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1. LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

2. The relationship between language and culture is a complex one. The two are intertwined. A particular language usually points to a specific group of people. When you interact with another language, it means that you are also interacting with the culture that speaks the language. You cannot understand one’s culture without accessing its language directly. When you learn a new language, it not only involves learning its alphabet, the word arrangement and the rules of grammar, but also learning about the specific society’s customs and behavior. When learning or teaching a language, it is important that the culture where the language belongs be referenced, because language is very much ingrained in the culture. (sociolinguistics)

3. Regarding olfactics (smell), most cultures establish norms (rule or standard of behaviour shared by members of a social group) for acceptable and unacceptable scents associated with the human body. Several Muslims think that hygiene of the body and purity of the soul are correlated. After menstruation, Muslim women purify themselves. Even before and after meals, cleanliness is being recommended.

4. Paralanguage - the nonlexical component of communication by speech, for example intonation, pitch and speed of speaking, hesitation noises, gesture, and facial expression Body language, which is also known as kinesics, is the most obvious type of paralanguage. These are the postures, expressions, and gestures used as non-verbal language.

5. Assimilation And Social Differentiation, And Language Through time, variations appeared within a language. Transmission of a language is self-perpetuating unless there is deliberate interference. However, it became important for humans to improve their social hierarchies and social status to advance personally. It’s safe to say that many people cultivate their dialect phonologically, grammatically, and lexically to fit into new communities. An example of this phenomenon is the insistence of immigrants from Europe to speak American English when they decided to move to the United States . It is because they realized that speaking American English is a sign of acceptance in their new home country. Unexpectedly, third-generation immigrants now want to get in touch with the language of their ancestors.

6. Assimilation And Social Differentiation, And Language Assimilation refers to the process through which individuals and groups of differing heritages acquire the basic habits, attitudes, and mode of life of an embracing culture.

7. Cultural And Linguistic Diversity We use language in different ways. Linguistic varieties fall into geographical, social, and functional subclasses. These factors lead to the formation of dialects that add diversity to the language.

8. LANGUAGE VARIETIES Pidgin: A pidgin is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages need to communicate but don't share a common language. The vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from one particular language (called the 'lexifier'). An early 'pre-pidgin' is quite restricted in use and variable in structure. But the later 'stable pidgin' develops its own grammatical rules which are quite different from those of the lexifier.

9. Creole: ( chavacano ) When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, it is called a creole. Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another language, the lexifier, but has its own unique grammatical rules. Unlike a pidgin, however, a creole is not restricted in use, and is like any other language in its full range of functions. Examples are Gullah, Jamaican Creole and Hawai`i Creole English.

10. Regional dialect: A regional dialect is not a distinct language but a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a country. Some regional dialects have been given traditional names which mark them out as being significantly different from standard varieties spoken in the same place.

11. Regional dialect: A regional dialect, also known as a regiolect or topolect, is a distinct form of a  language  spoken in a particular geographical area. If the form of  speech  transmitted from a parent to a child is a distinct regional dialect, that dialect is said to be the child's  vernacular .

12. Minority dialect: Sometimes members of a particular minority ethnic group have their own variety which they use as a marker of identity, usually alongside a standard variety. This is called a minority dialect. Examples are African American Vernacular English in the USA, London Jamaican in Britain, and Aboriginal English in Australia.

13. Indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as second languages in ex-colonies with multilingual populations. The differences from the standard variety may be linked to English proficiency, or may be part of a range of varieties used to express identity. For example, 'Singlish' (spoken in Singapore) is a variety very different from standard English, and there are many other varieties of English used in India.

14. Owing to the varying ecological, social, historical, and linguistic contexts, the English language underwent adaptations in many parts of the world, and was diversified and fragmented, resulting many Englishes variably termed as Postcolonial Englishes / englishes , Global English(es), World English(es) , the New Englishes , Chinese Englishes , South Asian Englishes , Indian English, Pakistani English, and so on. The process of this heterogeneity is usually postulated as “indigenization of English”

15. Language maintenance, shift and death hen words, grammatical elements or sounds from one language are incorporated in another language, we call this borrowing . It is different from code-switching, which is the alternation between two or more languages or language varieties, as the latter requires a mastery of two or more languages and the use of a wide range of rules of the languages being switched. The borrowing of a word does not presuppose knowledge of the language from which it is taken. Once borrowed, the borrowed element becomes part of the borrowing language. Therefore, speakers might not even be aware of the borrowed status of a word, especially when it is assimilated into the pronunciation system of their language. An example is the Dutch word gas, which in English isn’t pronounced with the uvular Dutch g.

16. Language maintenance denotes the continuing use of a language in the face of competition from a regionally and socially more powerful language. Language shift is the opposite of this: it denotes the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of communication within a community. The term language death is used when that community is the last one in the world to use that language. The extinction of Cornish in England is an example of language death as well as shift (to English). And the demise of Norwegian as an immigrant language in the USA exemplifies shift without death, as Norwegian is of course still spoken in its original setting in Norway.

17. Campbell and Muntzel (1989) distinguished four types of language death. Gradual death involves gradual replacement of one language by another. An example is the replacement of Gaelic by English in parts of Scotland. Sudden death is rapid extinction of a language, without an intervening period of bilingualism. The last speaker then is monolingual in the dying language, as with Tasmanian.

18. Radical death is when a community stops speaking their language out of self-defence . For example, after the massacre of thousands of Indians in El Salvador in 1932 the speakers of Cacaopera and Lencia stopped speaking their language as not to be identified as Indians. Bottom-to-top death is when a language ceases to be used as a medium of conversation, but may survive in special use like religion or folk songs. For example, Tzeltal in Mexico has only a few older speakers in scattered villages, but survives in the register of prayer.

19. Sources: Campbell, L. and Munzell, M.C. (1989): The structural consequences of language death. In: Dorian, N.C.: Investigating Obsolecence . Studies in language contraction and death. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 181-196. Mesthrie , R. and Leap, William (2009): Language contact 1: Maintenance, shift and death. In: Mesthrie , R., Swann, J., Deumert , A. and Leap, W.: Introducing Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, (pp. 242-270).