Chapter 2 CLOSE RELATIONSHIP PERSPECTIVE

Relationship psychology

1. Internal Determinants of Attraction Affiliation Affect as a Basic Response System Affect and Attraction

2. Affiliation Need to Affiliate has a Neurological basis .-Rowe, 1996 This N-affil as basic as other needs like Hunger and thirst- Baumeister & Leary 1995 . Human infants born with the tendency to relate to the interpersonal world.- Baldwin 2000 Newborns are disposed to pick faces more than other stimuli- Mondloch et al 1999 Putnam 2000 - In US, decrease in need to affiliate. Dispositional Determinants: Explicit and Implicit motives Situational Determinants:

3. Affect, Emotions/feelings- a Basic Response System Characteristics of Affect: Intensity - the strength of the emotion :Direction - whether + ve or - ve Emotional states influences perception, cognition, motivation, decision making and interpersonal attraction.--- Berry& Hansen, 1996 ; Zajonc & McIntosh, 1992 George et al 1995 , different brain structures are activated by + ve & - ve emotions. Barret & Russel , 1998 ; Goldstein & Strube,1994 though 2 separate emotional dimensions, a mixture of the 2 states can occur and an unrelated correlation can also follow.

4. Affect and Attraction + ve affect leads to + ve evaluations of other people(liking) – ve affect leads to – ve evaluations(dislike)- Dovidio et al, 1995 Direct effect: when others do or say something that makes you feel bad ---so you feel the dislike Downey & Damhave 1991 ; Shapiro, Baumeister & Kessler 1991 Associated (Indirect) effect: Another person is simply present. Negative Transfer- Stigma

5. External Determinants of Attraction Proximity Observable Characteristics

6. Proximity Proximity: the tendency for individuals to form interpersonal relations with those who are close by and with whom repeated contact(exposure) is achieved. Zajonc , 1968 ; Repeated exposure to a new stimulus (abstract drawing, stranger’s face, a product) results in a positive evaluation of that stimulus. Brooks-Gunn & Lewis, 1981 ; Infants tend to smile at a repeatedly seen photograph than an unseen one. Harmon-Jones & Allen, 2001 ; A familiar face-evaluated + vely , elicits + ve affect, activates facial muscle and Brain activity indicating a Positive Emotional Response.

7. Zajonc - there is at least a mild discomfort when we encounter the unfamiliar. Hansen & Bartsch 2001- not all individuals are responsive to Repeated Contact(exposure). It works for those who strongly need Structure. Familiarity leads to liking if the person is High on the need for Structure. The Personal Need for structure Scale revealed that those who score high on the scale were more susceptible to the exposure effect. Neuberg & Newsom 1993 . Swap 1977 ;But when initial reaction is extremely negative, repeated contact does not improve it but worsens the degree of dislike.

8. Moreland and Beach 1992 ; conducted a study on students attending classes. The students who were more regular were liked more by the attending Bossard 1992 ; Davie & Reeves 1939 Residential Proximity is a cause for Interpersonal Relationships( friendships, choice of spouse). Applying the theory of Proximity, today Architects are designing offices and neighbourhoods in a way that encourages interaction and communication. Giovannini 2000 , Gladwell 2000 .

9. Observable Characteristics Andeoletti , Zebrowitz & Lachman 2001 - At first sight we like or dislike someone for we feel a certain + ve or – ve affect is ellicited from the person. Anderson & Baum 1994 - If a stranger reminds you someone know or like, you will tend to like him or her.

10. Physical Attractiveness Colin & Zebrowitz 1995 People respond + vely to those attractive and - vely to those who are unattractive. Perlini & Hansen 2001- People who are high on need for cognition are less affected by the attractiveness of a stranger than those with low cognitive needs. Sprecher & Duck 1994 Attractiveness is crucial with respect to evaluation one’s romantic partner. Feingold 1990 , Pierce 1992 ; gender differences were observed: female attractiveness is more important to men than male attractiveness is for women.

11. Appealing appearance is perceived as a positive characteristic that influences interpersonal attraction and interpersonal preferences. People generally have stereotypes about attractive men and women. “ What is beautiful is good” Dion & Dion, 1987 ; Hatfield and Sprecher 1986 ; Handsome men are believed to be more masculine and Beautiful women more feminine. People are still not accurate with their ratings; Men overestimate how attractive they are to others. There is an appearance anxiety in both the sexes.

12. Dion, Pak & Dion 1990 : Cross cultural research suggests that there is specific content of the charecteristics that are valued by a particular culture. Feingold 1992, Kenealy et al 1991 ; Most stereotypes about attractiveness could be incorrect. ----Killers and Criminals could be very good looking and those with less than stunning looks could be intelligence, kind, amusing, sensual. Cash & Duncan 1984 ; Beautiful women are negatively attributed as vain and materialistic.

13. The reason Why we prefer Attractiveness so as to elicit positive affect is that we are born with this kind of preference and we learn this kind of preference form our culture. For your personal reading and Note taking: WHY SHOULD PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS MATTER? WHAT EXACTLY CONSTITUTES ATTRACTIVENESS?

14. Other Aspects of Appearance and Behaviour Clothing Cheverton &Byrne 1998 ; Jarrell 1998 Grooming Mack & Rainey 1990 Height Pierce 1996 Disabilities Fichten & Amsel 1986 Age McKelvie 1998 Eyeglasses Lundberg & Sheehan 1994 One’s Physique Excess fat individuals are least liked physiques Harris, Harris & Bochner 1982

15. Interactive Determinants of Attraction Similarity Attraction (Affect) Mutual Liking

16. Similarity If you are not like me, I hate you- Zoglin Aristotle’s discourses on Friendship 330 BC Empirical studies- initiated by Sir Francis Galton- correlational studies among couples- resemblance. Hunt 1935 found that pairs of friends and spouses revealed greater degree of similarity. Not just Chance Though liking led to similarity and not vice versa Newcomb 1956 , found that attitude similarity in University transferred students resulted in subsequent liking.

17. Attitude Similarity- similarity in beliefs, interests, values and a common viewpoint in a range of areas. Byrne 1961 People tend to like those who hold similar attitudes than those holding dissimilar attitudes. Also a Similar stranger will be rated as highly informed, more intelligent, more moral and better adjusted. Duck & Barnes 1992 ; Capella & Palmer 1990,1992 ; established a relationship between similarity and attraction

18. Balance Theory : People naturally organize their likes and dislikes. When two persons like each other and they find that they are similar in respect to a certain entity= balance- --pleasant When two persons like each other and they find that they are dissimilar in some specific respect= imbalance- --unpleasant ---- restoration of balance is sought by changing oneself or others inorder to be more similar. Leads to misperceiving the degree of dissimilarity or dislike. Dislike creates a state of nonbalance , indifference about similarity or dissimilarity.

19. In a nutshell… Balance (liking plus agreement) results in a positive emotional state. Imbalance (liking plus disagreement) results in a negative state and a desire to restore balance. Nonbalance (disliking plus either agreement or disagreement) leads to indifference.

20. Byrne 2001 ; Human animosity is a result of reactions to dissimilarity. Worst acts of Barbarism finally boils down to dissimilarity in terms of race, religion, ideologies, language, sexual orientation, political affiliation…