Chapter 3 anatomy and physiology

2. At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
1. Review the structure, function, activities, and role of cells,
tissues, and organs in the body.
2. Identify and describe the structure and roles of each major
body system
3. Indicate common surgical procedures that involve each
system.
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Reproductive
Urinary and Excretory
Respiratory
Digestive
Circulatory

4. They are the basic
living unit of life
They vary in size,
shape, and
function
They are so small,
microscopic
Within each cell
are still smaller
structures
Functions of the
cell
Living cells come
only from other
living cells
Cells reproduce by
duplication and
division into two
new cells

6. Cell membrane: The outer covering of a cell
that regulates what enters and leaves it.
Cytoplasm: The lining matter of a cell
between the cell membrane and nucleus.
Nucleus: The functional center of a cell that
governs activity and heredity.
Each human cell consists of
three main parts:

7. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) : Stores the information
needed to build proteins essential to restore cell and
also transfers messages about organisms from parent
to offspring.
RNA (ribonucleic acid) : Translates the DNA
messages, and guides the protein making process.
Chromosomes: comprised of DNA, and pass on the
traits of parent cells to new cells.
Tissue: A group of similar cells that
perform a specialized function.
The nucleus contains three important components:

8. A group of similar cells that perform a specialized
function. Four types of tissues:
1. Epithelial tissue: Covers body’s external surface (skin)
and the linings of body cavities (mouth, ears, nose, throat,
etc.
2. Connective Tissue: Provides support, stores energy,
and connects other tissues and parts (bones, fat, blood,
cartilage)
3. Muscular Tissue: Shortens and contracts. When
attached to bone, makes body movement. Also lines the
inner walls of organs that contract to help food pass to
even pumping blood
4. Nervous Tissue: Communication tissue located
throughout the body. When stimulated carries messages
back and forth between the brain and spinal cord to every
part of the body

9. Organs: A part of the body containing two
or more tissues that function together for
a specific purpose.
EXAMPLES
Brain
Heart
Stomach
Skin

10. System: A group of organs that work
together to carry out a specific activity
EXAMPLES
◦Musculoskeletal system
◦Nervous system
◦Endocrine system
◦Reproductive system
◦Urinary and Excretory system
◦Respiratory system
◦Digestive system
◦Circulatory system

11. Without it, we would be just a big mass of
tissue
206 bones in the body
Arranged in an orderly manner
Fastened together by connective tissue:
tendons & ligaments

13. The five main functions of the skeletal
system are to:
Give the body shape and support
Allow movement
Protect vital organs
Reproduce blood cells
Store calcium

14. Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that
provides framework to the body. Its
purposes include:
To support body structures such as the ears and
nose
To connect the ribs to the sternum
To serve as a cushion between bones to prevent
them from rubbing together at junctures and joints

16. A joint is any place where two bones meet.
Some immovable found in the skull and
movable like knee and elbow joints. There
are several types of joints:
Gliding Joints (spinal column and neck)
Ball and Socket Joints (shoulder and hip)
Pivot Joints (palm of the hand where it swivels)
Hinge Joints (knees, knuckles and elbows)

18. The overall covering or lining of
a joint is called a synovial
membrane. It secretes or
produces a fluid called synovial
fluid to lubricate join surfaces.

19. Bones are comprised of living tissue, and
their strength and hardness come from
chemical substances called minerals. It
consists of two principle materials:
A hard outer material called cortical or compact bone.
Surrounded by the periosteum: a tough membrane that
contains bone-forming cells and blood vessels.
The inner section of bone is porous, and is called spongy
or cancellous bone. It is filled with material called marrow.
A pipeline of blood vessels and nerves runs through the
middle of thick bones.

20. Crainiotomy
Anterior Cervical Fusion
Posterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion
(PLIF)
Open Reduction Internal Fixation
(ORIF)
Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA)
Total Hip Arthroplasty (THA)
Surgical procedures that involve the skeletal system
include:

21. More than 600 muscles in the body
Heart muscles contract to pump blood

Muscles in digestive tract move food &
fluid through body
Muscles throughout the body produce
heat, maintain body’s core temperature.

22. Muscles: Made up of long, thin cells
or fibers that run parallel to one
another, bundled together by
connective tissue, called fascia.
Have the ability to contract and
shorten, cause body movements.

23. Muscular System

24. There are three types of muscle tissue:
Skeletal
Smooth
Cardiac

25. Surgical procedures involving muscular
system include:
Fasciotomy
Herniorrhaphy
Rotator Cuff Repair

26. Vast communication network.
Coordinates and carries messages between
all parts of the body.
Enables us to be aware of the changes in
the environment and to react accordingly.
Complex series of nervous tissues, like
electrical wiring runs from the brain and
spinal cord throughout the entire body.

27. Functions of the Nervous System include:
Controls all body activities/ allows us to respond
to stimuli
Nerve tissue carries electrical messages from
brain and spinal cord that signal muscles to
contract.
Other actions are more conscious and involve
emotion, reason, and memory.

28. NERVOUS SYSTEM
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Spinal Cord
Brain Stem
Cranial Nerves
12 pairs
Cervical Nerves
8 pairs
Thoracic Nerves
12 pairs
Lumbar Nerves
5 pairs
Sacral Nerves
6 pairs

29. The Nervous System is composed of two
types of cells:
Neurons (also called nerve cells): that
carry and transmit information
Neuroglia: support and protect neurons as
they work.
The Nervous System is divided into two
parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Peripheral Nervous System

30. The Brain:
Main control
unit of the
CNS
Has more
than 100
billion nerve
cells
Is a spongy
and complex
organ
Three membranes
surround the
brain, and
provide
nourishment and
protection to it:
Pia mater
Arachnoid mater
Dura mater
The brain is
divided into
three parts:
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Brain Stem

31. The Sense
Organs:
Eyes
Ears
Nose
Tongue
Skin
Accessory structures of the
nervous system
Special sensory receptors,
message-carrying structures
Respond to stimuli from outside
the body
Others keep track of the body’s
internal environment
Respond to light, sound, taste,
chemicals, heat, and pressure

32. The Eyes:
organs of
vision.
Produce
images by
focusing
light rays
that are
interpreted
by the brain
The Eyes
consist of
three layers
of tissue:
Sclera
Choroid
Retina
Eye
Choroid
Cornea
Pupil
Iris
Optic Nerve
Sclera

33. External Ear
Auditory Canal
Ear Drum
Middle Ear
Inner Ear
Ear

34. The Nose is the organ of smell:
Consists of many sensory receptors or
cells
Receptors located in the mucous
membranes of the nasal cavity
Sensitive to chemicals carried through the
air
Olfactory nerve endings extend to the
receptors
Stimulated by different odors

35. OLFACTORY BULB
BONE
EPITHELIAL CELL
CILIA
NERVE FIBER
Olfaction allows us to identify food,
experience sensual pleasures like
the smell of flowers, as well as
detect signs of danger (spoiled
food, chemical hazards).
Smells (odorants) are sensed by
the olfactory epithelium located in
the nasal cavity and first processed
by the olfactory bulb. The odorant
must possess certain molecular
properties–it must be water soluble
and have high vapor pressure and
low polarity–in order to interact
with the olfactory receptors and
produce signals that can be
interpreted as odor. The olfactory
sense is able to distinguish among
an almost infinite number of
chemical compounds.
The mucous lipids assist in
transporting the odorant
molecules. Each olfactory receptor
neuron has 8-20 cilia that are
whip-like extensions (they mark
the beginning of sensory
transduction).
MITRAL CELL
CHEMO-RECEPTOR
CELL
OLFACTORY RECEPTORS

36. The Tongue is the organ of taste:
Covered with taste buds, sensory receptors
Sense of taste is a chemical sense
Chemicals carried by saliva throughout the mouth
Taste buds can distinguish 4 kinds of taste: sweet,
sour, bitter, and salty
80 different types of chemical odors
Combination of taste and odors produces flavors

37. TASTE
Open mouth with tongue extended indicating areas that distinguish taste,
and inset of each tongue region and their function.
Bitter Sour Sweet Salty

38. The Skin is the largest body
organ:
Nerve endings at and below its surface
Acts as an important sensory organ
Touch receptors near the skin’s surface allows
us to distinguish textures
Also responds to heat, cold, and moisture
Further below skin’s surface are receptors,
respond to touch and pressure
Sense of pain stimulates nerves and sends
messages of potential danger to the brain

39. Surgical procedures involving the nervous
system:
Craniotomy
Carpal Tunnel Repair
Ulnar Nerve Transposition
Cataract Extraction
Corneal Transplant
Bilateral Myringotomy with Tubes, (BMT)
Stapedectomy
Tympanoplasty
Split-thickness Skin Graft (STSG)

40. Changes in body activities are set in
motion by the hormones or secretions
produced by the glands of the endocrine
system. For example:
◦Muscles tensing
◦Heartbeat quickening
◦Breathing rhythm changes
The Endocrine System influences
functions of metabolism, growth, and
personality

41. Endocrine System
Adrenal Glands
Releaseadrenalinthat
increases heart rate and
physical strength. Also
enhance the ability to
think and respond
quickly in emergency
situations.
Thyroid Gland
Helps regulate the rate of
metabolism and maintain
the body's levels of
calcium and phosphorus.
Testes
Produce the hormone,
testosterone, that stimulates
the development of masculine
characteristics.
Pituitary Gland
Helps control the activities of all
endocrine glands. Also stimulates
skeletal and body growth, development
of sex organs, regulation of blood
pressure, the reproductive process, and
muscle development.
Pancreas
Producesinsulin which
reduces the level of
sugar in the
bloodstream and
glucagon which can
increase the blood's
sugar level.
Ovaries
Produce two hormones,
estrogen which is responsible
for the development of female
characteristics and
progesterone, which together
with estrogen, regulates the
menstrual cycle.

42. Important information about the endocrine
system:
Endocrine glands that produce hormones
are not necessarily next to the organs they
control.
The nervous system and endocrine system
work together.
Endocrine glands are located throughout
the body.
Some glands of the endocrine system
secrete more then one hormone.

43. The major glands of the endocrine
system include:
Pituitary gland: small, pea-shaped
Thyroid gland: located at the base of the
neck
Parathyroid gland: four pea-shaped glands
Adrenal glands: release adrenalin
Pancreas: located just below the stomach

44. The pancreas has 2 primary hormones
that it produces:
1.Insulin: which reduces the level of
sugar in the blood stream
2.Glucagon: which can increase the
blood’s sugar level

45. The ovaries (female sex glands)
produce 2 hormones: estrogen and
progesterone
The testes (male sex glands) produce
the hormone: testosterone

46. Surgical procedures involving the
endocrine system include:
Thyroidectomy
Oophorectomy
Orchiectomy

47. The male sex cell is produced by the
male reproductive system called sperm
The female sex cell (egg) is called
ovum and produced by the female
reproductive system
Both sperm and ovum contain rod-
shaped structures called chromosomes

48. The male reproductive system:
Testes
Scrotum
Epididymus
Vas deferens
Seminal vesicle
Ejaculatory duct
Semen
Urethra
Penis
Prostate gland

49. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Bladder
Prostate
gland
Vas Deferens
Urethra
Penis
Testes
Scrotum

50. The female reproductive
system:
Vagina
Uterus
Endometrium
Fallopian tubes
Fimbriae
Ovaries

51. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

52. Surgical procedures involving the
reproductive system include:
Orchiectomy
Orchiopexy
Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP)
Radical Prostatectomy
Hysterectomy
Bilateral Salpingoophorectomy
Endometrial Ablation
Dilatation & Curettage (D & C)
Ectopic Pregnancy
Pelviscopy
Tubal Ligation

53. The urinary system provides “pollution
control” by eliminating body waste and
blood is filtered by the urinary system.
Urine is a water solution consisting of
various waste substances
Color from excreted bile pigments
Average adult excretes between 1000cc-
1800cc of urine during a 24-hour period

54. URINARY SYSTEM
Kidney
Ureters
Bladder
Uretha
Kidney (Cross-section)

55. Organs of the urinary system in both
sexes include:
Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra: male: 20cm long, female: 4cm
long

56. The excretory system removes toxic
(poisonous) waste substances:
Kidneys
Lungs
Liver
Skin

57. Surgical procedures involving the urinary
system include:
Nephrectomy
Lithotripsy
Cystoscopy

58. The respiratory system supplies the
body with oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide that forms as a result
of the body using oxygen in the
blood

59. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Deoxygenated blood
from the heart
Bronchioles
Oxygenated blood
to the heart
Alveoli - site of gas exchange
Respiratory System
Lungs
Nasal Cavity
Mouth
Pharnyx
Trachea

60. Exchange of gases is accomplished
automatically as one breathes in a two
step process:
1.Inspiration (inhaling air into the lungs)
2.Expiration (exhaling air from the lungs)
Air contains impurities such as dirt, dust,
and microorganisms, and these are filtered
out by the respiratory system

61. The primary organs of the
respiratory system are:
Nose
Pharynx
Trachea
Lungs

62. More About the Lungs:
Right lung consists of three lobes
Left lung consists of two lobes (room for
heart)
Located in thoracic cavity
Covered by thin membrane, pleura
Protected by skeletal rib cage and
sternum
Diaphragm, muscle located below the
lungs, causes chest cavity to expand

63. Surgical procedures involving the
respiratory system include:
Thoracotomy
Thoracoscopy
Pneumonectomy
Tracheotomy
Laryngectomy
Bronchoscopy
Septoplasty

64. The digestive system converts food into
energy for the body. The human body
requires 6 basic categories of nutrients:
1.Proteins
2.Carbohydrates
3.Fats
4.Water
5.Minerals
6.Vitamins

65. Digestion breaks food down mechanically and
chemically
Pathway that food takes through the digestive system is
called the alimentary canal
Alimentary canal is approximately 30 ft. Consists of:
◦Mouth
◦Esophagus
◦Stomach
◦Small intestine
◦Large intestine
◦Rectum
◦Anus

66. Pancreas
produces
digestive
enzymes and
assists with fat
digestion.
Stomach
stores and
breaks down
ingested food
intochyme.
Gall Bladder
stores bile, which
aids in digestion.
Digestive System
Salivary Glands
create mucus to soften
food and aid in digestion
Small
Intestine
(duodenum,
jejunum, and ilium)
digests
carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins and
absorbs nutrients
Large
Intestine
absorbs water,
electrolytes and salts.
Mouth
Chews food to make it easier
to pass through the
esophagus (swallow).
Esophagus
Moves food to
the stomach.
Liver
produces bile
needed for
digestion.

67. The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
are accessory organs of the digestive
system
The salivary, gastric, and intestinal
glands are accessory structures to the
digestive system

68. Review of the components of the
alimentary canal:
Mouth
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestines
Large intestine
Rectum
Anus

69. Close look at 3 Important digestive
organs:
1.Pancreas
2.Liver
3.Gallbladder

70. Surgical procedures involving the digestive
system include:
Appendectomy
Parotidectomy
Gastrectomy
Gastric Bypass
Cholecystectomy
Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy
Colectomy

71. The circulatory system is the body’s
primary transportation network. Delivers
nutrients and oxygen to body cell, and
carries away carbon dioxide and other
harmful waste products from them
Accomplished as blood is pumped
through 64,000 miles of blood vessels in
the body

72. The lymphatic system is a subsidiary of the
circulatory system, and it serves a vital role
in the body’s defense against disease:
Consists of a series of tiny vessels, throughout
body
Large numbers of lymph nodes, filter bacteria and
other harmful material out of the lymph
Tonsils are one type of a lymph node
Sentinel lymph nodes are frequently identified
during cancer surgery

73. Lymphatic Glands of the Neck
Parotid Lymphatic
Node
Superior Deep
Cervical Node
Submaxillary Node
Suboccipital
Lymphatic Node
Posterior Auricular
Node
Inferior Deep
Cervical Node
Lymphatic System

74. Blood is a type of connective tissue fluid
that moves throughout the circulatory,
system and transports many important
substances:
Contains an average of five to seven liters
of blood
Blood is made up of 55% of plasma
Red blood cells structures rich in
hemoglobin, pick up oxygen in the lungs,
transport to all over the body
Red blood cells produced in the bone
marrow, life span of 120 days

75. White blood cells attack, destroy, and
digest disease-producing organisms
Platelets traps blood cells and plasma
that will harden and clot

76. Arteries carry blood away from the
heart
Veins carry blood back towards the
heart
Capillaries tiny vessels connections
between veins and arteries

77. Circulatory System
Arteries carry blood away
from the heart.
Veinscarry blood back
towards the heart.

78. The heart is the muscular organ about
the size of a fist that pumps five liters
of blood through the body every
minute:
Four hollow chambers
A thick tissue wall
Upper chambers atria
Lower chambers ventricles

79. Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Mitral valve
Left ventricle
Interventricular septum
Papillary muscle
Right atrium
Chordae tendonae
Superior Vena Cava
Pulmonary valve
Aorta
Pulmonary Artery
Heart
Left atrium

80. Surgical procedures involving the
circulatory system include:
Tonsillectomy
Adenoidectomy
Arteriovenous
Abdominal Aortic Aneurysmectomy
Hemorrhoidectomy
CABG
Carotid Endarterectomy