9 generations represented an era prior to the beginning of Gadaa around 1450 AD, Oromo passed through known eras of Taya , Tasaa , Munyo , Suftu , Maddile , Abroji , Dhittacha & Warra - Daye (warden)

23. Gadaa system was re-instituted (revitalized) in 1450 at Madda Walabu after interruption for nearly two generations. Madda Walabu became central Chaffe (assembly) & seat of senior Qallu until 1900. Principles of Gadaa System periodic succession & power sharing to prevent a one-man rule fair representation of all lineages, clans & confederacies mechanism of socialization, education, maintenance of peace & order, & social cohesion rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo (marriage The Gadaa system organized Oromo society into 10 age-grades & 5 generation sets . They operated in parallel

24. Age-grades and their roles

25. The Gadaa Government Abba- Gadaa literally “father of the period” was head of government. He was assisted by Abba Bokku (father of scepter) Chaffe (head of the assembly) Dula (war leader) Sera (father of law) Alanga (judge) Sa'a (father of treasury) Senior Qallu (Abba Muda ) played indispensable (vital) roles in power transfer & legitimizing the ruling gadaa class

26. The Sinqe Institution women institution in w/c they formed sisterhood & solidarity women were organized from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent), kalale (wives of Luba & Yuba ) & cifire (wives of Gadamojji /above 80 years women involved in occasions like power transfer , conflict resolution , thanks-giving kalale were privileged to support & advise ruling class The Five Gadaa classes

27. Factors/ Causes for Oromo Movement Natural: demographic pressure & the need for land to accommodate their growing human & livestock population Human: Christian-Muslim confect in the region (13 th to 16 th centuries) that pressurized Pastoral Oromo Before the 16 th c mov’t, the Oromos were organized in to two confederacies: Borana & Barentu From their original homeland near Genale river & Madda Wallabu , the Oromos moved out in to south, north & western directions.

28. The Direction of Oromo Population Movement

29. The twelve Buta Wars of Oromo Melba (1522-1530)- defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali Mudena (1530-1538)-reached the edge of Awash River Kilole (1538-46)-controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq Bifole (1546-54)-advanced to Waj and Erer . Michille (1554-62)- defeated Christian army Dago and Jan Amora led by Hamelmal and Muslim army Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo Harmufa (1562-70)-fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata ; occupied Angot , Ganzyi , Sayint etc

30. 7. Robale (1571-1578)-the cavalry of Sarsa Dingil (r.1563-97) c led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale Gadaa at Woyna Daga in 1574. But Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis ’ force. 8. Birmaji (1579-1586)-controlled Ar'ine in Waj , crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti r egiment 9. Mul’ata (1587-1594)-seized Damot , Bizamo , Gafat , Dambiya and Tigray . 10. Duuloo (1595-1602) 11. Malba (1603-1610) 12. Muudana (1611-1618) The Duuloo , Melba & Mudena expanded to West & Northern parts of Horn of Africa

31. Other buta war like the Warday moved to Kenya & Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia The Major (Larger) Gadaa centers Oda Nabee of Tulama Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando ( Arsi ) Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna Oda Bisil of Mecha Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha The Minor (Smaller) Gadaa centers Gayo of Sabbo-Gona Me'e Bokko of Guji Oda Dogi of Ilu Oda Hulle of Jimma Oda Garado of Waloo

32. Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana , Anna Sorra of Guji , Makko-Bili of Mecha , Babbo Koyye of Jimma & others established Gadaa centers & laid down cardinal law s in their respective areas The various Oromo groups kept their relations through office of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu & formed alliances during times of difficulty obeyed similar ada (culture) & sera (law) through sending their delegates to Madda-Walabu Madda-Walabu was the central chaffe until pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to political influence of the Ethiopian state

33. Qabiyye system -a system of land holding to regulate resource & interaction among d/t clans Causes of Success of Oromo Pop n . Mov’t Christian-Muslim conflicts that weakened both sides Gadaa system that provided effective military leadership Mass mov/t w/c was difficult to stop Oromo institutions of Mogassa (adopting group) & Gudifacha (adopting individuals) 5.4. Interaction & Integration across Ethnic& Religious Diversities political, social, & economic processes of medieval period were major factors for people's interactions across regions

34. causes of i nteraction & integration were trade & conflicts to control trade routes religious expansion (evangelization) territorial expansion population movements One of the major consequences of the interactions particularly pop n mov’t of 16 th c was integration of peoples across ethnic & religious diversities in the Horn of Africa T erritorial & religious expansion of Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to south wars of Ahmed Gragn & Argoba , Afar & Somali pop n mov’t caused expansion of Islam into central parts of Ethiopia

35. Consequences of Oromo Population Movement ended Christian-Muslim conflicts & wars blocked southward expansion of Christian state contact with diverse peoples integration of non-Oromo through Guddifacha & Moggasa a. Guddifacha -adoption of a child by a foster parent b. Moggasa- incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan. or It a system of adopting non- Oromos ( Oromsu )-Oromization

36. Moggasa was undertaken by Abba Gadaa on behalf of clan contributed to social cohesions national integration e revival of long-distance trade 5. adoption of Gadaa system &Afaan Oromo by neighboring non-Oromo 6. Oromo adopted & adapted cultures & traditions of other people 6. religious chage: accepting Christianity & Islam 7. Adoption of monarchical system of Christian Kingdom

37. 8. The rise of nobles in the northern Oromo in politics of Gondar period (1636-1769) Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855) making of modern Ethiopia (since 1855) 9. destruction of Omotic kingdoms of Damot , Ennarya & Bizamo 10. Ethiopia was fragmented & much reduced in size 11. Socio-economic, political & religious transformation of Oromo 12. E volution of new identities among Oromo 13. intermarriage, change of abode & original culture

38. 5.5. Peoples & States in Eastern, Central, Southern & Western Regions 5.5.1. Peoples &States in East Somali practiced pastoral economy & moved b/n places for centuries as noted by Arab Geographer, Ibn Said (1214-860), Merca was a capital city lived close to Christian Kingdom as songs celebrating King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30) military success depicts contributed for Adali’s victory against Christian kingdom governed by a council known as shir , w/c was organized in to sub-clan , clan & inter-clan level

39. shir enforcedof law & justice all-adult males were democratically participating in decision making guurti ( council of elders) was the highest political council w/c resolved conflict & crisis B. Afars inhabited Ethiopia, Djibouti & Eritrea Makabanto - indigenous governance system first mentioned by Ibn Said ( Arab geographer ) occupied lowland territory near Bab el-Mandeb in 13 th c Maduna & Abasa were the site of historic cities such as

40. established Awsa , Girrifo , Tadjourah , Rahaito & Gobad sultanates after collapse of Adal in 16 th c Mohammed Jasa moved capital to Awsa from Harar in 1577 due to pressure from Oromo Awsa temporarily ended with accession of Imam Umar Din bin Adam in 1672 around 1734, Awsa was re-established by Kedafo , who established Mudaito Dynasty Awsa’s economy mainly depended on BatiGinda’e trade route Muslim preachers like Tola Hanfire made Awsa center of Islamic learning C. A rgoba The two version (theories) of their origin 1. Muslim-Arab immigrants , i.e. descended from the followers of Prophet Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa & settled at Ifat

41. 2. Ancient peoples in the region converted in to Islam by Muslim Arab D. The Emirate of Harar the earliest Muslim centers served as capital of Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar until shifted to Awsa in 1577 Ahmed Gragn ), invaded Christian Kingdom & controlled it until 1543 from his center of Harer the successor of Ahmed Gragn , Emir Nur Mujahid, built wall around Harer city to defend it from f Barentu Oromo harassment With Oromo, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) strengthened Harer in 17 th c & established Dynasty Harer further strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94)

42. Majilis (the council) established by Amirs assisted them by supervising mosque land called Waqf & others steadily, Harer had become center of Islamic culture & power economic power strengthened due to control of trade routes from Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila & Berbera Trade, inter-marriage, & expansion of Islam enabled Harer to establish its authority over surrounding Oromo & Somali Egyptians ruled Harer from 1875 to 1885 Menelik defeated Abdulahi (r.1885-1887) of Harer at the Battle of Chelenqo in 1887

43. 5.5.2. Peoples & States in Central & South Central Parts The Kingdom of Shewa founded by Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703) of Menz in 1699 Negasi Kristos controlled Asandabo , Debdabo , Mafud & Yifat districts Merid Azmatch Sebestie / Sebastyanos (r. 1703-18) Abuye / Abiyye (r.1718-45) made Haramba , his capital. But the Karrayu Oromo killed him Amaha Iyesus / Amayyes (r.1745-75), made failed attempt to control Afar & Abitchu Oromo & declared authority over Bulga , Efrata , Menz & Tegulet from his capital, Doqaqit, w/c later shifted to Ankober Asfa-Wosen (r.1775- 1808) conquered Antsokia , Asbo , Gedem , Gishe , Merhabete , Morat & Shewa Meda

44. reached its height of power during Negus Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), who signed “ Treaty of Friendship & Commerce” with Henry Salt of Britain in 1841 substantial component of economy was based on agriculture supplemented by trade & craft Aleyu Amba , Near Ankobar , was important trade center B. Gurage 1. Western ( Sebat Bet Gurage ): Chaha , Muher , Ezha , Gumer ( Inamor , Enner , Endegegna and Gyeto 2. Northern Gurage : Kistane , Aymallal ( Soddo ) Gurage Additional Groups: Dobbi , Gadabano and Masqan Enset is Grage’s staple food

45. System of governance Yajoka Qicha among Sebat Bet Gordanna Sera among Kistane In the traditional Gurage governance no centralized leadership power was vested in clan or lineage groups C. Kambata formed by coalescence (union) of four communities of separate origin by about 1550-70 Kambata means, “this is the place” (where we live) according to Kambata oral tradition their original homeland was around Mount Hambericho Dubamo , Donga & Tembaro trace their homeland from Sidama highlands

46. Omotic & Semitic peoples moved into Kambata at d/t times was incorporated in to Christian Kingdom by Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) Ahmed Gragn captured Kambata in 1532 seven clan groups recognized themselves as Kambata after one of the dominant clan Kambata Lamala at the end of 16 th c. Kambata were enset farmers & their language Kambatissa belongs to highland east Cushitic The a traditional administration System Hambericho Council administrative institution that had 7 members each representing 7 clans

47. with a king at top, it ruled until the late 19 th c D. Hadya emerged around 13 th c & was mentioned in Kebre-Negest (Glory of Kings) wetern most Islamic states in federation of Zeila linguistically & culturally heterogeneous northern part was dominated by agricultural Semitic speakers southern part was pastoral Cushitic communities there was a considerable Muslim population Amde-Tsion defeated garad Amano & subjugated Hadya in 1332 b/c Hadya aligned with Ifat leader, Sabraddin to confront Christian force

48. Zara- Yaqob (r.1434-68) replaced rebellious garad Mahiqo by his uncle Bamo in 1445 To stablize the situation, the emperor married Princess Elleni Mohammed of Hadiya Emperor Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-98),suppressed rebellion of Garad Aze in 1568/9 when he refused to pay tribute Christian-Muslim wars & Oromo pop n mov’t interrupted relations b/n Hadiya & Christian Kingdom four linguistic clusters of descendants of old Hadiya were Oromo, Sidama , Kabena & Alaba four sub clan groups of Hadya proper are Mareko , Lemu , Soro , Shashogo & Badowacho Hadya language belongs to Highland East Cushitic

49. 5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South The Sidama economy is based on agriculture enset & coffee are important food & cash crops respectively Institutions of Sidama Mote (king) consulted by Songo ( council of elders ) exercised political & administrative authority 2. Songo prepared agenda for discussion submitted their decisions to Mote for approval Rules were known by heart through generations

50. 3. The Woma was cultural & ritual leader as a man of peace , he could not participate in war or cattle raiding performed rituals like offering sacrifices to spirits, circumcision & marriage Social Division divided into generation-sets called Luwa five grades of Luwa each lasting for 8 years are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa & Mogissa Luwa candidates received 5 months military training & war songs ( gerarsha ) under gaden & his deputy- Ja’lawa

51. The gaden settled disputes within his Luwa with Mote, defended society 4. Seera : governed social life based on moral code, halale (the ultimate truth) to judge right & wrong people abide by rules of halale to avoid curse or ostracization by society B. Gedeo Supposed to be ancestors of Daraso , who was older brother of Gujo ( father of Guji Oromo ) seven clans were ancestors of Daraso . They are grouped in to two Houses: 1. Shole batte (senior house): comprised the first 4 clans. It had > 25 sub-clans

52. 2. Sase batte (junior house): comprised the last 3 clans, w/c have 10 sub-clans Baalle- traditional governance system that worked with age classes & ranking Baalle had 7 grades with a 10-year period each Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho , Ributa & Rikuta sharing one Abba Gadaa ruled them for a period of 8 years All positions from top, Abba Gadaa to bottom, Hayitcha assumed at baalle ceremony Gedeo economy was based on enset cultivation

53. C. Konso Konso refers to their language, affa Konso & their land literal meaning of Konso is “ heavily forested hill/ area.” Low land, Sagan & Woyito river valleyss, erved as hunting grounds Konso is one the earliest human settlement sites in world. Therefore, it attracted human evolution researchers economy depended on agriculture, bee keeping, craftworks & cattle breeding hot & dry lowlands at the edge of Great East African Rift Valley led farmers to adopt intensive agriculture For soil conservation, farmers construct terraces Until the late 19 th c they used to live in walled villages called paletas , w/c were further divided into wards called Kanta

54. no central authority over Konso’s three regions a council of elders called hayyota , directly selected by males, ruled each village Membership to hayyota was not hereditary, but rotated every 18 years clan or lineage group & generation set called Tselta was core of socio-political organization The nine clans are Toqmaleta , Elayta , Saudata , Pasanta , Kertita , Ishalayta , Mahaleta , Tikisayta and Argamyta 5.5.4. Peoples & States in Southwestern Part Wolayta it denotes people (ethnic group), language powerful kingdom, w/c emerged in c. 13 th c A.D.

55. before emergence of Wolaita as political unit , the region was inhabited by Badia , Badiagadala & Aruja clans at the apex of social & political hierarchy (ladder), there was Kawo ( king ), who was assisted by a council of advisors Wolaita was ruled by 1. Wolayta-Malla Dynasty (13 th to 15 th centuries). founded by Kawo Motalami 2. Tigre-Malla dynasty (end of 15 th c to end of 19 th c ) supposedly founded by Tigreans Land was nominally property of kawo , who could grant it to his dependents

56. land relationships were ordered according to 3 basic principles of social organization i.e. kinship , polity & social status The rights over land were vested in lineage group , crown (royal estate), nobility & communal lands ( allocated for grazing & social gatherings ) Enset was dominant crop. V arieties of crop are grown B. Kafa emerged in 14 th c & attained prominence around mid 17 th c Minjo dynasty & Enarya had close contact Christianity & royal title, tato , were introduced to kaffa by Ennaryan ruling house who fled to Kaffa following Oromo subjugation

57. economy was based on enset cultivation supported by trade peasants worked on their land, rendered free labor service & tilled royal estates with support of slaves a prosperous commerce took place with Oromo states of Gibe region musk, coffee, slaves, ivory, gold, honey-wax & civet were exported via markets like Tonkolla , Tiffa , Qeya , etc expanded to Bonesho , Mashengo , Maji , Nao , She & Chara ( 17 th to 18 th centuries) in adminitrative hierarchy, Tato (king) was located at apex major administrative/political centers Bonga & Andarcha Tato was assisted by a Council of Seven advisors called Mikrecho Mikrecho involved in power moderation of Tato & succession

58. Kaffa was known for its defense system . They dug deep trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier Gojeb River served as natural protection for its survival until 1894 C. Yem agriculture, trade & craft were economic basis ruled by Dida or Halmam-Gammad D ynasty from its palace in Dudarkema / Zimarma Amno (king) was at the top of political ladder who acted as a chief priest with attributes of divinity in state administration, Amno was assisted by Astessor ( council of 12 members ) & Waso (chairperson of Astessor )

59. provincial governors called Erasho were responsible for digging bero (ditches) & erecting nearly 50 pillars around Brisi Bita (center of Yem ) war father called Nomiaw could patrol the kindom’s surrounding from top of pillars special messengers called Wosi carried orders from Amno down to district chiefs, Gagna & vice versa. people of northern origin overthrown last King Oyokam / Amo Dasha & founded a new dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari in 14 th c in 19 th c, Jimma attempeted to subdue Yem . But both were incorporated (absorbed) by Menelik II D. Gamo geze (highland) & bazo (lowland) are physical landscapes

60. D. Gamo woga ( indigenous laws) defined land-use in highlands woga governed all aspects of Gamo people enset is the dominant crop in the highland & Barely, wheat, teff , peas, beans & cabbage are also grown maize & sweet potato are grown in the lowland cattle breeding, craft, pottery, tanning, carpentry & metalworking are other modes of the subsistence system Gamo people produced tools & weapons, traditional musical & funeral instruments, weaving textiles etc. Gamo were first mentioned in written records in praise songs of king Yishak in w/c they were tributary states to monarch b/n 16 th to 19 th centuries, Gamo was organized in different communities called dere

61. dere were politically autonomous villages (units) each dere had kawo , hereditary ruler initiates called halaqa own assembly place called dubusha communal matters were discussed & disputes solved at dubusha through initiation or election a system of seniority called baira , could reach to politico-ritual status dulata (assembly) elected married men to position of halaqa or huduga or maga institutional authority of dulata included decisions making imposing sanctions as penalty against serious crimes

62. The Ba ira (senior) was largely based on genealogical seniority had a privilege over lineage members (clan members) made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors at all levels of community senior sacrificer of dere is kawo , w/c refers to the first rank status. He represented the unity of dere & foreign relation E. Dawuro geziya (highland), dashuwa (mid-altitude) & gad’a (lowland) are climatic zones economy is based on mixed agriculture language is Dawurotsuwa -Omotic family

63. three major clans are Malla , Dogolla , & Amara, w/c are altogether called Gok’as or K’omos Omotic people of Wolayta , Kucha , Gamo , Gofa , & Kafa & Semitic immigrants from Gondar , Gojjam , Tigray & Shewa inhabited Dawuro Omotic & Semitic immigrants came to Dawuro due to political alliance through royal marriages by about 1700, Kawuka dynasty had created a big state on territory b/n Gojeb & Omo rivers in the north, east & south & Kafa in the west famous rulers of Kawuka dynasty were Kati Irashu & Kati Halala Kati Halala was grandson of king of Kafa incorporated Konta known for his stone fortifications

64. F. Ari Ari, Dasenech , Tsemayi , Erbore , Hamer , Surma , Meniet , Nyangatom , Bodi , Male , etc. have been inhabited Omo River basin region’s economy was based on sedentary agriculture , pastoralism & handcrafts The Ari speak Omotic l anguage called Araf were organized into 10 independent clan based chiefdoms Babi (hereditary clan chief) headed each chiefdom . He was assisted by a ppointed officia Godim- religious leaders Zis (village heads) Tsoikis (intelligence agents of Each clan chief had political & ritual authorities over people he governed

65. 5.5.5.Peoples & States in the West they are Berta, Gumuz, Anywa, Nuer, Majang, Kunama or Baza their language belongs to Nilo-Saharan had been highly influenced by Islam due to trade & social contacts with northern Sudan A. Berta inhabited Beni-Shangul regional state started to settle in the region in 16 th c B. Gumuz were mentioned by Scottish explorer, James Bruce inhabited Beni-Shangul regional state C Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor , Sobat , Gila, Akobo , Agwei , Oboth , Baro & Alwero Rivers in Gambela

66. according to local tradition, Oshoda was founding father language is called Dha-anywaa economy is based on small-scale cultivation, fishing & hunting mostly Christians & also believed in traditional religion Administration System was not centralized Kuaari - chief of each village Kuaari & Nyiye (nobles) managed distribution of farm & grazing fields settled disputes & etc D. Nuer historically, lived in areas across savannas & marshes of Bahr el-Ghazal & Upper Nile regions of the Sudan since 19 th c, they had been largely settled along Sobat & Baro Rivers in Gambella & in Sudan

67. economy was based on cattle breeding supplemented by crop production had developed a complex spiritual culture around their cattle, w/c were used as bride wealth had an age-set system combining social & political functions boys had to pass through a rigorous test & a series of rites before they were initiated into adulthood E. Majang formed southern end of Nilo-Saharan settlement originated from Boma plateau in South Sudan by mid 20 th c , their settlement extended to areas near Dembi-Dollo in the north economic activities include shifting cultivation, animal husbandry, bee keeping , hunting & fishing

68. F. The Kunama inhabited western Eritrea on Gash & Tekkeze Rivers in ancient times today live in northwestern & western Tigray al- Ya’qubi ( Arab traveller), in 872 A.D. mentioned the kingdom as Baza a customary institution called sanga-anene administered society granted asylum to new comers performed rituals as reconciliation process in case of homicides office of sanga-anene was held by males, i.e. matrilineal line transmitted hereditarily from eldest brother to next born e conomy is based on mixed agriculture

69. sorghum ( kina ) is staple crop & has ceremonial value keep livestock like mainly goats , sheep , oxen & camels 5.6. Gondarine Period & Zemene-Mesafint 5.6.1. Gondarine Period (1636-1769) A. Political Developments it began from reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle r.1563-1598) when political center was shifted to Gonder area Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571 Susenyos tried to establish his capital near Gondar at places like Qoga , Gorgora , Danqaz & Azazo F a s ile da s (r.1632-1667) f ound e d Gond a r in 1636

70. Gondar achieved its glory during Fasiledas (r.1632–67 Yohannes I (r.1667-82) Iyasu I ( r.1682-1706 Measures taken by Fasiledes ended catholicization attempt of Jesuits restored of Orthodox church in former status established r o y al pr i s on at A m b a W a hni to solve problem of power struggle introduced “ Close Door Policy” ,w/c prohibit Europeans from entering in to Ethiopia Yohannes I & his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem

71. Iyasu I (Iyasu the Great) reformed land tenure system introduced land measurement system in Begemder reformed taxes & customs revised civil code called Fetha Negest /the law of kings He was assassinated by a group led by his son, Tekle Haymanot , w/c u shered in political instability in Gondar that involved intrigues & poisoning of reigning monarchs. For instance, Tekle-Haymanot (r.1706-1708) was assassinated by Tewoflos Tewoflos (r. 1708 -1711) was killed by Yostos Yostos (r.1711-1717) poisoned & replaced by Dawit III Dawit III was poisoned & replaced by Bakafa (r.1721-1728) Supported by his follo wers & his wife, Etege Mentewab, Bakafa tried to restore stability

72. Gondarine Period witnessed increased involvement of Oromo in i mperial politics & army supported by her brother, Wolde Leul ( 1732-1767) & her kinsmen from Quara , Itege Mintiwab, dominated Gonderine politics b/n 1728-1769 Walda Le’ul was influential during reigns of Iyasu II (r.1730-55), son of Bakaffa & Iyoas (r. 1755-69 ), son of Iyasu II (Iyasu the Little) in order to settle political crisis b/n Mintiwab , supported by Quara Amhara hiefs & Wubit Amito , supported by Wollo Oromo, following the death of Ras Bitwedded Wolde Leul , Mintwab invited Tigrean chief, Ras Michael Seul

73. Ras Michael settled situation in Gonder but refused to return to Tigray killed the reigning young Emperor, Iyoas became king maker killed Yohannes II & put his son TaklaHaymanot II (r.1769-77 ) These measures taken by Michael Seul marked the onset of Zemen Mesafent (1769-1855) started B. Achievements of Gonderine Period Gondar became center of administration, learning, commerce, education, art, & crafts for more than two centuries . The first three kings were successful in this regard: Fasiledes , Yohannes I & Iyasu I

74. Gondar was enable to repeat splendors of Aksum & Lalibela . S ome writers describe Gonderine period as Ethiopian renaissance in cultural development Achievements of Gonderine period include 1. Architecture Castles , bridges, residences, bath, library, towers , fortifications & churches Fasil Gemb was the most impressive building palaces of Fasiledas , Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa & Queen Mentewab Gondarine style of architecture started before Fisiledes . For instance: palace of Sartsa-Dengle built at about 1586, is located at Guzara near Enfranz

75. 2. Painting religious paintings on manuscripts, wood, ornaments, weapons & other accessories churches built by Mentwab were known for their beautiful paintings , cross & art works. 3. Literature illuminated manuscripts of Gospels , Miracles of Mary, Lives of Ethiopian Saints & Litanies (prayer books) Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine, music & poetry 4. Trade & urbanization as a commercial center, Gonder connected trade route of SW Ethiopia with Massawa & etemma Gold & salt were used as medium of exchange Indians, Greeks & Armenians were expatriate (foreign) residences Gonder was center of Christians, Muslims & Bete -Israel & EOC until middle of 19 th c

76. 5.5.2. The Zemene-Mesafint , 1769-1855 ZM- period when regional lords controlled actual political power began with assassination of Iyoas by Mikael Sehul in 1769 ended in 1855 with the rise of Kassa Hailu (Tewodros II) in 1855 forces of Gojjam , Amhara , Lasta & Wollo defeated Mika’el at the Battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771 main political regions of ZM were Tigray , Semen, Dembiya , Begemedir , Lasta , Yejju , Wollo , Gojjam & Shewa Yejju dynasty ( Warasheh Dynasty ) rases from Debre Tabor dominated Gonderine politics during ZM. The dynasty was established by Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq ) in 1786-1853

77. R eign of Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825 ) marked zenith of Yejju rule Gugsa struggled against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta & Dejjazmach Sabagadis Woldu of Agame Ras Yimam (r.1825-28), defeated Hayle -Mariam Gebre of Simen . Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827 In a series of battles from 1840s-1855, Kassa Hailu of Quara defeated regional lords & ended ZM M ajor features of ZM absence of effective central government regional warlords were actual rulers domination of Yejju lords rivalry & competition among regional lords to assume the position of king maker ( ras )

78. establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests EOC failed to play unifying role due its doctrinal controversy foreign threat from Egypt revival of foreign contacts that ended “ Closed Door Policy ” THE END OF UNIT FIVE