Ch. 20 collapse at the center

Powerpoint lecture based on Strayer's 3rd edition Ways of the World for AP-Honors World History students. Covers WWI, Great Depression, Rise of Fascism, WWII and aftermath.

1. Chapter 20 Collapse at the Center: World War, Depression and the Rebalancing of Global Power, 1914-1970 1

2. The First World War: European Civilization in Crisis, 1914 – 1918

3. Causes of the Great War Competition for materials and markets Needed to feed the industrial systems of European nations, it sparked rivalries. Great Britain, long time leader, was challenged by a growing Germany. An Accident Waiting to Happen Nationalism and territorial disputes in Europe Territorial disputes arose from competing nations. France resented Germany for taking Alsace-Lorraine during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. Austria-Hungary and Russia competed for dominance of the Balkans. Nationalist movements among the Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians and other ethnic groups further increased tensions in the Balkans. Imperialism Imperialism, the fierce competition for colonies in Africa and Asia by the countries of Europe, often pushed European nations to the brink of war. Their sense of mistrust and rivalry increased with every overseas dispute. Militarism policy of glorifying military power and keeping an army prepared for war, was increasing as nationalism led to a dangerous European arms race. By 1914 all the great nations of Europe (except Great Britain) had large standing armies due in part to conscription or a military draft. European armies doubled in size between 1890 to 1914. When war broke out, the British government urged women to shame men not in uniforms with the gift of a white feather for cowardice. With these large armies also came detailed plans for mobilizing and moving these armies quickly. Military leaders become very influential and consequently shape foreign relations. Alliances Tangled alliances, originally designed to keep peace in Europe, would push Europe toward war. It ensured that a large and costly war would ensue. The alliance system drew the Ottoman Empire in on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary (opening up several theaters of fighting in this empire) and the German attack on American shipments to Britain drew the United States into the war as well. The French and British used colonial troops from Africa and Asia and also placed demands on China for assistance. By the turn of the 20 th century, an intense rivalry between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Russia, Italy and France developed. Several factors led to the increasing competition and ultimate war.

4. At the turn of the 20 th century, heightened nationalism ensured that any future European war would be big, costly and long. Nationalism was strongest where the nation was least well-established and felt mostly in those regions where groups of people found themselves within a state that did not reflect their ethnic identities. Two kingdoms unified by a renewable 10 year treaty under one emperor with each having a prime minister. 4 Case in point, The Austro-Hungarian Empire… The empire was neither Austrian nor Hungarian, but made up of Croats, Czechs, Italians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Armenians, Bulgars, Greeks, Albanians and an assortment of Gypsies and Jews (when war broke out in 1914, mobilization orders had to be printed in 11 different languages.) Austro-Hungarian policy towards foreign nations could spark resentment among those ethnic groups within the empire (Italians, Greeks, Serbians and Romanians who lived under Hapsburg rule posed problems because each group had a nation with which to identify outside of the Empire.)

5. With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, former holdings on the Balkan Peninsula had managed to break free from Turkish rule and establish new nations: Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Romania and Serbia. An assertive Bulgaria and Serbia would prove to be trouble for Austria-Hungary’s internal politics. In contrast, Russia (mostly Slavic nations) would seek to promote Slavic nations like Serbia (the most assertive and powerful of the newly formed Balkan states) to strengthen and consequently gain an ally and satisfy Russian Slavic groups. However, both Austria-Hungary and Russia desired to gain control of the power vacuum created by the fall of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. 1908- Austria-Hungary annexed the Slavic areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbian nationalists were outraged. Russia provided empty promises of aid (Russia was totally unprepared for war or providing significant aid) to Serbia in a fight with Austria-Hungary over these lands. Germany supported Austria-Hungary in the dispute and consequently forced the Russians and the Serbians to back down. 5 Powder Keg of Europe 1912- First Balkan War- the Balkan League consisting of Montenegro, Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece attacked Turkey and consumed any remnants of the Ottoman Empire on continental Europe. This victory further increased Slavic pride and nationalism. 1913- Second Balkan War- with the backing of Austria-Hungary and eager to see the destruction of Serbia, Bulgaria attacked the strong Slavic nation. Aid to Serbia came from Greece, Montenegro, Romania and Turkey. Aid to Serbia came from Greece, Montenegro, Romania and Turkey. Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary were defeated and political lines were again redrawn on the maps to satisfy the victors. However, Serbia was not satisfied with the new lands and desired a port on the Adriatic. October of 1913, Serbia attacks Albania in an effort to gain that port. Austria-Hungary came to the aid of the Albanians and Russia held back their support of the Serbs. Serbia was forced to withdraw.

6. June 28, 1914: The spark that set off the war was the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian heir to the throne by Serbian nationalists during his visit to Sarajevo in Bosnia-Herzegovina. When he was killed, few could predict that within six weeks, a European-wide war would break out. The Spark that ignites the “Powder Keg” Assassination 6 Gavrillo Princip Archduke Frances Ferdinand

7. 7 The World in 1914

8. July 28, 1914- Russia mobilized against Austria-Hungary (last act of diplomacy and first act of war) July 30, 1914- Russia issues full mobilization orders against Austria-Hungary and Germany. August 1, 1914- Germany declares war on Russia. August 3, 1914- Germany declares war on France. Chain reaction ensues and by the end of the first week of war, 44 declarations of war and mobilization orders were issued. After the Explosion in the Balkans…

9. The Allied Powers (the Allies) consisted of Great Britain , France and Russia …later members would include Japan and Italy. The Central Powers (named for their central location in Europe) consisted of Germany , Austria-Hungary , Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire . Although Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance leading up to the war, they did not join the Central Powers, but instead declared neutrality. The Two Camps 9

10. Did you know that at the time of the First World War, the rulers of the world’s three greatest nations – King George V of Great Britain and Tsar Nicholas II of Russia on the one hand, and Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany on the other – were first cousins? Their grandmother was Queen Victoria. The German Kaiser said that if she were alive, she would never have allowed them to go to war with each other. Cousins at War 10 From left: Czar Nicholas II of Russia, King George V of Britain and Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany.

11. The Schlieffen Plan Created by Germany’s General Alfred Graf von Schlieffen, the plan solved the problem of a two front war with Russia in the East and France in the West. Plan called for a fast concentrated attack of France, invading thru Belgium, and quick victory. Once victorious on the western front, troops could be diverted to Russia in the east.

12. Assumptions of the Schlieffen Plan A quick campaign could be won in the west against France. The capture of a nation’s capital would result in an outright victory. The slow movement of Russian troops to the eastern front due to the lack of railroads. These assumptions would prove false because they did not take into consideration military technologies, the size of various armies, the difficulty of terrain and the popular effects of nationalism.

13. First Battle of the Marne Under General Helmuth von Moltke, the invasion of France began in August of 1914. The Germans moved quickly thru Belgium and Luxembourg and were on the outskirts of Paris by early September. French received intelligence on German movements and planned an attack in the valley of the Marne River. In order to get every available soldier to the front, General Joseph Joffre ordered more than 600 Parisian taxis to ferry the troops to the front. After 4 days of fighting, the Germans ordered retreat. A quick victory on the Western Front is no longer possible and a stalemate settles. TAXI!!!

14. The resulting stalemate after the First Battle of the Marne was caused by the necessity for trenches. A system of parallel trenches stretched from the North Sea to the Swiss boarder were established forming the Western Front. Trench Warfare

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16. To the trenches! Trench systems on the front lines were made up of 3 parallel lines. 16 fire trench- about 4 ft deep and built up with sandbags so the men could stand. The bottom of the trench ran a drainage runnel leading to sump pumps and covered with lengths of wooden ladder called duckboards. travel trench- Located about 20 yards from firing trench, it was a clear path for the quick movement of troops to needed points on the trench line. Although the shortest distance from point A to point B is a straight line, the travel trench was zigzagged to provide shelter in case of attack. support lines- More complex with kitchens, latrines, stores and mortar positions located at the end of short lead off trenches. They could be a matter of yards or miles away from the firing trench.

17. Home sweet Home Dug outs (shelters dug into the walls of the trenches) were where refuge could be found by the soldiers and were made homey with pictures, chairs, gramophones and news from home. The first picture on the left show soldiers with their chickens in front of their chicken coop dug out. 17

18. No Man’s Land 18 The land between to the two opposing front lines was known as “No Man’s Land.” This landscape was devastated by bombs, armed by landmines and made impassable by barriers of barbed wire. Bodies of the fallen often remained in the craters or tangled in the barbed wire to rot.

19. Weapons of World War I 19 New military technologies changed the way that wars were fought and made the Great War, a war of attrition.

20. It allowed armies to wipe out waves of attackers and made it difficult for forces to advance. The trenches were a result of the introduction of the machine gun on the battlefield. Machine guns

21. Poison Gas first used by Germans in April 1915, both sides used it. Some gases caused blinding or severe blisters, others caused death by choking. The trenches necessitated new ways to kill the enemy, new weapons and defenses are used. 21

22. 22 22 April 1915 On seeing the approach of the greenish-grey gas cloud during the Battle of Ypres, word was passed among the Canadian troops to urinate on their handkerchiefs and place these over their noses and mouths. The Germans were using chlorine gas. The Battle of Second Ypres

23. Tanks Developed to breach trenches, armored combat vehicles utilized on the fronts moved on chain tracks. First used by British (Mark IV) at the Battle of the Somme in 1916. They often got stuck on the rough terrain. 23 Old cavalry next to its replacement, British Mark IV British Mark IV stuck in no man’s land. Russian Tsar Tank did not use the caterpillar tracks but a tricycle design. It was a failure.

24. Mortars Mortars  were capable of lobbing projectiles in arcs to fall down upon the enemy. This meant the gunners could hit targets who were out of sight and protected by terrain or trenches from the firepower of cannons and handguns. 24 Big Bertha- Howitzer mortar armament manufactured by Krupp in Germany. Could hit targets up to 8 miles away. The Paris Gun, AKA- Emperor William’s Gun was the largest artillery of World War I. It was capable of hitting a target 81 miles away. This weapon was used on Paris from March to August of 1918 and was transported into place with railway tracks. Smaller mortars in the trenches were used by the Germans first to lob shells into the enemy trenches. British soldiers improvised a way to lob shells by using crossbows and catapults until mortar gun production began. Other smaller Railway Guns were used by both the Allies and the Central Powers

25. Airplanes Airplanes were first used in combat in World War I. At first hot air balloons were used for surveillance. Soon planes were used to take photographs. Eventually, both sides used them to drop bombs and guns were attached to the planes. 25 Early British surveillance biplane. German Albatross biplane with machine gun attached to nose. The 1917 Sopwith Camel biplane accounted for more aerial victories than any other allied airplane during WWI. The Camel got its name from the machine gun which was mounted in a hump forward of the pilot.

26. ACES Pilots fought each other in battles called “dog fights.” Fighter pilots were celebrated in the news and became famous for their victories. 26 Francesco Barrara – Italian Ace Manfred von Richtofen – German Ace known as the “Red Barron.” The iconic image of the “Red Barron” comes from World War I.

27. First used by Germans in 1914, it proved to be as effective as a warship. Known as U-boats, they waged unrestricted warfare on Allied ships , sinking any ship thought to be carrying supplies to the Allies. They used a self-propelled underwater missile called torpedoes. Dazzle camouflage, by covering ships’ hulls with startling stripes, swirls and irregular abstract shapes, one could momentarily confuse a German U-boat officer peering through a periscope. The patterns would make it more difficult to figure out the ship’s size, speed, distance and direction. Submarines 27 Unrestricted submarine warfare and the sinking of passenger liners resulting in loss of American lives was a catalyst to American entry into the war.

28. Germany seeks to control the Atlantic Ocean to stop supplies to Britain. Ships near Britain are sunk without warning. Passenger ship the Lusitania is sunk in May of 1915 and 128 Americans are killed. Germany will halt the policy of unrestricted warfare when the U.S. is angered at the loss of American lives. However, they announce unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917 in hopes of starving Britain. It was the renewal of the unrestricted submarine warfare policy and an effort to enlist Mexico into the war (Zimmerman Telegram) which angered the U.S. In response to the threat, the U.S. realized their policy of isolationism would no longer be possible and declared war against Germany in April 1917. Under the leadership of General John J. “Black Jack” Pershing, the AEF headed into battle in France. The AEF will not see combat until June of 1918 but will prove to be just what the Allies needed to win the war. 28 The Yanks are coming… Gen. Pershing, Zimmerman Telegram and Wilson addressing Congress and declaring war on Germany.

29. 29 The war shocked almost every observer. Most expected a short war that would be over within a few months. However, industrial technology did not make it a quick war but rather a war of attrition, with each side trying to bleed the other dry. The war saw a steady introduction of new and more brutal ways to kill, and because of this, battles could take the lives of over a million men. Because of the labor shortage, large numbers of women were brought into the workforce back on the home front.

30. Eastern Front Eastern Front was a battlefield which stretched along the German and Russian boarder. Russians and Serbs fought the Germans, Austrians and Turks. The fight on this front was characterized as being more mobile than on the Western Front. The statistics for the Eastern war are grim. More than three-million men died in the fighting, more than nine-million men were wounded, and every major country which participated lost its form of government. 30 Imperial Russian soldiers during WW1, (Cossacks). Cossacks were famous for their loyalty and devotion to the Russian Emperor and their bravery on the battlefield. Austro-Hungarian soldiers in Galicia, Ukraine. Russians moved faster to the Eastern front than expected and the first disastrous battle occurred at Tannenburg, East Prussia in August 1914. However, it resulted in a crushing defeat of the Russian 2 nd army and many captured.

31. The Russian Army of World War One has become notorious for its reputation as a large, ill-equipped force, yet in 1914, Russia's Imperial Troops were actually well trained and equipped. The real problem with the Russian Army lay in its inadequate transportation infrastructure, which was not able to supply and maintain Russian field formations at wartime establishments. As far as equipment was concerned, the average Russian soldier in the 1st and 2nd Line had sidearms, rifles and machine guns equal to his German counterparts, and probably superior to the Austrians. At the beginning of the war, Russia attacked Austria and Germany. However, by the end of August 1914, the Germans counter attack at Tannenberg sent the Russians in full retreat. The Russians were more successful against the Austrians in the beginning but once reinforced with German troops were pushed back once again. Due to the lack of industrialization, Russia was not able to keep up with the demands of a prolonged war. By 1916, Russian troops were chronically short of food, guns, ammunition, clothes, boots and blankets. Shipments from Allies were not possible because the Baltic and Black Seas were blockaded by the Germans and the Turks. Russia’s asset was its shear numbers. In 1915 alone, more than 2 million troops were killed, wounded or captured. 31 The Russians

32. By 1917, the Russian Army's officer corps was increasingly demoralized by the poor progress of the fighting. Though grossly outnumbered, the Germans had proven to be dangerous and cunning opponents. The repeated catastrophes suffered by Russian field armies squelched what patriotism had existed three years earlier, slowly allowing the entire governing system to fall apart. By March of that year, some Army units began ignoring their orders, a situation made worse as growing Communist rebel groups’ exaggerated reports of minor events such as the revolt of a Russian Guard depot formation at Petrograd (this famous mutiny was carried out by trainees and depot troops, not by fully trained Imperial Guardsmen). After the Tsar abdicated his throne that same month, a provisional government was formed with Alexander Kerensky at its head. He made a short-lived attempt to uphold Allied obligations by putting General Brusilov in command of another offensive against the German Southern Army in Galicia. But despite his best efforts, Brusilov's 1917 offensive only cleared a few mutinous Austrian formations out of the way before running into the brick wall of German general's Hoffman and Hutier, who first held off, then counter-attacked the hesitant Russian troops. This was the last straw for the Imperial Russian Army, which virtually disintegrated as open civil war swept like a wave across Russia. 32 The Russians cont’d…

33. In March of 1917, a revolution overthrowing the tsar changed the power structure in Russia. The provisional government upheld the previous government’s pledge to the war effort. Vladimir Lenin- was living in Zurich, Switzerland while the war was raging. After the February Revolution, Lenin realized that he could return home. With the help of a Communist party leader from Switzerland and the German government, arrangements were made for Lenin’s safe passage by rail through Germany. The Germans hoped that Lenin’s return would cause political unrest and bring an early end to the war on the Eastern Front. April, 16, 1917- Lenin arrives in Petrograd and quickly becomes a leader among the Bolsheviks. After a short stay in Finland (for safety), Lenin returns to Petrograd in October and helps lead a coup d’etat over the provisional government. The coup d’etat began on November 6, 1917 and became known as the October Revolution. November 8, 1917 – Lenin is elected and is leading the new Soviet government which continues to fight opposition from within the country. In order to focus attention on his internal fighting, Lenin made peace with Germany on March 3, 1918 by agreeing to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, under which Russia lost significant territories in Europe. 33 New Factors in the War

34. The exit of Russia from the war allowed the Germans to focus on one front, the Western Front. Germany sent all their resources toward the French and British lines in the Western Front. Between March and through to May, the Germans made a push so hard that they finally broke through the lines and were within 56 miles of Paris by June 3, 1918. This meant that large artillery guns like Big Bertha were well within range of the important city and was bombed, forcing many to flee the city. 34 Bombing of Paris 1918.

35. The Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive began on August 8, 1918. With the use of tanks, the Allies stopped the German advance at the battle of Amiens. General Erich von Ludendorff after the loss at Amiens begins to believe that the end of the war was near and advised Kaiser Wilhelm to seek terms for an end to the war. Total surrender by the Central Powers was the only outcome sought by the Allies. The main German defenses were anchored on the Hindenburg Line, a series of defensive fortifications stretching across northeastern France. Attacks on this German stronghold by the Allies including more than 1 million AEF troops) began in September and pushed the Germans into full retreat. 35 The Allied Counterattack

36. The armistice treaty (cease fire) between the Allies and Germany was signed in a railway carriage in Compiègne Forest on November 11, 1918, and marked the end of the war on the Western Front. Peace

37. Legacies of the War

38. The Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919) was the peace treaty which officially ended World War I. Held in Versailles’ Hall of Mirrors, the meeting was heavily influenced by President Wilson’s 14 points. Among his 14 points was the creation of an international peace keeping organization (League of Nations) to prevent future conflicts. The treaty that ended the war punished Germany rather harshly, taking away 15 percent of its territory and all of its colonies. Furthermore, Germany was blamed for the war (War Guilt Clause or Article 231) and forced to pay a massive sum in reparations. This only fostered great resentment within Germany, crippled their economy and directly led to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party. Treaty of Versailles

39. The horrors of the war led many to question European values and the legacy of the Enlightenment. Some even rejected the West. 39 The Postwar Era Mother ’ s Day versus flappers: Conservative forces tried to undo the cultural changes of the war. British authorities urged women to leave their new jobs, and in France, conservatives pushed Mother ’ s Day as a celebration of women who had little French boys for the army. However, the war induced major changes in women ’ s lives with many nations giving them the vote and new work opportunities. The postwar era was also the Jazz Age with liberated women dressing like “ flappers ” and drinking and dancing in night clubs, in sharp contrast to earlier conventions of bourgeois respectability. Roaring 20’s, Jazz Age flappers dancing the Charleston and other dance crazes.

40. Politically, the war redrew the map of Europe with numerous new states based on national identity in the east. Unfortunately they often contained ethnic minorities within their boundaries and were unstable. National self-determination in Europe 40

41. 41 The young Turk nationalist government had long been suspicious of the Armenians. Fearing that they might work with the Russians, they launched a campaign of deportations and murder against 1 million Armenians. As the war saw uprisings from various Arab groups, the Ottoman Empire collapsed. However, the new Turkish Republic with its young Turk leaders emerged from the ruins of the empire. Armenian Genocide, Ottoman collapse, and the rise of Turkey Armenians hung in front of a crowd in Constantinople before their forced removal to the desert began in 1915.

42. View from the colonies : Many in the colonies were stunned by the slaughter in Europe. In order to get support for the war, the French and British made promises for reforms and paths toward independence after the war. These promises were not kept. 42 Legacies of the War Japanese expansion in China : The Japanese expansionists used the war to move into German territory in China and place a series of demands on China. The unwillingness of the allies to check Japan turned many Chinese nationalists toward the new Soviet Union, the only power that spoke out against imperialism. Rise of the United States : The devastation in Europe and the American industrial expansion made the United States a new powerful player on the world stage. President Woodrow Wilson ’ s optimistic efforts to create a new and just world order raised America ’ s diplomatic profile, despite the fact that the U.S. never joined the League of Nations. President Woodrow Wilson

43. Capitalism Unraveling: The Great Depression 43

44. Capitalism ’ s mixed track record: Prior to the Great Depression, capitalism had a mixed track record. While it did create the world ’ s most impressive period of growth, wealth was far from evenly distributed, and many saw the new culture of capitalism as a threat to their core values. Various socialist movements critiqued capitalism and its social injustices. Sudden unraveling of the economic system, 1929: The stock market crash of October 24, 1929 shocked many as paper fortunes were lost in a day. There were reports of eleven suicides on Wall Street by high-ranking investors. The sudden crash seemed as if the whole system was rapidly coming apart. Considering the generations of growth to this point, this was all the more stunning. A crisis of overproduction, international loans, and stock speculation: There were multiple causes of the crash, including an American crisis of overproducing agricultural and manufactured goods, weak loans from the United States of America to European countries so that they could buy American products, and rampant and unregulated stock speculation. When these crises converged, they brought down the economic core of the Euro-American world. The Great Depression 44

45. The billboard was intended to restore the confidence of American consumers and to assure them that, in 1937, better times had indeed arrived. The breadline in front of the billboard underscores the falsity of this claim. What’s more, the striking color contrast between the white family and poor blacks standing below them made clear the bitter truth that the poverty of African Americans had never been a concern of the white mainstream and that recovery was going to come to white Americans first. 45 The people standing in line here are flood victims in Louisville, Kentucky, in 1937, waiting for food from a charity or public welfare organization. Still in the midst of the Great Depression, these people were left with few other options.

46. 46 Comparing Impact of Great Depression

47. Hooverville outside of Seattle. Shanty towns popped up everywhere as the homeless increased. They were named after the president, Herbert Hoover. Impact on global suppliers of raw materials and food: As the industrial economies could no longer afford or use the raw materials from the rest of the world (such as rubber and oils) and supplies of food (such as coffee and cocoa), the crisis was quickly globalized, putting farmers, miners, and plantation workers in the colonies and Latin America out of business. Great Depression Import substitution industrialization in Latin America : In Latin America, the depression saw the rise of military-backed authoritarian regimes that pursued policies of industrializing in one sector to substitute for importing specific products. While this created some economic growth, it also set the pattern for military-authoritarian regimes ruling in the region. Responses of the industrialized capitalist states: In Europe, several states turned towards increased government intervention in the economy with “ social democracy, ” and the United States of America under President Roosevelt enacted the New Deal, a Keynesian program of government spending. 47 Stalin ’ s USSR: Meanwhile in the communist alternative, Stalin ’ s Soviet Union seemed to be unaffected by the global economic downturn.

48. Democracy Denied Comparing Italy, Germany and Japan Neal Creative | click & Learn more

49. Extreme nationalism : Fascism was the most extreme manifestation of nationalism, arguing that the nation should come first and any ideology or practice that divided the people of a nation should be violently opposed. Fascist movements were much more extreme and irrational than other parties, which were nationalist but also promoted other ideologies, such as democracy or socialism. Celebration of violence and a charismatic leader : Fascist movements actually praised violence as a cleansing force that would root out weakness from society and give men of action a chance to prove themselves. The parties regularly used violence against their political opponents during power struggles, and fascist states used violence against their domestic and foreign enemies. This created a culture of violence in fascist movements and states. Central to fascist movements, parties, and states was a charismatic leader. These leaders gave impassioned speeches that appealed to frustrated citizens, mostly men, and offered them an explanation for the frustrations, an enemy to attack, and a movement to be a part of. These leaders became manifestations of the movement and the nation. Reactionary revolutionaries : While the fascist parties called for a revolutionary overthrow of the government (with lots of violence from the party members), their goal was not a progressive change of society but rather a conservative reaction to take the country back to an earlier era. The Fascist Alternative in Europe

50. Fascists were motivated by staunch anticommunism, both domestically and internationally (seen in their hostility towards the Soviet Union). They also attacked more moderate socialists. Fascists viewed democracy as a failure and called for an end to parliaments. Fascists believed the party and it’s leader were the best form of government. Fascists hated the changes to gender norms and practices brought about by the First World War. They wanted women to be mothers who produced boys for the army, not workers competing with men for jobs. The fascists opposed any form of individualism or ideology for specific subgroups that would weaken the overall power of the nation. Thus, they hated class and gender politics. Fascism Anticommunist, antidemocratic, and antifeminist 50 A stoic face stares down from the facade of the Fascist Party Federation building. Rome, Italy. 1934.

51. The first fascist leader to come to power was a former socialist and journalist. He gave powerful and engaging speeches that attracted large numbers of disaffected veterans angry at Italy ’ s frustrating experience in World War I. These veterans and others filled the ranks of his private militia, the Black Shirts, which he used to attack the offices and newspapers of his political opponents such as the socialists. He used his popular support and a campaign of violence to pressure the government to give him dictatorial powers in 1922. Benito Mussolini and his Black Shirts 51

52. The symbol of Mussolini’s party and his reign was the Roman fasces , a bundle of sticks tied together with an axe blade. It was a powerful symbol as each birch rod is weak, but together they are strong and can be used as a weapon. Hence, the individual is weak, but the united nation is powerful. Mussolini’ s state saw serious efforts at centralizing all power. Unions and political parties were banned, democracy was suspended, and political opponents were jailed, exiled, or killed. 52 Fasces and Centralized Power

53. The German fascist movement and its leader came out of almost the same context as Italian fascism and its leader: fear of communism, frustration with the end of World War I, hatred of democracy and individualism, hatred and fear of new freedoms and rights for women, and economic vulnerability. Weimar Republic and the “ stab in the back ” myth : Germany was particularly primed for Hitler ’ s message as the nation had lost the war and then suffered humiliation with the Treaty of Versailles. While the Prussian elites had started and lost the war, they handed power over to a new civilian government and refused to take responsibility for the disaster. This new government, the Weimar Republic, was built on shaky ground and was often blamed for some sort of alleged national betrayal of the war effort, a stab in the back, by Jews, socialists, and other civilians. In the immediate postwar period, there were thousands of veterans in militia groups known as Freikorps who attacked left-wing political figures. 53 Hitler and the Nazis

54. This picture was on the cover of Der Ewige Jude (The eternal Jew), a book of anti-Semitic photographs published in Nazi Germany in 1937. It became a popular image to illustrate the many ills Jews were allegedly responsible for. The man in the picture has a handful of gold coins—a way to suggest greed. In his left arm he holds a map of Russia, recognizable by the hammer and sickle. The artist wanted to underscore that he blamed Jews both for the greed in capitalism and communism in Russia as well. The artist placed a whip in the man’s left hand to suggest that he is seeking to dominate the world. The image also depicts the man as pale, with an exaggerated nose and ugly features; depicting Jews as ugly and subhuman was a common theme of Nazi propaganda. Nazi Anti- semitism 54

55. Economic disaster : Added to this political instability was an economic disaster. From the end of the war to 1924, the economy suffered tremendously, especially in the hyperinflation of 1923. When the Great Depression hit, Germany plunged back into economic chaos with massive unemployment in the early 1930s. While many industrial workers turned to the socialist and communist parties, other workers, the middle classes, and the wealthier elements were more open to the radical solution offered by Hitler and the Nazis. Votes for Nazis in parliamentary elections rose from a few percentage points in the 1920s to over one-third in the early 1930s. Anti-Treaty of Versailles : Hitler ’ s greatest appeal came from telling the Germans that they were victimized by the unjust Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty’s Article 231 depressed the Germans not only economically but also emotionally. Racism, anti-Semitism, and anticommunism : Central to the Nazi message, as delivered in Hitler ’ s famously passionate speeches, was the exaltation of the German “ race ” as Aryan supermen and the condemnation of the Germans ’ alleged enemies, the Jews. This racist thinking was paramount to Hitler ’ s world view, only matched by his hatred of communism. Rise of Hitler 55 German woman burning bricks of money instead of using it to buy coal for heating. The hyperinflation resulted in the extreme rise in the price of goods. At one point it would take a wheelbarrow of cash to buy a loaf of bread.

56. Mein Kampf : Hitler had published a memoir called My Struggle (Mein Kampf ) in the 1920s in which he detailed his hatred of Jews and called for their removal from German society. Nuremburg Laws : Once in power, the Nazi party discussed the legal status of German Jews and finally adopted restrictive laws for Jews in 1935. Kristallnacht : The Nazis organized widespread attacks (pogroms) on Jewish communities on November 9, 1938. While something violent and horrifying was clearly afoot, few could have predicted the mass murder to come during World War II. Chancellor 1933 As the German government floundered through the Great Depression, there was a desperate search for leadership. Hitler, despite his revolutionary rants, was legally appointed chancellor in 1933. Once in power, he set about systematically attacking his opponents and amassing dictatorial powers. 56 Night of Broken Glass ( Kristallnacht ), Jewish store fronts destroyed by Nazis in Nov. 1938.

57. While Hitler and the Nazis were staunchly antifeminist, believed the woman ’ s place was in the home raising children, and opposed birth control for women, the Nazi state was very tolerant of male sexual promiscuity, establishing a system of brothels and allowing condom use. "District Meeting of the N.S.D.A.P. [ Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei , or National Socialist German Workers Party, the official name of the Nazi Party] in Bad Tölz , 23-25 May 1941" 57 Nazi Antifeminism and male sexuality “To the leader, the children” 1938 postcard illustrating the woman’s role of producing as many children for the Reich.

58. Despite the violence and social injustices, Hitler did enjoy much popular support. He told Germans that they were a proud, superior people, deserving of more in life. Central to his appeal was the state ’ s proactive approach to unemployment. State funding supported massive public works programs that put millions of men to work. On the eve of the Second World War, Germany faced a labor shortage, a far cry from the 6.2 million unemployed in 1932. 58 Support for Hitler 1934 propaganda poster in support of the national welfare program reads: “National health, national community, child protection, protection of mothers, care for travelers, are the tasks of the NS-Welfare Service. Join now!” “Support the assistance program for mother and child,” mid-1930s poster promoting a Nazi charity organization

59. Japanese Authoritarianism 59

60. While Japan continued to enjoy overall economic growth, there was increasing social tension between the poor and the wealthy and occasional outbreaks of protest and violence, such as the “ Rice riots ” of 1918. As popular left-wing movements grew, the state cracked down on them and enacted repressive laws. Pre-War Japan The Great Depression hit Japan hard. With the global downturn in the demand for silk, many workers found themselves suddenly unemployed. Those who went home to their villages found grinding rural poverty. Protesters in the “Rice riots” of 1918. F amous photo of hungry children eating white radish.

61. After the assassination of Prime Minister  Inukai Tsuyoshi  in 1932, Japan saw an era of nationalism led by the Imperial Japanese Army and supported by other right-wing societies. In response to the economic crisis and the perceived corruption of the government, many officers and others joined far-right movements that condemned the political system. There were a number of these smaller groups that agitated against the status quo. Radical Nationalism or the Revolutionary Right As these right-wing youth engaged in a number of assassinations and a failed coup of junior officers in 1936, the situation looked similar to events in Italy and Germany before the fascist takeover. However, the Japanese far right never developed a single party with a charismatic leader. Instead, there were multiple smaller factions . Instead of a right-wing takeover of the government, rightist forces from within the military and other sectors pushed Japan toward an authoritarian model. The press was restricted, and right-wing ideology was put into the national education curriculum. 61

62. As in Germany, the Japanese government ’ s action on the economy won it popular support. While preserving the large corporate zaibatsu , the government began to direct specific sectors of the economy and unemployment dropped dramatically . While there were many similarities with the European fascist states, authoritarian Japan was a much less repressive system with re-education rather than execution being the primary method for dealing with political dissidents. Laws such as the Public Security Preservation Law of 1925 were used to deal with political dissidents. Government Action From 1925 through 1945, over 70,000 people were arrested under the provisions of the Public Security Preservation Law of 1925, but only about 10% reached trial, and the death penalty was imposed on only two offenders, spy Richard Sorge and his informant Ozaki Hotsumi pictured here.  

63. Japan had been expanding its empire at the expense of China since the 1890s. When faced with the rise of Chinese nationalism, expansionists saw an eventual invasion of China as inevitable. In 1931, officers acting without orders from Tokyo invaded Manchuria and made it a puppet state renaming it Manchukuo. This infuriated the Western powers, and Japan pulled out of the League of Nations. In 1937, the Japanese army invaded the heartland of China and engaged in a brutal war of conquest and occupation that further angered the West . Frustrations with the United States, Europe, and the USSR: The Japanese government and public opinion increasingly saw Japan as isolated from the other industrial powers. American immigration policies came off as racist, and Japan ’ s economic reliance on the United States for iron, oil, and machine parts was an embarrassment. A treaty limiting the Japanese navy relative to the British and American fleets and the European and American possession of colonial empires in Southeast Asia seemed hypocritical. Finally, the presence of the communist USSR just to the north scared the right-wing government. 63 The Road to War in Asia

64. Japanese propaganda poster of the  Shōwa era showing Adolf Hitler, Fumimaro Konoe  and Benito Mussolini, the political leaders of the three main Axis powers in 1938. Japanese leaders had already allied themselves with the other fascist states in Europe, now they just had to convince the Japanese people. Pre-war Propaganda 64

65. In 1940 and 1941, the Japanese military moved into Southeast Asia to secure resources for its war effort in China . “ Asia for Asians ” versus reality of occupation: When the Japanese arrived in colonial Southeast Asia, they represented themselves as fellow Asian liberators. Justification for their invasions throughout Asia were provided by their adoption of a “Japanese Monroe Doctrine.” However , the Japanese military proved to be even more exploitative and brutal than the Westerners. Japan’s Road to War Faced with an American oil embargo after July 1941, and viewing the United States as hostile to Japanese ambitions, the navy launched a reluctant attack on Pearl Harbor. This brought the United States and its industrial might into the war, which would end with the fire and atomic bombing of Japan four years later. The attack also united the European and Asian theaters of the conflict, making it a world war. 65 Dec. 7, 1941- Japanese attack US naval base at Pearl Harbor

66. The Road to War in Europe

67. Hitler and the Nazis wanted this war as it was central to their ideology of violence and struggle and to their plans for a new Europe that would give Germany more lebensraum or “ living space. ” Anschluss was the union of all Germanic states into one powerful country. Austria and Germany were strictly prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles to unify. In February, 1938, Hitler invited Kurt von Schuschnigg, the Austrian Chancellor, to meet him at Berchtesgarden . Hitler demanded concessions for the Austrian Nazi Party. Schuschnigg refused and after resigning was replaced by Arthur Seyss-Inquart , the leader of the Austrian Nazi Party. On 13th March, Seyss-Inquart invited the German Army to occupy Austria and proclaimed union with Germany. With no opposition from France or Great Britain, Hitler turned his sights to a heavily fortified region of Czechoslovakia which was home to about 3 million German speaking people, Sudetenland. The Sudeten people were encouraged by the anschluss and pro-Nazi feelings rose. Hitler demanded in September 1938 that the Sudetenland be given to Germany. The Czechs refused and asked France to help in her defense. France and Great Britain were on a path to war with Germany. Lebensraum & Anschluss This war was not an accident like World War I had been. 67 Hitler announces the  Anschluss   in Vienna, 15 March 1938.

68. He started rearmament in 1935 by building up his navy, army and creating Germany’s Luftwaffe (which was forbidden by Treaty of Versailles.) Hitler also increased the production and development of arms. With each step Hitler took toward negating the Treaty of Versailles, Europe’s response was appeasement in an effort to avoid war. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain famously announced to the world, after the crisis over the Sudetenland in 1938 prompted a meeting with Hitler, that they had achieved “Peace for our time.” This policy of appeasement only emboldened Hitler to act more aggressively, knowing the powers of Europe would not stop him. The Rhineland was the area around the Rhine River valley on the boarder between Germany and France. The Treaty of Versailles had declared this region to be a demilitarized zone and a buffer between Germany and France (it was even occupied for a time after WWI.) Hitler began to remilitarize the Rhineland in 1936. Rearmament & expansion, 1935 – 1939 Hitler engaged in a steady and quickening policy of dismantling the Treaty of Versailles and then expanding. 68 Chamberlain waiving the non aggression pact between Great Britain and Germany, 1938.

69. Hitler began the war in earnest in the dawn hours of September 1, 1939 when he used his blitzkrieg ( closely coordinated airpower and ground troops, to quickly advance into enemy territory ) and invaded Poland. As a result, France and Great Britain were forced to come to the aid of Poland and declared war on September 3, 1939. Unlike the First World War, this would be a war of movement. 69 War or Phony War? What followed Hitler’s blitzkrieg (lightening war) and declarations of war was the sitzkrieg (sitting war.) This “ Phoney War” or “Twilight War” as coined by Winston Churchill, was from Sept. 1939 until May of 1940 and there was little to no military engagement.

70. May 1940- Hitler begins push towards France and the Allied forces using diversionary tactics and traveling through rough terrain. By May 26, 1940 the Germans had the Allied forces trapped at Lille in northern France. The Belgians surrendered and left the remaining Allied troops to retreat towards the English Channel and the northern French port city of Dunkirk. Trapped, Great Britain organizes a rescue armada of about 850 Royal Naval ships and civilian crafts. From May 26 th to June 4 th , this rescue delivered about 338,000 soldiers from the German bombers at Dunkirk to the safety of the shores of Great Britain. Allied soldiers trapped on the beach at Dunkirk with the bombed out naval ship still in dock. 70

71. June 10, 1940 – Mussolini confident in a German victory decides to join forces with Germany and declares war on France and Great Britain. With the combined forces attacking France, the city of Paris falls easily by June 14 th . Paul Reynaud, the French prime minister, now realized that the German Western Offensive could not be halted and suggested that the government should move to territories it owned in North Africa. This was opposed by his vice-premier, Henri-Philippe Petain, and the supreme commander of the armed forces, General  Maxime Weygand. They insisted that the government should remain in France and seek an armistice . Outvoted, Reynaud resigned and President Albert Lebrun, appointed Petain as France's new premier. He immediately began negotiations with Adolf Hitler and on 22nd June signed an armistice with Germany. The terms of the agreement divided France into occupied and unoccupied zones, with a rigid demarcation line between the two. The Germans would directly control three-fifths of the country. The remaining section of the country would be administered by the French government at Vichy under Marshal Henri-Philippe Petain. 71 Fall of France

72. The Vichy regime actively collaborated with the Germans, even as far as rounding up Jews for detention. Vichy soldiers were sent to fight Allied forces in Northern Africa. It was essentially a puppet regime. Vichy France 72

73. Other provisions of the armistice included the surrender of all Jews living in France to the Germans. The French Army was disbanded except for a force of 100,000 men to maintain domestic order. The 1.5 million French soldiers captured by the Germans were to remain prisoners of war. The French government also agreed to stop members of its armed forces from leaving the country and instructed its citizens not to fight against the Germans. Finally, France had to pay the occupation costs of the German troops. French General Charles de Gaulle fled to London and set up a government in exile committed to regaining control of France. He called for all French people to resist the Nazis and organized the Free French military forces which fought the Nazis until the liberation of France in 1944. 73 British Prime minister, Winston Churchill and French leader in exile General Charles de Gaulle

74. The Battle of Britain After France falls, Great Britain is all alone in the fight against the Nazis. Winston Churchill is the Prime Minister and will face a relentless attack from Hitler. Hitler’s Operation Sea Lion was meant to destroy G.B.’s Royal Air Force and then to land 250,000 troops on England’s shores. The summer of 1940 saw Hitler targeting British airfields and airplane factories. The 4,500 strong Luftwaffe outnumbered the RAF. On Sept. 7, 1940, Hitler began focusing on the cities, especially London. Daily attacks destroyed and burned buildings and killed civilians. 74 Top to right: People taking shelter in the London underground during air raid, spotter in London, smoke rising from London docks after bombing, children sitting in front of bombed home in suburban London.

75. Radar - electronic tracking system which was developed in the 1930’s and helped tell the number, speed and direction of incoming war planes. Enigma - was a German code-making machine which allowed the German military to transmit messages in code and therefore in secret. In 1938, Great Britain secretly obtained an Enigma machine and were able to decipher messages set between German command. G.B. was consequently able to quickly react to the information and inflict massive harm on the enemy. However, the day raids will stop when the RAF are aided by two secret weapons: 75 At Bletchley Park, Alan Turing worked to create this electromechanical machine called the bombe, which could break the Enigma. Enigma German night bombings began in October 1940. People flocked to the safety of the subways, public bomb shelters and basements. This continued until May 10, 1941 when Hitler finally decided to call off the attacks. He was shocked by the resistance of the British and decided to focus his attentions on Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean.

76. Hitler will negate his non-aggression pact with the U.S.S.R. and implement Operation Barbarossa. Hitler’s troops invade the Soviet Union in the morning of June 22, 1941 and pushed 500 miles into Russia to Leningrad and on to Moscow. It was the winter of 1941-42 that stopped the German army’s advance. After the USSR survived the initial onslaught, the German front was slowly but steadily pushed back towards Berlin during three years of heavy fighting. 1942 76

77. D-Day After U.S. entry into the war, Allied forces planned for a massive push called D-Day (Operation Overlord) which was an invasion of German strongholds along the western French coast. This bloody and massive invasion on June 6, 1944, will prove to be successful and give the Allies the advantage. By December of 1944, the Germans are rallying and pushing through American defenses in the Ardennes. This push on the Allies gave this battle its name, the Battle of the Bulge. The Allies were victorious in repelling the Germans and set the stage for German surrender on May 7, 1945. 77 D-Day invasion was the largest amphibious invasion in history. Battle of the Bulge animated map.

78. As the Allies push from the west towards Germany, the Soviet forces invade from the east. By April 25, 1945, the Soviets surrounded Berlin and began bombing the city to rubbles. Hitler took shelter in his underground bunker and began to prepare for the end. On April 29, 1945, he married his longtime companion Eva Braun. He wrote his final address to the German people in which he blamed the Jews for starting the war, and his generals for loosing it. Two days later, Hitler took some poison then shot himself. Eva took poison. Both of their bodies were then carried outside and burned. 78 V-E Day! May 7, 1945, General Eisenhower accepted the unconditional surrender of the Third Reich from the German military. The official documents were signed on May 8 th and the Allies could now celebrate V-E Day (Victory Europe).

79. Pacific Theater Allies fought major battles in the Pacific such as the battles at Midway and the Coral Sea. By the fall of 1944, the Japanese were in retreat and the Allies began to close in on Japan. After heavy fighting the Allies made it within 500 miles of Japan. 79

80. After the death of FDR, the new American president, Harry Truman wanted to avoid an invasion in order to save lives. He made the decision to use a highly destructive weapon that was developed from the top secret Manhattan Project. Scientists under the direction of J. Robert Oppenheimer created the atomic bomb capable of unprecedented destruction. After warning the Japanese of a “rain of ruin from the air” if they did not surrender, Truman ordered the first atomic bomb to be dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, killing about 73,000 people in one instance. Three days later, a second bomb is dropped on Nagasaki and killed about 37,500 people instantly. Mushroom cloud over Hiroshima and insert picture shows some of the destruction.

81. 81 September 2, 1945, the Japanese will meet with General Douglas MacArthur on the U.S.S. Missouri in Tokyo Bay and submitted their unconditional surrender.

82. What would follow was a destroyed Europe and Japan. 95 % of the central area of Berlin was demolished by Allied bombs. War costs were huge. The number of dead from the war was astronomical. 60,000,000 dead, 50 percent civilians : Six times as many people died in the Second World War as in the first. In the second, about half of the deaths were civilians, unlike the first where most deaths came from men in uniform. The bombing of cities accounted for many civilian deaths. The Outcomes of Global Conflict 25,000,000 in USSR and 15,000,000 in China : The suffering in the USSR and China was almost unimaginable with millions dead and thousands of cities, towns, and villages destroyed. The economic damage to farmland and factories was devastating. Massive mobilizations for total war: All belligerents in the war engaged in massive mobilization efforts to maximize production. Colonial troops and laborers served their imperial masters, and women were brought into the factories in even greater numbers than during the first war . 82

83. Women of WWII Women as workers and as victims : Women contributed to the war efforts in unprecedented ways. While many women found greater opportunities for work outside the home, they were often killed in the bombing of cities and could be singled out for wartime rapes in China by Japanese soldiers and in Germany by Soviet soldiers. Bomb girls produced munitions for the war. Some called them “Canary girls” because the chemicals used in making the bombs would turn their skin yellow and hair blonde. Russian women snipers Women had roles in the military and industry, replacing men.

84. The Nazis ’ “ final solution ” to the Jewish question was a systematic program of industrialized mass murder that took some 6 million lives. The Nazi death machine also killed Soviet POWs, Poles, Roma and Sinti gypsies, homosexuals, political opponents, and the disabled in significant numbers . Two lasting legacies of the Holocaust were the establishment of the state of Israel as a homeland for Jews and the creation of the legal concept of genocide as a crime against humanity. Holocaust and other Nazi mass murders 84 Starving prisoners in  Ebensee concentration camp ,  liberated on May 5, 1945 U.S. Army soldiers show a group of German civilians from  Weimar the corpses found in Buchenwald Concentration Camp

85. A weakened Europe : As almost all of Europe was a battlefield at one point or another, the continent was devastated by the war. While Europe began to lose its grip on its colonies, much of the continent was occupied by Soviet and American troops. Europe remained divided and weak for the next four decades, and the world soon saw a wave of decolonization. More outcomes of Global Conflict Communist world expands : While the colonial empires started their retreat, the communist world grew as an outcome of the war. The Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin had a newfound credibility at home and abroad. He imposed Soviet-controlled communist parties on the Eastern European nations occupied by the Red Army. In China, the devastating Japanese occupation induced a civil war that led to the victory of the Chinese communists, who then supported insurgencies in Korea and Vietnam. For anticommunists, 1950 was a scary moment as the international communist movement seemed unstoppable. U nited Nations, World Bank, and International Monetary Fund : In 1945, several institutions were established by the victorious powers to create a safer and more prosperous world. United Nations World Bank

86. A disastrous first half of the century but a much better second half: Europe saw some of the worst events in all of world history in the first five decades of the twentieth century but managed to rebuild itself into a safe and more prosperous Europe in the second five decades. Marshall Plan : Aid from the United States helped to rebuild the European economies but so did the resilient nature of industrial societies. European Coal and Steel Community : Importantly, after two devastating nationalist wars, the nations of Europe learned to cooperate and integrate their economic interests. This has made war between the former rivals of France and Germany unthinkable . Expansion of the E.U. was critical to this new cooperation. NATO and America ’ s “ empire by invitation ” : The United States not only gave financial aid, but it also offered military protection to Western Europe and Japan against a perceived communist threat. This created a willing empire based on cooperation, not conquest. The Recovery of Europe 86 Map of European Union membership up til 2007.