Chapter 3 Cells

Hole's Anatomy and Physiology

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Chapter 3
Lecture
PowerPoint

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2401
Anatomy and Physiology I
Chapter 3
Susan Gossett
[email protected]
Department of Biology
Paris Junior College

3. 3
Hole’s Human Anatomy
and Physiology
Twelfth Edition
Shier  Butler  Lewis
Chapter
3
Cells
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4. 4
3.1: Introduction
• The basic organizational structure of the human body is the
cell.
• There are 50-100 trillion cells in the human body.
• Differentiation is when cells specialize.
• As a result of differentiation, cells vary in size and shape
due to their unique function.

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3.2: A Composite Cell
• Also called a ‘typical’
cell
• Major parts include:
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Cell membrane
Microtubules
Flagellum
Nuclear envelope
Basal body
Chromatin
Ribosomes
Cell membrane
Mitochondrion
Cilia
Microtubules
Microtubule
Centrioles
Microvilli
Lysosomes
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Phospholipid bilayer
Smooth
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Rough
Endoplasmic
reticulum
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Golgi
apparatus
Secretory
vesicles

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Cell Membrane
(aka Plasma Membrane)
• Outer limit of the cell
• Controls what moves in and out of the cell
• Selectively permeable
• Phospholipid bilayer
• Water-soluble “heads” form surfaces (hydrophilic)
• Water-insoluble “tails” form interior (hydrophobic)
• Permeable to lipid-soluble substances
• Cholesterol stabilizes the membrane
• Proteins:
• Receptors
• Pores, channels and carriers
• Enzymes
• CAMS
• Self-markers

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Cell Membrane
Cell membraneCell membrane
(b)(a)
“Heads” of
phospholipid
“Tails” of
phospholipid
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a: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Fibrous proteinCarbohydrateGlycolipid
Glycoprotein
Extracellular side
of membrane
Cytoplasmic side
of membrane
Cholesterol
molecules
Globular
protein
Double
layer of
Phospholipid
molecules
Hydrophobic
fatty acid
“tail”
Hydrophilic
Phosphate
“head”
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3.1 Clinical Application
Faulty Ion Channels Cause Disease

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Cell Adhesion Molecules
(CAMs)
• Guide cells on the move
• Selectin – allows white blood
cells to “anchor”
• Integrin – guides white blood
cells through capillary walls
• Important for growth of
embryonic tissue
• Important for growth of nerve
cells
Adhesion
White blood cell
Integrin
Selectin
Exit
Splinter
Attachment
(rolling)
Blood vessel
lining cell
Carbohydrates
on capillary wall
Adhesion
receptor proteins
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Cytoplasm
• Cytosol = water
• Organelles = solids
Cytoplasm is really like a Jello fruit salad
where the Jello is the cytosol and the fruits
(oranges, grapes, bananas, maybe walnuts,
etc.) are the organelles.

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Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Connected, membrane-bound
sacs, canals, and vesicles
• Transport system
• Rough ER
• Studded with ribosomes
• Smooth ER
• Lipid synthesis
• Added to proteins
arriving from rough ER
• Break down of drugs
Ribosomes
• Free floating or connected to ER
• Provide structural support and enzyme activity
to amino acids to form protein
Membranes
Ribosomes
Membranes
(b) (c)
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Organelles
Golgi apparatus
• Stack of flattened,
membranous sacs
• Modifies, packages
and delivers proteins
Vesicles
• Membranous sacs
• Store substances
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Cristae
(a) (b)
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a: © Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Mitochondria
• Membranous sacs with
inner partitions
• Generate energy

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Organelles
Lysosomes
• Enzyme-containing
sacs
• Digest worn out cell
parts or unwanted
substances
Peroxisomes
• Enzyme-containing
sacs
• Break down organic
molecules
Centrosome
• Two rod-like centrioles
• Used to produce cilia and
flagella
• Distributes chromosomes
during cell division
(a) (b)
Centriole
(cross-section)
Centriole
(longitudinal section)
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a: © Don W. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited

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Organelles
Cilia
• Short hair-like projections
• Propel substances on cell
surface
Flagellum
• Long tail-like projection
• Provides motility to sperm
(a)
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a: © Oliver Meckes/Photo Researchers, Inc.
© Colin Anderson/Brand X/CORBIS

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Microfilaments and microtubules
• Thin rods and tubules
• Support cytoplasm
• Allows for movement of
organelles
Organelles
Inclusions
• Temporary nutrients and
pigments
Microtubules
Microfilaments
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© M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited

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3.2 Clinical Application
Disease at the Organelle Level

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Cell Nucleus
•Control center of the cell
• Nuclear envelope
• Porous double membrane
• Separates nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm
• Nucleolus
• Dense collection of RNA and
proteins
• Site of ribosome production
• Chromatin
• Fibers of DNA and proteins
• Stores information for synthesis of
proteins
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Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin
(a)
Nuclear
pores
Nuclear
envelope

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3.3: Movements Into
and Out of the Cell
Passive (Physical) Processes
• Require no cellular
energy and include:
• Simple diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
• Filtration
Active (Physiological) Processes
• Require cellular energy and
include:
• Active transport
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis
• Transcytosis

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Simple Diffusion
• Movement of substances from regions of higher concentration to
regions of lower concentration
• Oxygen, carbon dioxide and lipid-soluble substances
Time
Solute molecule
Water molecule
A B A B
(2) (3)
Permeable
membrane
A B
(1)
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Facilitated Diffusion
• Diffusion across a membrane with the help of a channel or carrier
molecule
• Glucose and amino acids
Region of higher
concentration
Transported
substance
Region of lower
concentration
Protein carrier
molecule
Cell
membrane
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Osmosis
• Movement of water through a selectively permeable
membrane from regions of higher concentration to
regions of lower concentration
• Water moves toward a higher concentration of solutes
Time
Protein molecule
Water molecule
A
B
A B
(1) (2)
Selectively
permeable
membrane
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Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
• Osmotic Pressure – ability of osmosis to generate
enough pressure to move a volume of water
• Osmotic pressure increases as the concentration
of nonpermeable solutes increases
• Isotonic – same osmotic pressure
• Hypertonic – higher osmotic
pressure (water loss)
• Hypotonic – lower osmotic
pressure (water gain)
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© David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited
(b)
(a)
(c)

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Filtration
• Smaller molecules are forced through porous membranes
• Hydrostatic pressure important in the body
• Molecules leaving blood capillaries
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Capillary wall
Larger molecules
Smaller molecules
Blood
pressure
Blood
flow
Tissue fluid

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Active Transport
• Carrier molecules transport substances across a membrane from
regions of lower concentration to regions of higher concentration
• Sugars, amino acids, sodium ions, potassium ions, etc.
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Carrier proteinBinding site
(a)
(b)
Cell membrane
Carrier protein
with altered shape
Phospholipid
molecules Transported
particle
Cellular
energy
Region of higher
concentration
Region of lower
concentration

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Active Transport:
Sodium-Potassium Pump
• Active transport mechanism
• Creates balance by “pumping” three (3) sodium (Na+) OUT and
two (2) potassium (K+) INTO the cell
• 3:2 ratio

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Endocytosis
• Cell engulfs a substance by forming a vesicle around the
substance
• Three types:
• Pinocytosis – substance is mostly water
• Phagocytosis – substance is a solid
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis – requires the substance
to bind to a membrane-bound receptor
NucleusNucleolus
VesicleCell
membrane
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Endocytosis
Cytoplasm
Vesicle
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Receptor
protein
Cell
membrane
Molecules
outside cell
Cell
membrane
indenting
Receptor-ligand
combination
NucleusNucleolus
Particle VesiclePhagocytized
particle
Cell
membrane
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Exocytosis
• Reverse of endocytosis
• Substances in a vesicle fuse with cell membrane
• Contents released outside the cell
• Release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells
Nucleus
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi
apparatus
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Transcytosis
• Endocytosis followed by exocytosis
• Transports a substance rapidly through a cell
• HIV crossing a cell layer
Viruses bud
HIV
Exocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
HIV-infected
white blood cells Anal or
vaginal canal
Lining of anus
or vagina
(epithelial cells)
Virus infects
white blood cells on
other side of lining
Receptor-mediated
endocytosis
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Cell
membrane

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3.4: The Cell Cycle
• Series of changes a cell
undergoes from the time it
forms until the time it divide
• Stages:
• Interphase
• Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
Apoptosis
G
2
phase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Restriction
checkpoint
Remain
specialized
Proceed
to division
S phase:
genetic
material
replicates
G
1
phase
cell growth
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Interphase
• Very active period
• Cell grows
• Cell maintains routine functions
• Cell replicates genetic material to prepare for nuclear division
• Cell synthesizes new organelles to prepare for cytoplasmic
division
• Phases:
• G phases – cell grows and synthesizes structures other than
DNA
• S phase – cell replicates DNA

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Mitosis
• Produces two daughter cells from an original somatic cell
• Nucleus divides – karyokinesis
• Cytoplasm divides – cytokinesis
• Phases of nuclear division:
• Prophase – chromosomes form; nuclear envelope disappears
• Metaphase – chromosomes align midway between
centrioles
• Anaphase – chromosomes separate and move to centrioles
• Telophase – chromatin forms; nuclear envelope forms

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Mitosis
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Nuclear envelopes begin to
reassemble around two daughter
nuclei. Chromosomes decondense.
Spindle disappears. Division of
the cytoplasm into two cells.
Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate to
opposite poles of cell. Events
begin which lead to cytokinesis.
Metaphase
Chromosomes align along
equator, or metaphase plate
of cell.
Prophase
Chromosomes condense and
become visible. Nuclear
envelope and nucleolus
disperse. Spindle apparatus
forms.
Late Interphase
Cell has passed the
restriction checkpoint
and completed DNA
replication, as well as
replication of centrioles
and mitochondria, and
synthesis of extra
membrane.
Early Interphase
of daughter cells—
a time of normal cell
growth and function.
Cleavage
furrow
Nuclear
envelopes
Nuclear
envelope
Chromatin
fibers
Chromosomes
Spindle fiber
Centromere
Aster
Centrioles
Late prophase
Sister
chromatids
Microtubules
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
S phase
G
1
phase
Interphase
Restriction
checkpoint
(a)
(b)
(c)(d)
(e)
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© Ed Reschke
G
2
phase

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Cytoplasmic Division
• Also known as cytokinesis
• Begins during anaphase
• Continues through telophase
• Contractile ring pinches cytoplasm in half

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3.5: Control of Cell Division
• Cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types
• Skin and blood cells divide often and continually
• Neuron cells divide a specific number of times then cease
• Chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each mitosis
provide a mitotic clock
• Cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area to
volume relationship
• Growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division
• Hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus
• Epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin
• Tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control
• Contact (density dependent) inhibition

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Tumors
• Two types of tumors:
• Benign – usually remains
localized
• Malignant – invasive and can
metastasize; cancerous
• Two major types of genes
cause cancer:
• Oncogenes – activate other
genes that increase cell division
• Tumor suppressor genes –
normally regulate mitosis; if
inactivated they are unable to
regulate mitosis
• Cells are now known as
“immortal”
Normal cells
(with hairlike cilia)
Cancer cells
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3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells
• Stem cell:
• Can divide to form two new stem cells
• Self-renewal
• Can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell
• Totipotent – can give rise to every cell type
• Pluripotent – can give rise to a restricted number of cell types
• Progenitor cell:
• Committed cell
• Can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells
• Pluripotent

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Stem and Progenitor Cells
one or more steps
Sperm
Egg
Fertilized
egg
Stem cell
Stem cell
Progenitor cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Blood cells and platelets
Fibroblasts (a connective tissue cells)
Bone cells
Progenitor
cell
Astrocyte
Neuron
Skin cell
Sebaceous
gland cell
produces another stem cell
(self-renewal)
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
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3.1 From Science to
Technology
Therapeutic Stem Cells

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3.7: Cell Death
Apoptosis:
• Programmed cell death
• Acts as a protective mechanism
• Is a continuous process

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Important Points in Chapter 3:
Outcomes to be Assessed
3.1: Introduction
 Define cell.
 State the range of cell numbers and cells sizes in a human body.
 State the term for cell specialization.
3.2: A Composite Cell
 List the three major parts of a composite cell.
 State the general function of organelles.
 Explain how the structure of a cell membrane makes possible its
function.
 Describe each type of organelle, and explain its function.
 Describe the parts of a cell nucleus and their functions.

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Important Points in Chapter 3:
Outcomes to be Assessed
3.3: Movement Into and Out of the Cell
 Explain the various ways that substances move through the cell
membrane.
 Discuss how the mechanisms of crossing cell membranes differ.
3.4: The Cell Cycle
 Describe the parts of the cell cycle and identify the major activities
during each part.
 Explain why regulation of the cell cycle is important to health.
 Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.
 List the stages of mitosis and describe the events of each stage.

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Important Points in Chapter 3:
Outcomes to be Assessed
3.5: Control of Cell Division
 Explain how different types of cells differ in their rate of cells
division.
 State the range of cell divisions a cell typically undergoes.
 Discuss factors that influence whether or not a cell divides.
 Explain how cancer arises from too-frequent cell division.
 Distinguish the two types of genetic control of cancer.
3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells
 Define differentiation.
 Distinguish between a stem cell and a progenitor cell.
 Explain how two differentiated cell types can have the same genetic
information, but different appearances and functions.

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Important Points in Chapter 3:
Outcomes to be Assessed
3.7: Cell Death
 Define apoptosis.
 Distinguish apoptosis from necrosis.
 List the steps of apoptosis.
 Describe the relationship between apoptosis and mitosis.

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Quiz 3
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Read Chapter 4.