Ceramics and clay products

*contents
Ceramics (classification)
Clay products employed in building industry.
Tiles
Terracotta
Earthenware
Stoneware
Porcelain
Bricks
Manufacturing process of common tiles.
Types of common tiles used in building industries.
Characteristics of good tiles

1. Contents Ceramics (classification) Clay products employed in building industry. Tiles Terracotta Earthenware Stoneware Porcelain Bricks Manufacturing process of common tiles. Types of common tiles used in building industries. Characteristics of good tiles

2. Ceramics A  ceramic  is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling.  Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous (e.g., a glass). Ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products and a wide range of ceramic art. 

3. The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects, made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials, hardened in fire. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create a colored , smooth surface. A  Ming Dynasty  porcelain vase dated to 1403–1424

4. This category of materials includes things like tile, bricks, plates, glass, and toilets .

5. CERAMIC TILES

6. Properties They are hard and brittle Strong in compression Weak in shearing and tension Withstands chemical erosion due to acidic or caustic environments Withstands high temperatures

7. Types of ceramic products Structural Refractories White wares Technical

8. STRUCTURAL These type of ceramics demonstrate enhanced mechanical properties under demanding conditions Because they serve as structural members,often being subjected to mechanical loading,they are given the name structural ceramics

9. This type of ceramics include bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles.

10. Ceramic Roof Tiles

11. Refractories A refractory material is one that can retain its strength at high temperatures They are used in linings for furnaces, kilns, incinerators and reactors. The oxides of aluminium, silicon and magnesium are the most important materials used in the manufacturing of refractories .

12. Refractories

13. White Wares This is a class of products that includes porcelain, china, pottery, stoneware and vitreous tile. They are white to off-white in appearance and often contain a significant glossy or vitreous component. Imperviousness to fluids, low conductivity to electricity, chemical inertness and an ability to be formed into complex shapes are its properties.

14. Stoneware

15. Vitreous tiles Porcelain

16. Technical It is also known as engineering, advanced or special ceramics. It includes tiles used in space shuttles, missile nose cones, ceramic disk brakes etc. It can be classified into three material categories. Oxides- alumina, beryllia , ceria, zirconia Non-oxides- carbide, bioride , nitride, silicide Composite material- combination of oxides and non-oxides.

17. Types of Ceramic Products Crystalline ceramics Non-crystalline ceramics

18. Crystalline ceramics These are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories- Either make the desired shape by reaction in situ, or by forming powders into the desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid body. Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand, slip casting, tape casting etc.

19. Crystalline Ceramic

20. Non- crystalline Ceramics Non-crystalline ceramics, being glass tend to be formed from melts.The glass is shaped when in a state of toffee like viscosity. Methods like blowing into a mould is used. Later heat treatments cause this glass to become partly crystalline and this material is know as glass ceramic whhich is widely used for cooktops .

21. Ceramic Cooking Pot

22. Clay products employed in building industry.

23. 1.TERRA COTTA

24. TERRACOTTA  a type of earthenware , is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic, where the fired body is porous. Its uses include vessels (notably flower pots), water and waste water pipes, bricks, and surface embellishment in building construction, along with sculpture such as the Terracotta Army and Greek terracotta figurines. The term is also used to refer to items made out of this material and to its natural, brownish orange color, which varies 

25. Terracotta designs outside the Kantajew Temple, Dinajpur , Bangladesh

26. - Fired clay - Typically hollow, formed by pressing clay into a mould, by hollowing out portions of a solid, or by extruding it. - Usually low-fired - Typically a reddish, unglazed ceramic material. It may also be a hard-fired glazed or unglazed ceramic material. - Durable (dependent upon the degree of firing) - Fireproof - Strong Characteristics of Terra cotta

27. Types of Terra cotta: Brownstone terra cotta  Fireproof construction terra cotta Ceramic veneer terra cotta Glazed architectural terra cotta

28. Glazed architectural terra cotta

29. Ceramic veneer terra cotta

30.     Fireproof construction terra cotta

31. Brownstone terra cotta

32. TYPICAL USES Typical historical uses for terra cotta included: -    Sculpture -    Unglazed units used for structural purposes -    Glazed units for building exteriors

33. STONEWARE Stoneware is a vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic made primarily from stoneware clay or non-refractory fire clay. Stoneware is fired at high temperatures. It is nonporous and so does not need a glaze

34. TYPES OF STONE WARE Traditional stoneware Fine stoneware Chemical stoneware Thermal shock resistant stoneware Electrical stoneware

35. Traditional stoneware - a dense and inexpensive body. It is opaque, can be of any colour and breaks with a conchoidal or stony fracture. Traditionally made of fine-grained secondary, plastic clays which can used to shape very large pieces. Fine stoneware - made from more carefully selected, prepared, and blended raw materials. It is used to produce tableware and art ware. Chemical stoneware - used in the chemical industry, and when resistance to chemical attack is needed. Purer raw materials are used than for other stoneware bodies. Ali Baba is a popular name for a large chemical stoneware jars of up to 5,000 litres capacity used to store acids. Thermal shock resistant stoneware – has additions of certain materials to enhance the thermal shock resistance of the fired body. Electrical stoneware - historically used for electrical insulators, although it has been replaced by electrical porcelain.

36. STONE WARE IN ARCHITECTURE

37. 2. TILES

38. TILES : A  tile  is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic,  stone , or even glass. Tiles are generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls, showers, or other objects such as tabletops.

39. Historically, man has desired to create living spaces which were beautiful, durable, and user friendly. with that in mind, ceramic tile has been made by man for 4000 years. Beautiful tiled surfaces have been found in the oldest pyramids, the ruins of Babylon, and ancient ruins of Greek cities. Decorative tile work was invented in the near east, where it has enjoyed a longer popularity and assumed a greater variety of design than anywhere in the world. During the Islamic period, all methods of tile decoration were brought to perfection in Persia. ORIGIN

40. Painted and glazed tile of around 880 B.C, Nimrud. glazed bricks relief tile wall, from the palace of Persepolis around 518 B.C. Iran Glazed bricks relief tile wall, the Ishtar gate at Babylon, around 575 B.C. ,Iraq. Relief tile of the early 13th century, Afghanistan

41. Manufacture : The raw materials used to create tiles are all found in the ground. These raw materials, like clay is quarried and refined. They are then mixed. A dry mixture of clay, Magnesium silicate and other ingredients are pressed into a mould, and then fired at an extremely high temperature. The ingredients used in this process are slightly wet. They are forced through a nozzle, which forms the tile’s shape. Other methods of creating tiles are slush mould and beehive kilns.

42. Types of Tiles : There are many types of tiles used for residential and commercial applications.  Roof tiles Floor tiles Pebble tiles Ceiling tiles Wall tiles

43. Roofing Tiles : Roof tiles are designed mainly to keep out rain, and are traditionally made from locally available materials such as clay or slate. Flat tiles - the simplest type, which are laid in regular overlapping

44. These are commonly made of ceramic or stone. Recent technological advances have resulted in rubber or glass tiles for floors as well. Flooring tiles :

45. Pebble tiles :   Pebble Tiles  is a  composite material  made up of  marble  pebbles or pieces of natural stone in different sizes, bound together with a transparent white or colored  resin .

46. Ceiling tiles Ceiling tiles are type of tiles used for covering ceilings of rooms. Suspended ceilings Acoustic Ceilings Decorative Ceiling Tile

47. Wall Tiles: The concept behind using wall tiles is decorating the interior of a home without adding much stuff to the home.

48. USES OF TILE

49. Here are some places around the home that can benefit from tile applications. COUNTER BATHROOM BACKSPLASH FLOORING WALL ACCENTS EXTERIOR Uses:

50. COUNTER Ceramic tile is among the most common materials for kitchen countertops. Because it's hard and water-resistant, it holds up extremely well to the moist and often humid environment of the kitchen.

51. BATHROOM: Mostly used on floor They are also commonly used in walls.

52. BACKSPLASH : Almost all backsplashes are made of tile because of its natural water resistance. Some people prefer stone or marble, but these are expensive materials.

53. FLOORING : Tile is one of the cheapest flooring options, especially compared to popular materials such as hardwood and marble. Most tiles can withstand heavy use in living rooms and the heat and moisture of bathrooms.

54. WALL ACCENTS: Small decorative tiles make great accents for walls, counters, and flooring. They usually come in stronger, deeper colours and feature interesting patterns, often to complement the colour of bigger tiles.

55. EXTERIOR: Some tiles can actually be used on the exterior walls of your home. These are usually decorative ones made to look like natural materials, such as wood and stone. They make great alternatives to exterior painting, since they don't fade and can withstand most outdoor elements.

56. 3.EARTHENWARES

57. Earthenware  is the term for pottery that has not been fired to the point of vitrification and is thus porous. Many types of pottery have been made from it from the earliest times. Until the 18th century it was the most common type of pottery outside the far East.

58. Earthenware is a type of clay that when fired to make pottery is soft and can be scratched with a knife. It is opaque and has an earthy or granular fracture. It is generally easier to shape on the wheel than porcelain. Due to its porosity earthenware must be glazed in order to be watertight.

59. Earthenware articles may be thick and heavy or as thin as bone china and porcelain, though they are not translucent and are more easily chipped. They are less strong than stoneware.

60. Earthenware may be biscuit (or "bisque") fired to temperatures between 1000 and 1150 °C (1800 and 2100 °F) and glost -fired(or "glaze-fired")to between 950 to 1,050 °C (1,740 to 1,920 °F), the usual practice in factories and some studio potteries. Some studio potters follow the reverse practice, with a low-temperature bisque firing and a high-temperature glost firing.The firing temperature will be determined by the raw materials used and the desired characteristics of the finished ware.

61. After firing most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red. For red earthenware, the firing temperature affects the color of the clay body. Lower temperatures produce a typical red terracotta colour ; higher temperatures will make the clay brown or even black. Every clay has a temperature at which the body becomes weak and sags. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat.

62. Earthenware comprises "all primitive pottery whatever the colour , all terra-cottas, most building bricks, nearly all European pottery up to the seventeenth century, most of the wares of Egypt, Persia and the near East; Greek, Roman and Mediterranean, and some of the Chinese; and the fine earthenware which forms the greater part of our tableware today

63. 5.porcelain

64. Porcelain  (also known as  china  or  fine china ) is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including clay in the form of kaolin , in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 ° C. Porcelain can informally be referred to as "china" or "fine china.

65. Properties associated with porcelain include low  permeability  Elasticity considerable   strength Hardness Toughness Whiteness translucency   resonance and a high resistance to chemical attack and thermal shock.

66. methods Forming Glazing Decoration Firing

67. A  brick  is a  block  or a single unit of a kneaded clay-bearing soil, sand and lime, or concrete material, fire hardened or air dried, used in masonry  construction

68. Fired bricks are burned in a kiln which makes them durable. Modern, fired, clay bricks are formed in one of three processes – soft mud, dry press, or extruded. Normally, brick contains the following ingredients: [16] Silica (sand) – 50% to 60% by weight Alumina (clay) – 20% to 30% by weight Lime – 2 to 5% by weight Iron oxide – ≤ 7% by weight Magnesia – less than 1% by weight

69. materials The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the clay mineral  kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay,glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse and alabaster.

70. The clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive (sticky) and have high plasticity short clays are less cohesive and have lower plasticity. 

71. Porcelain can be divided into the three main categories: hard-paste soft-paste bone china (depending on the composition of the paste, the material used to form the body of a porcelain object and the firing conditions.)

72. Soft paste porcelain It is to replicate Chinese porcelain by using mixtures of clay and ground-up glass (frit) to produce soft-paste porcelain. Soapstone and lime were known to have been included in these compositions. Eg .

73. Hard paste porcelain they were formed from a paste composed ofkaolin and alabaster and fired at temperatures up to 1,400 °C in a wood-fired kiln, producing a porcelain of great hardness, translucency, and strength. Eg .

74. Bone china bone china was made from two parts of bone-ash, one part of kaolin clay and one part china stone, although this has largely been replaced by feldspars from non-UK sources .

75. Bathroom fittings Because of its durability, inability to rust and nonporous nature (porcelain has an absorption rate of less than .5%), glazed porcelain has been in use for personal hygiene . porcelain chamber pots were commonly found in higher-class European households Porcelain toilet bowls, bidets and basins are still produced,   though the tougher stoneware  is more common. However bath tubs are not made of porcelain, but often of so-called porcelain enamel on a metal base, usually of cast iron.

76. 6.BRICKS

77. Dry pressed brick The dry press method is similar to the soft mud brick method, but starts with a much thicker clay mix, so it forms more accurate, sharper-edged bricks. The greater force in pressing and the longer burn make this method more expensive.

78. Chemically set bricks Calcium silicate brick nd concrete brick

79. Uses of brick Bricks are used for building,  block paving  and  pavement . Bricks in the  metallurgy  and  glass  industries are often used for lining  furnaces .

80. Manufacturing of common tiles

81. Raw materials The main raw materials used in this process of making the tiles are: clay minerals mined from the earth's crust natural minerals such as feldspar that are used to lower the firing temperature chemical additives required for the shaping process. The raw materials must be pulverized and classified according to particle size. The step by step process is as follows : 1. Mixing the ingredients: 2. Secondary crushing 3. Third particle size reduction

82. Processing the tile

83. Batching For many ceramic products, including tile, the body composition is determined by the amount and type of raw materials. The raw materials also determine the color of the tile body, depending on the amount of iron-containing raw materials used. Batch calculations are thus required, which must take into consideration both physical properties and chemical compositions of the raw materials.

84. Once the ingredients are weighed, they are added together into a shell mixer, ribbon mixer , or intensive mixer . A shell mixer consists of two cylinders joined into a V, which rotates to tumble and mix the material. A ribbon mixer uses helical vanes, and an intensive mixer uses rapidly revolving plows. Sometimes it is necessary to add water to improve the mixing of a multiple-ingredient batch as well as to achieve fine grinding. This process is called wet milling and is often performed using a ball mill. The resulting water-filled mixture is called a slurry or slip . Mixing and grinding

85. Spray drying If wet milling is first used, the excess water is usually removed via spray drying. This involves pumping the slurry to an atomizer consisting of a rapidly rotating disk or nozzle. Droplets of the slip are dried as they are heated by a rising hot air column, forming small, free flowing granules that result in a powder suitable for forming.

86. Forming

87. Most tile is formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing powder—containing organic binder or a low percentage of moisture—flows from a hopper into the forming die. The material is compressed in a steel cavity by steel plungers and is then ejected by the bottom plunger. Automated presses are used with operating pressures as high as 2,500 tons.  Extrusion  plus punching is used to produce irregularly shaped tile and thinner tile faster and more economically. This involves compacting a plastic mass in a high-pressure cylinder and forcing the material to flow out of the cylinder into short slugs. These slugs are then punched into one or more tiles using hydraulic or pneumatic punching presses. Ram pressing is often used for heavily profiled tiles. With this method, extruded slugs of the tile body are pressed between two halves of a hard or porous mold mounted in a hydraulic press. The formed part is removed by first applying vacuum to the top half of the mold to free the part from the bottom half, followed by forcing air through the top half to free the top part. Excess material must be removed from the part and additional finishing may be needed.Another process, called pressure glazing, has recently been developed. This process combines glazing and shaping simultaneously by pressing the glaze (in spray-dried powder form) directly in the die filled with the tile body powder. Advantages include the elimination of glazing lines, as well as the glazing waste material ( called sludge ) that is produced with the conventional method.

88. Drying

89. Ceramic tile usually must be dried (at high relative humidity) after forming, especially if a wet method is used. Drying, which can take several days, removes the water at a slow enough rate to prevent shrinkage cracks. Continuous or tunnel driers are used that are heated using gas or oil, infrared lamps, or microwave energy. Infrared drying is better suited for thin tile, whereas microwave drying works better for thicker tile. Another method, impulse drying, uses pulses of hot air flowing in the transverse direction instead of continuously in the material flow direction.

90. Glazing After a batch formulation is calculated, the raw materials are weighed, mixed and dry or wet milled. In centrifugal glazing or discing , the glaze is fed through a rotating disc that flings or throws the glaze onto the tile. In the bell/waterfall method, a stream of glaze falls onto the tile as it passes on a conveyor underneath. Sometimes, the glaze is simply sprayed on. For multiple glaze applications, screen printing on, under, or between tile that have been wet glazed is used. In this process, glaze is forced through a screen by a rubber squeegee or other device. Dry glazing is also being used. This involves the application of powders, crushed  frits  (glass materials), and granulated glazes onto a wet-glazed tile surface. After firing, the glaze particles melt into each other to produce a surface like granite.

91. Firing After glazing, the tile must be heated intensely to strengthen it and give it the desired porosity. Two types of ovens, orAfter forming, the file is dried slowly (for several days) and at high humidity, to prevent cracking and shrinkage. Next, the glaze is applied, and then the tile is fired in a furnace or kiln. Although some types of tile require a two-step firing process, wet-milled tile is fired only once, at temperatures of 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit or more. Wall tile, or tile that is prepared by dry grinding instead of wet milling (see #2 and #3 above), usually requires a two-step process. In this process, the tile goes through a low-temperature firing called bisque firing before glazing. This step removes the volatiles from the material and most or all of the shrinkage. The body and glaze are then fired together in a process called glost firing. Both firing processes take place in a tunnel or continuous kiln, which consists of a chamber through which the ware is slowly moved on a conveyor on refractory batts —shelves built of materials that are resistant to high temperatures—or in containers called saggers .

92. COMMON TYPES OF TILES

93. TILES There are several types of tiles used for residential and commercial applications. Tiles provide one of the most cost-effective and environmentally friendly flooring choices. Tiles are made from natural clay and often from other (recycled) materials. Tile manufacturing does not necessitate the use of heavy chemicals or other harmful substances used to make other flooring types. There are no trees to be cut down as with hardwood floors, and the best part is that tiles are durable and have a long lifespan.

94. COMMON TYPES OF TILES CERAMIC ( QUARRY UNGLAZED, PORCELAIN, TILE MOSAICS, MARBLE ) NATURAL STONE TILES (GRANITE,SLATE, TRAVERTINE,MARBLE,ONYX,SANDSTONE)

95. CERAMIC TILES Ceramic tile comes in two forms: glazed and unglazed. Unglazed tile is referred to as quarry tile. Ceramic tiles are made from clay and then heated.

96. QUARRY ( UNGLAZED) TILE  Inexpensive, durable and natural option for industrial, commercial and residential tile applications. Quarry tile is used a lot in industrial settings because it is so durable and can also be used outdoors.

97. It has some other great qualities as well, such as being less prone to chips and scratches. In colder climates, freeze-resistant grades of quarry tile are used to prevent any weather-related problems. Like almost all tile types, quarry is porous, which means that it can become stained

98. PORCELAIN TILE

99.  The difference between porcelain and ceramic is that porcelain is fired at a higher temperature, making it more dense and moisture-resistant. Porcelain tiles are also less porous, making them more stain-resistant. For these reasons, most porcelain tiles are suitable for both indoor and outdoor installations.

100. Porcelain tiles are hard to cut due to their density and hardness, so the cost and labor involved is often higher. Porcelain tiles are available in matte, unglazed or a high-polished finish. In recent years, the prices have become closer to those of ceramic tile.

101. TILE MOSAIC

102.  Mosaics are most commonly used for smaller areas, such as a bathroom or kitchen backsplash, or even small counter space areas. Mosaic tiles are usually less than six square inches and made of porcelain or clay composition. Many come in squares, octagons, hexagons or other unique shapes. The tiles are also available in pre-mounted paper or fabric mesh sheets. 

103. MARBLE TILE

104. Marble is a versatile natural stone which has been used for centuries in homes to create a luxurious and unique look. Because marble is a natural stone, there are variations in the color of each tile. Many homeowners like this, as it creates a unique, one-of-a-kind design, while others prefer a more consistent look, like ceramic tile. Marble is porous and must be sealed just like all other tile types.

105. NATURAL TILES Natural Stone Tiles There are several types of natural stone tiles which are used for flooring, walls and more. These include: Granite Slate Travertine Onyx Sandstone Marble

106. GRANITE

107. Granite tiles are naturally antibacterial and aren’t damaged by water contact ,this is why they are such a great choice for kitchen and bathroom applications. Granite – Granite has been used for countertops for years, and it is also used for shower walls and bathroom counters

108. SLATE Slate  is a fine-grained, rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade regional metamorphism. Slate tiles are growing in popularity due to their versatility. They are even used as roofing shingles. Slate is a natural material and is available in several color ranges, from gray to purple to black. Slate is used outside as well as inside because of its natural look and range of colors.

109. TRAVERTINE

110. Travertine  is a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs, especially hot springs. Travertine often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in white, tan, cream-colored, and even rusty varieties Travertine – Travertine is natural beige stone and is used for bathroom flooring, kitchen backsplashes, shower mosaics and more.

111. ONYX Onyx  is a banded variety of chalcedony. The colors of its bands range from white to almost every color (save some shades, such as purple or blue) Onyx – Onyx is well known for its creamy, pearl-like look. Onyx is not a common choice for flooring, but it is used on some occasions. It is used more frequently for skirting around bathtubs and mosaics.

112. SANDSTONE A sedimentary rock formed of  sand -sized grains that have been either compacted or cemented together. Sandstone is extremely durable, has a grainy look and feel It is often used for wall applications.

113. MARBLE

114. Marble is a versatile natural stone which has been used for centuries in homes to create a luxurious and unique look. Because marble is a natural stone, there are variations in the color of each tile. Many homeowners like this, as it creates a unique, one-of-a-kind design, while others prefer a more consistent look, like ceramic tile. Marble is porous and must be sealed just like all other tile types.

115. Characteristics of a good tile

116. RESISTANCE TO ABRASION

117. this is the basic parameter which determines the choice of a floor tile for the given premise. It specifies the resistance of the tile to mechanical damage resulting from the impact of the abrasive factor. The greater the hardness of the tile is, the lower its susceptibility to scratching, wear and tear during walking and abrasions etc.   The resistance to abrasion  consists in the specification of the number of rotations of the device that rubs the surface of the glazed tile after which the permanent traces of abrasion become visible

118. Water Absorption Properly installed and grouted, ceramic tiles are an excellent choice for use in wet areas. But while the glaze of ceramic tiles is nonporous, a glaze tile may absorb water through its body. Any glazed or unglazed ceramic tile that absorbs more than 3% moisture is unsuitable for outdoor usage in climates where freezing conditions may occur.

119. Bathroom tiles

120. Kitchen tiles

121. FREEZE-RESISTANCE Freeze resistance is directly relevant to water absorption in ceramic tiles. The less water a ceramic tile absorbs, the greater its frost resistance. Exterior applications require highly frost resistant tiles. Often, porcelain tiles become the material of choice for such conditions.

122. Fire Resistance Due to a noncombustible composition, ceramic tiles are completely fireproof at any temperature. They work especially well around open flames, hot objects (crockery, barbecues, etc. A ceramic tile surface will not alter, nor will they produce any toxic gases, smoke or fumes during a fire. Ceramic tiles will not burn or feed to a fire in any way. They also act as a protection for structural surfaces.

123. Mechanical characteristics Resistance to loads, such as the weight of people and furniture to which floor tiles may be subjected and which they should be able to bear without suffering damage. The tiles are tested for these mechanical characteristics: resistance to bending and bending breaking load.

124. RESISTANCE TO LOADS The loads usually vary from heavy cots and fridges in household tiles and heavy vehicles in garage etc.

125. Chipping off of tiles due to heavy load

126. Chemical characteristics Resistance to the corrosive or staining action of substances that may come into contact with the tile surface. These chemical characteristics are tested: Resistance to staining , Resistance to household chemicals, and Resistance to acids and alkaline.

127. RUST FORMATION ON TILES

128. Many tiles are prone to rust and bleach when they come in contact with certain chemicals or remain in contact with water for too long.

129. BLEACH OF TILES

130. Safety characteristics The parameter used for slip resistance is called the Coefficient of Friction (COF). The higher the COF, the better the slip resistance of the tiles. Unglazed tiles, mosaic tiles and rough surfaced tiles are less slippery when compared with smooth and glossy glazed tiles. Therefore, these are recommended to be used in industrial, kitchen, bathroom floor and swimming pool areas.

131. SLIP RESISTANT TILES The groves provide more friction and these type of tiles are used for pavements and verandas.

132. STAIN RESISTANCE Tile that are stain resistant are hygienic and easily cleaned. Glazed ceramic tiles resist stains because of their glazed surface. Porcelain tiles are made stain resistant because of their compactness or low water absorption characteristics.

133. Project done by, Ansaba Backer Kishor Dibyorup Nida Noorain Sowmithra Poluri Jyothi Gopika Viswanathan Niranjana