Cellular technology

1. NATIONAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Amafel Bldg. Aguinaldo Highway Dasmariñas City, Cavite









ASSIGNMENT 1
CELLULAR TECHNOLOGY








Cauan, Sarah Krystelle P. October 03, 2011
Communications 1/ BSECE 41A1 Score:








Engr. Grace Ramones
Instructor

2. CELLULAR NETWORK
A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each served
by at least one fixed-location transceiver known as a cell site or base station. When joined
together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a
large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to communicate
with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via
base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than one cell
during transmission.
Cellular networks offer a number of advantages over alternative solutions:
increased capacity
reduced power use
larger coverage area
reduced interference from other signals
An example of a simple non-telephone cellular system is an old taxi driver's radio system
where the taxi company has several transmitters based around a city that can communicate
directly with each taxi.

CONCEPT


In a cellular radio system, a land area to be supplied with radio service is divided into
regular shaped cells, which can be hexagonal, square, circular or some other irregular
shapes, although hexagonal cells are conventional. Each of these cells is assigned multiple
frequencies (f1 - f6) which have corresponding radio base stations. The group of
frequencies can be reused in other cells, provided that the same frequencies are not reused
in adjacent neighboring cells as that would cause co-channel interference.

3. The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single
transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in a different
area for a completely different transmission. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one
transmission can be used on any given frequency. Unfortunately, there is inevitably some
level of interference from the signal from the other cells which use the same frequency.
This means that, in a standard FDMA system, there must be at least a one cell gap between
cells which reuse the same frequency.
In the simple case of the taxi company, each radio had a manually operated channel
selector knob to tune to different frequencies. As the drivers moved around, they would
change from channel to channel. The drivers knew which frequency covered approximately
what area. When they did not receive a signal from the transmitter, they would try other
channels until they found one that worked. The taxi drivers would only speak one at a time,
when invited by the base station operator (in a sense TDMA).
Directional antennas
Although the original 2-way-radio cell towers were at the centers of the cells and were
omni-directional, a cellular map can be redrawn with the cellular telephone towers located
at the corners of the hexagons where three cells converge. Each tower has three sets of
directional antennas aimed in three different directions with 120 degrees for each cell
(totaling 360 degrees) and receiving/transmitting into three different cells at different
frequencies. This provides a minimum of three channels (from three towers) for each cell.
The numbers in the illustration are channel numbers, which repeat every 3 cells. Large
cells can be subdivided into smaller cells for high volume areas
Broadcast messages and paging
Practically every cellular system has some kind of broadcast mechanism. This can be used
directly for distributing information to multiple mobiles, commonly, for example in mobile
telephony systems, the most important use of broadcast information is to set up channels
for one to one communication between the mobile transceiver and the base station. This is
called paging.
The details of the process of paging vary somewhat from network to network, but normally
we know a limited number of cells where the phone is located (this group of cells is called a
Location Area in the GSM or UMTS system, or Routing Area if a data packet session is
involved). Paging takes place by sending the broadcast message to all of those cells. Paging
messages can be used for information transfer. This happens in pagers, in CDMA systems
for sending SMS messages, and in the UMTS system where it allows for low downlink
latency in packet-based connections.
Movement from cell to cell and handover

4. In a primitive taxi system, when the taxi moved away from a first tower and closer to a
second tower, the taxi driver manually switched from one frequency to another as needed.
If a communication was interrupted due to a loss of a signal, the taxi driver asked the base
station operator to repeat the message on a different frequency.
In a cellular system, as the distributed mobile transceivers move from cell to cell during an
ongoing continuous communication, switching from one cell frequency to a different cell
frequency is done electronically without interruption and without a base station operator
or manual switching. This is called the handover or handoff. Typically, a new channel is
automatically selected for the mobile unit on the new base station which will serve it. The
mobile unit then automatically switches from the current channel to the new channel and
communication continues.
The exact details of the mobile system's move from one base station to the other varies
considerably from system to system (see the example below for how a mobile phone
network manages handover).
Example of a cellular network: the mobile phone network
The most common example of a cellular network is a mobile phone (cell phone) network. A
mobile phone is a portable telephone which receives or makes calls through a cell site
(base station), or transmitting tower. Radio waves are used to transfer signals to and from
the cell phone.
Modern mobile phone networks use cells because radio frequencies are a limited, shared
resource. Cell-sites and handsets change frequency under computer control and use low
power transmitters so that a limited number of radio frequencies can be simultaneously
used by many callers with less interference.
A cellular network is used by the mobile phone operator to achieve both coverage and
capacity for their subscribers. Large geographic areas are split into smaller cells to avoid
line-of-sight signal loss and to support a large number of active phones in that area. All of
the cell sites are connected to telephone exchanges (or switches) , which in turn connect to
the public telephone network.
In cities, each cell site may have a range of up to approximately ½ mile, while in rural areas,
the range could be as much as 5 miles. It is possible that in clear open areas, a user may
receive signals from a cell site 25 miles away.
Since almost all mobile phones use cellular technology, including GSM, CDMA, and AMPS
(analog), the term "cell phone" is in some regions, notably the US, used interchangeably
with "mobile phone". However, satellite phones are mobile phones that do not
communicate directly with a ground-based cellular tower, but may do so indirectly by way
of a satellite.

5. There are a number of different digital cellular technologies, including: Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA), Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM
Evolution (EDGE), 3GSM, Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), Digital
AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN).
Structure of the mobile phone cellular network
A simple view of the cellular mobile-radio network consists of the following:
A network of Radio base stations forming the Base station subsystem.
The core circuit switched network for handling voice calls and text
A packet switched network for handling mobile data
The Public switched telephone network to connect subscribers to the wider
telephony network
This network is the foundation of the GSM system network. There are many functions that
are performed by this network in order to make sure customers get the desired service
including mobility management, registration, call set up, and handover.
Any phone connects to the network via an RBS (Radio Base Station) at a corner of the
corresponding cell which in turn connects to the Mobile switching center (MSC). The MSC
provides a connection to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The link from a
phone to the RBS is called an uplink while the other way is termed downlink.
Radio channels effectively use the transmission medium through the use of the following
multiplexing schemes: frequency division multiplex (FDM), time division multiplex (TDM),
code division multiplex (CDM), and space division multiplex (SDM). Corresponding to
these multiplexing schemes are the following access techniques: frequency division
multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), code division multiple
access (CDMA), and space division multiple access (SDMA).
Cellular handover in mobile phone networks
As the phone user moves from one cell area to another cell whilst a call is in progress, the
mobile station will search for a new channel to attach to in order not to drop the call. Once
a new channel is found, the network will command the mobile unit to switch to the new
channel and at the same time switch the call onto the new channel.
With CDMA, multiple CDMA handsets share a specific radio channel. The signals are
separated by using a pseudonoise code (PN code) specific to each phone. As the user moves
from one cell to another, the handset sets up radio links with multiple cell sites (or sectors
of the same site) simultaneously. This is known as "soft handoff" because, unlike with
traditional cellular technology, there is no one defined point where the phone switches to
the new cell.

6. In IS-95 inter-frequency handovers and older analog systems such as NMT it will typically
be impossible to test the target channel directly while communicating. In this case other
techniques have to be used such as pilot beacons in IS-95. This means that there is almost
always a brief break in the communication while searching for the new channel followed by
the risk of an unexpected return to the old channel.
If there is no ongoing communication or the communication can be interrupted, it is
possible for the mobile unit to spontaneously move from one cell to another and then
notify the base station with the strongest signal.
Cellular frequency choice in mobile phone networks
The effect of frequency on cell coverage means that different frequencies serve better for
different uses. Low frequencies, such as 450 MHz NMT, serve very well for countryside
coverage. GSM 900 (900 MHz) is a suitable solution for light urban coverage. GSM 1800
(1.8 GHz) starts to be limited by structural walls. UMTS, at 2.1 GHz is quite similar in
coverage to GSM 1800.
Higher frequencies are a disadvantage when it comes to coverage, but it is a decided
advantage when it comes to capacity. Pico cells, covering e.g. one floor of a building,
become possible, and the same frequency can be used for cells which are practically
neighbours.
Cell service area may also vary due to interference from transmitting systems, both within
and around that cell. This is true especially in CDMA based systems. The receiver requires a
certain signal-to-noise ratio. As the receiver moves away from the transmitter, the power
transmitted is reduced. As the interference (noise) rises above the received power from the
transmitter, and the power of the transmitter cannot be increased any more, the signal
becomes corrupted and eventually unusable. In CDMA-based systems, the effect of
interference from other mobile transmitters in the same cell on coverage area is very
marked and has a special name, cell breathing.
One can see examples of cell coverage by studying some of the coverage maps provided by
real operators on their web sites. In certain cases they may mark the site of the transmitter,
in others it can be calculated by working out the point of strongest coverage.
Coverage comparison of different frequencies

7. CELL SIGNAL ENCODING
To distinguish signals from several different transmitters, frequency division multiple
access (FDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA) were developed.
With FDMA, the transmitting and receiving frequencies used in each cell are different from
the frequencies used in each neighbouring cell. In a simple taxi system, the taxi driver
manually tuned to a frequency of a chosen cell to obtain a strong signal and to avoid
interference from signals from other cells.
The principle of CDMA is more complex, but achieves the same result; the distributed
transceivers can select one cell and listen to it.
Other available methods of multiplexing such as polarization division multiple access
(PDMA) and time division multiple access (TDMA) cannot be used to separate signals from
one cell to the next since the effects of both vary with position and this would make signal
separation practically impossible. Time division multiple access, however, is used in
combination with either FDMA or CDMA in a number of systems to give multiple channels
within the coverage area of a single cell.

8. MULTIPLE ACCESS
Multiple Access refers on how the subscriber are allocated to the assigned frequency
spectrum.
Frequency reuse
The increased capacity in a cellular network, comparing to a network with a single
transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in a different
area for a completely different transmission. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one
transmission can be used on any given frequency. Unfortunately, there is inevitably some
level of interference from the signal from the other cells which use the same frequency.
This means that, in a standard FDMA system, there must be at least a one cell gap between
cells which reuse the same frequency.
The frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same frequency can be used in the
network. It is 1/n where n is the number of cells which cannot use a frequency for
transmission.
Code division multiple access based systems use a wider frequency band to achieve the
same rate of transmission as FDMA, but this is compensated for by the ability to use a
frequency reuse factor of 1. In other words, every cell uses the same frequency and the
different systems are separated by codes rather than frequencies.
Depending on the size of the city, a taxi system may not have any frequency reuse in its
own city, but certainly in other nearby cities, the same frequency can be used. In a big city,
on the other hand, frequency reuse could certainly be in use.

Frequency Division Multiple Access or FDMA is a channel access method used in multiple-
access protocols as a channelization protocol. FDMA gives users an individual allocation of
one or several frequency bands, or channels. It is particularly commonplace in satellite
communication. FDMA, like other Multiple Access systems, coordinates access between
multiple users. Alternatives include TDMA, CDMA, or SDMA. These protocols are utilized
differently, at different levels of the theoreticalOSI model.
Disadvantage: Crosstalk may cause interference among frequencies and disrupt the
transmission.
 In FDMA all users share the satellite simultaneously but each user transmits at single
frequency.
 FDMA can be used with both analog and digital signal.

9.  FDMA requires high-performing filters in the radio hardware, in contrast
to TDMA and CDMA.
 FDMA is not vulnerable to the timing problems that TDMA has. Since a predetermined
frequency band is available for the entire period of communication, stream data (a
continuous flow of data that may not be packetized) can easily be used with FDMA.
 Due to the frequency filtering, FDMA is not sensitive to near-far problem which is
pronounced for CDMA.
 Each user transmits and receives at different frequencies as each user gets a unique
frequency slot
FDMA is distinct from frequency division duplexing (FDD). While FDMA allows multiple
users simultaneous access to a transmission system, FDD refers to how the radio channel is
shared between the uplink and downlink (for instance, the traffic going back and forth
between a mobile-phone and a mobile phone base station). Frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM) is also distinct from FDMA. FDM is a physical layer technique that
combines and transmits low-bandwidth channels through a high-bandwidth channel.
FDMA, on the other hand, is an access method in the data link layer.
FDMA also supports demand assignment in addition to fixed assignment. Demand
assignment allows all users apparently continuous access of the radio spectrum by
assigning carrier frequencies on a temporary basis using a statistical assignment process.
The first FDMA demand-assignment system for satellite was developed byCOMSAT for use
on the Intelsat series IVA and V satellites.
There are two main techniques:
 Multi-channel per-carrier (MCPC)
 Single-channel per-carrier (SCPC)

10. Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared medium
networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the
signal into different time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other,
each using its own time slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission
medium (e.g. radio frequency channel) while using only a part of its channel capacity.
TDMA is used in the digital 2G cellular systems such as Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM), IS-136, Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) and iDEN, and in the Digital
Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) standard for portable phones. It is also
used extensively in satellite systems, combat-net radio systems, and PON networks for
upstream traffic from premises to the operator. For usage of Dynamic TDMA packet mode
communication.

TDMA is a type of Time-division multiplexing, with the special point that instead of having
one transmitter connected to one receiver, there are multiple transmitters. In the case of
the uplink from a mobile phone to abase station this becomes particularly difficult because
the mobile phone can move around and vary the timing advance required to make its
transmission match the gap in transmission from its peers.
TDMA in 2G systems
Most 2G cellular systems, with the notable exception of IS-95, are based on TDMA. GSM, D-
AMPS, PDC, iDEN, and PHS are examples of TDMA cellular systems. GSM combines TDMA
with Frequency Hopping and wideband transmission to minimize common types of
interference.
In the GSM system, the synchronization of the mobile phones is achieved by sending timing
advance commands from the base station which instructs the mobile phone to transmit
earlier and by how much. This compensates for the propagation delay resulting from the
light speed velocity of radio waves. The mobile phone is not allowed to transmit for its
entire time slot, but there is a guard interval at the end of each time slot. As the
transmission moves into the guard period, the mobile network adjusts the timing advance
to synchronize the transmission.
Initial synchronization of a phone requires even more care. Before a mobile transmits there
is no way to actually know the offset required. For this reason, an entire time slot has to be
dedicated to mobiles attempting to contact the network (known as the RACH in GSM). The
mobile attempts to broadcast at the beginning of the time slot, as received from the
network. If the mobile is located next to the base station, there will be no time delay and
this will succeed. If, however, the mobile phone is at just less than 35 km from the base
station, the time delay will mean the mobile's broadcast arrives at the very end of the time
slot. In that case, the mobile will be instructed to broadcast its messages starting nearly a
whole time slot earlier than would be expected otherwise. Finally, if the mobile is beyond
the 35 km cell range in GSM, then the RACH will arrive in a neighbouring time slot and be

11. ignored. It is this feature, rather than limitations of power, that limits the range of a GSM
cell to 35 km when no special extension techniques are used. By changing the
synchronization between the uplink and downlink at the base station, however, this
limitation can be overcome.

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various radio
communication technologies. It should not be confused with the mobile phone
standards called cdmaOne, CDMA2000 (the 3G evolution of cdmaOne) and WCDMA (the 3G
standard used by GSM carriers), which are often referred to as simply CDMA, and use
CDMA as an underlying channel access method.
One of the basic concepts in data communication is the idea of allowing several
transmitters to send information simultaneously over a single communication channel.
This allows several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). This concept is
called multiple access. CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding
scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow multiple users to be
multiplexed over the same physical channel. By contrast, time division multiple
access (TDMA) divides access bytime, while frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
divides it by frequency. CDMA is a form of spread-spectrum signalling, since the modulated
coded signal has a much higher data bandwidth than the data being communicated.
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish to
talk to each other simultaneously. To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking
(time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in different
languages (code division). CDMA is analogous to the last example where people speaking
the same language can understand each other, but other languages are perceived
as noise and rejected. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code.
Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a particular code can
communicate. The technology of code division multiple access channels has long been
known. In the USSR, the first work devoted to this subject was published in 1935 by
professor D.V. Aggeev in the "CDMA". It was shown that through the use of linear methods,
there are three types of signal separation: frequency, time and compensatory. The
technology of CDMA was used in 1957, when the young military radio engineer Leonid
Kupriyanovich in Moscow, made an experimental model of a wearable automatic mobile
phone, called LK-1 by him, with a base station. LK-1 has a weight of 3 kg, 20-30 km
operating distance, and 20-30 hours of battery life ("Nauka i zhizn", 8, 1957, p. 49, "Yuniy
technik", 7, 1957, p. 43-44). The base station, as described by the author, could serve
several customers. In 1958, Kupriyanovich made the new experimental "pocket" model of
mobile phone. This phone weighs 0,5 kg. To serve more customers, Kupriyanovich
proposed the device, named by him as correllator. ("Nauka i zhizn", 10, 1958, p.66,
"Technika-molodezhi", 2, 1959, 18-19) In 1958, the USSR also started the development of
the "Altay" national civil mobile phone service for cars, based on the Soviet MRT-1327
standard. The main developers of the Altay system were VNIIS (Voronezh Science Research

12. Institute of Communications)and GSPI (State Specialized Project Institute). In 1963 this
service started in Moscow and in 1970 Altay service was used in 30 USSR cities.
Space-Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is a channel access method based on creating
parallel spatial pipes next to higher capacity pipes through spatial multiplexing and/or
diversity, by which it is able to offer superior performance in radio multiple access
communication systems. In traditional mobile cellular network systems, the base
station has no information on the position of the mobile units within the cell and radiates
the signal in all directions within the cell in order to provide radio coverage. This results in
wasting power on transmissions when there are no mobile units to reach, in addition to
causing interference for adjacent cells using the same frequency, so calledco-channel cells.
Likewise, in reception, the antenna receives signals coming from all directions including
noise and interference signals. By using smart antenna technology and differing spatial
locations of mobile units within the cell, space-division multiple access techniques offer
attractive performance enhancements. The radiation pattern of the base station, both in
transmission and reception, is adapted to each user to obtain highest gain in the direction
of that user. This is often done using phased arraytechniques.
In GSM cellular networks, the base station is aware of the mobile phone's position by use of
a technique called "timing advance" (TA). The Base Transceiver Station (BTS) can
determine how distant the Mobile Station (MS) is by interpreting the reported TA. This
information, along with other parameters, can then be used to power down the BTS or MS,
if a power control feature is implemented in the network. The power control in either BTS
or MS is implemented in most modern networks, especially on the MS, as this ensures a
better battery life for the MS and thus a better user experience (in that the need to charge
the battery becomes less frequent). This is why it may actually be safer to have a BTS close
to you as your MS will be powered down as much as possible. For example, there is more
power being transmitted from the MS than what you would receive from the BTS even if
you are 6 m away from a mast. However, this estimation might not consider all the MS's
that a particular BTS is supporting with EM radiation at any given time.

13. HISTORY

Radiophones have a long and varied history going back to Reginald Fessenden's invention
and shore-to-ship demonstration of radio telephony, through the Second World War with
military use of radio telephony links and civil services in the 1950s.
The first mobile telephone call made from a car occurred in St. Louis, Missouri, USA on June
17, 1946, using the Bell System's Mobile Telephone Service. The equipment weighed 80
pounds (36 kg), and the AT&T service, basically a massive party line, cost US$30 per month
(equal to $337.33 today) plus 30–40 cents per local call, equal to $3.37 to $4.5 today.
In 1956, the world’s first partly automatic car phone system, Mobile System A (MTA), was
launched in Sweden. MTA phones were composed of vacuum tubes and relays, and had a
weight of 40 kg. In 1962, a more modern version called Mobile System B (MTB) was
launched, which was a push-button telephone, and which used transistors to enhance the
telephone’s calling capacity and improve its operational reliability, thereby reducing the
weight of the apparatus to 10 kg. In 1971, the MTD version was launched, opening for
several different brands of equipment and gaining commercial success.
Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher and executive is considered to be the inventor of the
first practical mobile phone for handheld use in a non-vehicle setting, after a long race
against Bell Labs for the first portable mobile phone. Using a modern, if somewhat heavy
portable handset, Cooper made the first call on a handheld mobile phone on April 3, 1973
to his rival, Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs.
The first commercially automated cellular network (the 1G) was launched in Japan by NTT
in 1979, initially in the metropolitan area of Tokyo. Within five years, the NTT network had

14. been expanded to cover the whole population of Japan and became the first nationwide 1G
network. In 1981, this was followed by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile
Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. NMT was the first
mobile phone network featuring international roaming. The first 1G network launched in
the USA was Chicago-based Ameritech in 1983 using the Motorola DynaTAC mobile phone.
Several countries then followed in the early-to-mid 1980s including the UK, Mexico and
Canada.

The first "modern" network technology on digital 2G (second generation) cellular
technology was launched by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Group) in 1991 in Finland on the
GSM standard, which also marked the introduction of competition in mobile telecoms when
Radiolinja challenged incumbent Telecom Finland (now part of TeliaSonera) who ran a 1G
NMT network.
In 2001, the launch of 3G (Third Generation) was again in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the
WCDMA standard.
[

One of the newest 3G technologies to be implemented is High-Speed Downlink Packet
Access (HSDPA). It is an enhanced 3G (third generation) mobile telephony communications
protocol in the high-speed packet access (HSPA) family, also coined 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G,
which allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to
have higher data transfer speeds and capacity.
A mobile phone allows calls into the public switched telephone system over a radio link.
Early mobile phones were usually bulky and permanently installed in vehicles; they
provided limited service because only a few frequencies were available for a geographic
area. Modern cellular "cell" phones or hand phones make use of the cellular network
concept, where frequencies are re-used repeatedly within a city area, allowing many more
users to share access to the radio bandwidth. A mobile phone allows calls to be placed over
a wide geographic area; generally the user is a subscriber to the phone service and does not
own the base station. By contrast, a cordless telephone is used only within the range of a
single, private base station.
A mobile phone can make and receive telephone calls to and from the public telephone
network which includes other mobiles and fixed-line phones across the world. It does this
by connecting to a cellular network provided by a mobile network operator.
In addition to telephony, modern mobile phones also support a wide variety of other
services such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless
communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, gaming and photography.
Mobile phones that offer these more general computing capabilities are referred to as
smartphones.
The first hand-held mobile phone was demonstrated by Dr Martin Cooper of Motorola in
1973, using a handset weighing 2 1/2 lbs (about 1 kg) In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was

15. the first to be commercially available. In the twenty years from 1990 to 2010, worldwide
mobile phone subscriptions grew from 12.4 million to over 4.6 billion, penetrating the
developing economies and reaching the bottom of the economic pyramid.
1G
1G (or 1-G) refers to the first-generation of wireless telephone technology, mobile
telecommunications. These are the analog telecommunications standards that were
introduced in the 1980s and continued until being replaced by 2G digital
telecommunications. The main difference between two succeeding mobile telephone
systems, 1G and 2G, is that the radio signals that 1G networks use are analog, while 2G
networks are digital.
Although both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which listen to the
handsets) to the rest of the telephone system, the voice itself during a call is encoded to
digital signals in 2G whereas 1G is only modulated to higher frequency, typically 150 MHz
and up.
One such standard is NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone), used in Nordic countries,
Switzerland, Netherlands, Eastern Europe and Russia. Others include AMPS (Advanced
Mobile Phone System) used in the North America and Australia,
[1]
TACS (Total Access
Communications System) in the United Kingdom, C-450 in West Germany, Portugal and
South Africa, Radiocom 2000
[2]
in France, and RTMI in Italy. In Japan there were multiple
systems. Three standards, TZ-801, TZ-802, and TZ-803 were developed by NTT, while a
competing system operated by DDI used the JTACS (Japan Total Access Communications
System) standard.
Antecedent to 1G technology is the mobile radio telephone, or 0G.

16. 2G
2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation wireless telephone technology. Second
generation 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard
in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991.
[1]
Three primary benefits of 2G
networks over their predecessors were that phone conversations were digitally encrypted;
2G systems were significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater
mobile phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with
SMS text messages.
After 2G was launched, the previous mobile telephone systems were retrospectively
dubbed 1G. While radio signals on 1G networks are analog, radio signals on 2G networks
are digital. Both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which listen to
the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system.
2G has been superseded by newer technologies such as 2.5G, 2.75G, 3G, and 4G; however,
2G networks are still used in many parts of the world.


3G
3G or 3rd generation mobile telecommunications is a generation of standards for mobile
phones and mobile telecommunication services fulfilling the International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International
Telecommunication Union.
[1]
Application services include wide-area wireless voice
telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls and mobile TV, all in a mobile environment.
To meet the IMT-2000 standards, a system is required to provide peak data rates of at least
200 kbit/s. Recent 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also provide mobile
broadband access of several Mbit/s to smartphones and mobile modems in laptop
computers.

17. The following standards are typically branded 3G:
the UMTS system, first offered in 2001, standardized by 3GPP, used primarily in
Europe, Japan, China (however with a different radio interface) and other regions
predominated by GSM 2G system infrastructure. The cell phones are typically UMTS
and GSM hybrids. Several radio interfaces are offered, sharing the same
infrastructure:
o The original and most widespread radio interface is called W-CDMA.
o The TD-SCDMA radio interface was commercialised in 2009 and is only
offered in China.
o The latest UMTS release, HSPA+, can provide peak data rates up to 56 Mbit/s
in the downlink in theory (28 Mbit/s in existing services) and 22 Mbit/s in
the uplink.
the CDMA2000 system, first offered in 2002, standardized by 3GPP2, used especially
in North America and South Korea, sharing infrastructure with the IS-95 2G
standard. The cell phones are typically CDMA2000 and IS-95 hybrids. The latest
release EVDO Rev B offers peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s downstream.
The above systems and radio interfaces are based on kindred spread spectrum radio
transmission technology. While the GSM EDGE standard ("2.9G"), DECT cordless phones
and Mobile WiMAX standards formally also fulfill the IMT-2000 requirements and are
approved as 3G standards by ITU, these are typically not branded 3G, and are based on
completely different technologies.
A new generation of cellular standards has appeared approximately every tenth year since
1G systems were introduced in 1981/1982. Each generation is characterized by new
frequency bands, higher data rates and non backwards compatible transmission
technology. The first release of the 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard does not
completely fulfill the ITU 4G requirements called IMT-Advanced. First release LTE is not
backwards compatible with 3G, but is a pre-4G or 3.9G technology, however sometimes
branded "4G" by the service providers. Its evolution LTE Advanced is a 4G technology.
WiMAX is another technology verging on or marketed as 4G.

4G
In telecommunications, 4G is the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is a
successor to the 3G and 2G families of standards. In 2009, the ITU-R organization specified
the IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for
4G standards, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 Mbit/s for high

18. mobility communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1 Gbit/s for low mobility
communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users).
[1]

A 4G system is expected to provide a comprehensive and secure all-IP based mobile
broadband solution to laptop computer wireless modems, smartphones, and other mobile
devices. Facilities such as ultra-broadband Internet access, IP telephony, gaming services,
and streamed multimedia may be provided to users.
4G technologies such as mobile WiMAX and first-release Long term evolution (LTE) have
been on the market since 2006
[2]
and 2009
[3][4][5]
respectively. The ITU announced in
December 2010 that WiMax, LTE, and HSPA+ are 4G technologies.
[6]

IMT-Advanced compliant versions of the above two standards are under development and
called “LTE Advanced” and “WirelessMAN-Advanced” respectively. ITU has decided that
“LTE Advanced” and “WirelessMAN-Advanced” should be accorded the official designation
of IMT-Advanced. On December 6, 2010, ITU announced that current versions of LTE,
WiMax and other evolved 3G technologies that do not fulfill "IMT-Advanced" requirements
could be considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced and "a
substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial
third generation systems now deployed.