CHAPTER 7 Extraction of metals from sulphide ores.pdf

Introduction
Winning of metals from sulphide ores
Extraction of Copper
a. Hydro - metallurgy of copper
b. Pyro - metallurgical extraction of copper
c. Newer process for copper extraction
d. Energy concepts in copper smelting
Extraction of metals from oxide members
Extraction of Lead
i. Treatments of ores of lead and its production
ii. Modern developments in lead smelting
Extraction of Zinc
a. Pyro - metallurgical extraction
b. Hydro – metallurgical extraction
c. Imperial smelting process
d. Production of other metals by ISP
e. Zinc from lead slags by slag fuming
Extraction of Nickel
Pyro – metallurgical process

1. DEFENCE ENGINEERING COLLEGEMetallurgical And Materials Engineering
Present By:
Weldebrhan Hadush(Maj.)
Nov., 2019

2. Content
Introduction
Winningofmetalsfromsulphideores
ExtractionofCopper
a.Hydro-metallurgyofcopper
b.Pyro-metallurgicalextractionofcopper
c.Newerprocessforcopperextraction
d.Energyconceptsincoppersmelting
Extraction of metals from oxide members
d.Energyconceptsincoppersmelting
ExtractionofLead
i.Treatmentsoforesofleadanditsproduction
ii.Moderndevelopmentsinleadsmelting
ExtractionofZinc
a.
Pyro-metallurgicalextraction
b.Hydro–metallurgicalextraction
c.Imperialsmeltingprocess
d.ProductionofothermetalsbyISP
e.Zincfromleadslagsbyslagfuming
ExtractionofNickel
Pyro–metallurgicalprocess

3. INTRODUCTION
 Severalcommonnonferrousmetalssuchas copper,lead,zincandnickelare
foundinnatureassulphideminerals.Themineralsarebeneficiatedthroughmineral
dressingmethodssuchasflotation,toobtainconcentratesrichinoneofthemetal
sulphides.Suchsulphideconcentratearesubjectedtoapretreatmentprocessof
roastingintherangeof500
–
800
°
C.
 Duringroasting,sulphurisoxidizedtoSOandsulphidesofmetalarepartlyor
Extraction of metals from sulphideores
 Duringroasting,sulphurisoxidizedtoSO
2
andsulphidesofmetalarepartlyor
completelyoxidizedtooxides.
 Theextentofsulphurremovaldesireddependsonthemetal.Inthecaseoflead,
thesulphuriscompletelyoxidizedtoPbO.
 Forcopperandnickel,onlytheironsulphideimpurityisoxidizedpartlyandthe
othersulphidesareretainedassuch.
 Thehotexhaustgasesfromroaster,containingSO
2
andSO
3
areutilizedinthe
manufactureofsulphuricacid.
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4. Metallurgy of Copper (Cu)
AtomicnumberofCopperis29anditsatomicweightis63.55anddenotedby
symbolCu.Densityofcopperis8.93g/cm
3
.
Copperisfoundasnative(pure)formorcombinedwithotherelementsthatisgood
conductorofheatandelectricity,resistanttocorrosion,canbealloyedtomakebronze
andbrass,reddish-orangebrightmetallicluster,ductileandmalleable.
Extraction of metals from sulphideores
andbrass,reddish-orangebrightmetallicluster,ductileandmalleable.
Occurrence
Copperismostcommonlypresentintheearth’scrustascoppereironesulfideandcopper
sulfideminerals,suchaspyrite/chalcopyrite(CuFeS2)andchalcocite(Cu2S).Copper
alsooccurstoalesserextentinoxidizedminerals(carbonates,oxides,hydroxy-silicates,
sulfates)suchasMalachitegreen[CuCO
3
.Cu(OH)
2
].Azuriteblue[2CuCO
3
.Cu(OH)
2
].
Bornite(3Cu
2
S.Fe
2
S
3
)orpeacockore.Melaconite(CuO)etc.
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5. EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
HYDROMETALLURGICALEXTRACTIONOFCOPPER
About80%ofcopper-from-oreisobtainedbyflotation,smelting,andrefining.The
other20%isobtainedhydro-metallurgically.
Hydrometallurgicalextractionentails:
i.SulfuricacidleachingofCufrombrokenorcrushedoretoproduceimpureaqueoussolution
(leaching)
ii.TransferofCufromthisimpuresolutiontopure,high-Cuelectrolyteviasolventextraction
iii.Electroplatingpurecathodecopperfromthispureelectrolyte.
Theoresmostcommonlytreatedthiswayare:
a.Oxidecopperminerals,includingcarbonates,hydroxy-silicates,sulfates,and
b.Chalcocite(Cu
2
S).
Theleachingismostlydonebydrippingdilutesulfuricacidonthecrushedore
ExtractandpurifyCufromoxideores,usuallyinthreesteps:Leaching,Solventextractionand
Electrowinning
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6. Cont’d
Oxidizedmineralsarerapidlydissolvedbysulfuricacidbyreactionslike:
CuO(s)+H
2
SO
4
(l)→Cu
2+
(aq)+SO
4
2-
(aq)+H
2
O(l)@30 °C
oreacid prenantleachsolution
Sulfideminerals,ontheotherhand,requireoxidation,schematically:
CuS(s)+2.5O
2
(g)+H
2
SO
4
(l)→2Cu
2+
(aq)+SO
4
2-
(aq)+H
2
O(l)@30°C
EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
oreinairacid prenantleachsolution
SolventExtraction
ThesesolutionsaretoodiluteinCuandtooimpurefordirectelectroplatingofpure
coppermetal.TheirCumustbetransferredtopure,high-Cuelectrolyte.
Thesolventextractionprocessisrepresentedbythereaction:
Cu
2+
(aq)+SO
4
2-
(aq)+2RH→ R
2
Cu+H
+
(aq)+SO
4
2-
(aq)@30°C
Inprenantleachsolutioninorganicsolventinorganicsolvent
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7. EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
Cont’d
Electrowinning
TheCuintheaboveelectrolytesisuniversallyrecoveredbyelectroplatingpuremetallic
cathodecopper.Thiselectrowinningissimilartoelectrorefiningexceptthattheanodeis
inert(usuallylead)
Thecathodereactionis:
Cu
2+
(aq)+ 2e
-
→ Cu(s) @60 °C
sulfateelectrolyteelectronsfromexternalpowerpuremetaldepositeoncathode
Theanodereactionis:
H
2
O(l)→0.5O
2
(g)+ H
+
(aq)+ 2e
-
@60°C
inelectrolyteinvolveinanodeinelectrolyteelectronsfromexternalpower
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8. EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
Electrowinningofcopper
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9. EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
PYRO-METALLURGICALEXTRACTIONOFCOPPER
About80%ofcopper-from-oreisobtainedbyflotation,smelting,andrefining.Ores
containing4%ormorecopperaretreatedbysmeltingprocess.Verypoororesaretreated
byhydro-metallurgicalprocess.Largeamountofcopperareobtainedfromcopper
pyriteorchalcopyrite(CuFeS
2
)bysmelting.
CONCENTRATIONCONCENTRATION
ThefinelycrushedoreisconcentratedbyFroth-Floatationprocess.
Thefinelycrushedoreissuspendedinwatercontainingalittleamountofpineoil.A
blastofairispassedthroughthesuspension.
Theparticlesgetwettedbytheoilandfloatasafrothwhichisskimmed.Thegangue
(unwantedmaterials)sinkstothebottomthenremoved.
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10. EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
8
Froth floatation process
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11. ROASTING
Theconcentratedoreisthenroastedinafurnacebetween500°Cand700°Cinthe
presenceofacurrentofair.SulphurisoxidizedtoSO
2
andimpuritiesofAsandSbare
removedasvolatileoxides.Thefollowingreactiontakesplace.
2CuFeS
2
+O
2
→Cu
2
S+2FeS+SO
2
S+O
2
→SO
2
4As+3O
2
→As
2
O
3
4Sb+3O
2
→2Sb
2
O
3
EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
4Sb+3O
2
→2Sb
2
O
3
Cuproussulphideandferroussulphidearefurtheroxidizedintotheiroxides.
2Cu
2
S+3O
2
→2Cu
2
O+2SO
2
2FeS+3O
2
→2FeO+2SO
2
SMELTING
Theroastedoreismixedwithcokeandsilica(sand)SiO
2
andisintroducedintoablast
furnacewith1200°C.ThehotairisblastedandFeOisconvertedintoferroussilicate
(FeSiO
3
).
FeO+SiO
2
→FeSiO
3
Cu
2
O+FeS→Cu
2
S+FeO
FeSiO
3
(slag)floatsoverthemoltenmatteofcopper.
(
IfnoenoughSiO
2,
CaOaddedtolowerM.Pand
increasefluidityofslaggoodforphaseseparation.
9

12. BESSEMERIZATION
Coppermetalisextractedfrommoltenmattethroughbessemerization.
ThematteisintroducedintoBessemerconverterwhichupholdbytuyeres.Theairis
blownthroughthemoltenmatte.BlastofairconvertsCu
2
SpartlyintoCu
2
Owhich
reactswithremainingCu
2
Stogivemoltencopper.
2Cu
2
S+3O
2
→
2Cu
2
O+2SO
2
2CuO+CuS
→
6Cu+SO
EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
2Cu
2
O+Cu
2
S
→
6Cu+SO
2
10

13. Impuritiesinblistercopperandtheireffects
Blistercopperis99%pure.ItcontainsimpuritiesmainlyironbutlittleamountofAs,
Zn,Pb,AgandAumayalsobepresent.Theseimpuritiesadverselyaffectthe
electricalaswellasmechanicalpropertiesofcopper.Therefore,theymustbe
removed.
REFININGOFCOPPER
EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
REFININGOFCOPPER
Blistercopperisrefinedbyelectrolysis.Blocksofblistercopperarecastedtouseas
anodesandthinsheetsofpurecopperactascathodes.Thecathodeplatesarecoated
withgraphiteinordertoremovedepositingcopper.Theelectrolyteiscoppersulphate
(CuSO
4
)mixedwithalittleamountofH
2
SO
4
toincreasetheelectricalconductivity.
Optimumpotentialdifferenceis1.3voltforthiselectrolyticprocess.
Duringelectrolysis,purecopperisdepositedonthecathodeplatesandimpurities
whicharesolubleandfalltothebottomofthecellasanodemudorsludge.
11

14. Electrochemicalchangesduringelectrolysis
Cu→Cu
+2
+2e-(attheanode)
Cu
+2
+2e-→Cu(atthecathode)
EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
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15. Applicationofcopper
Copperisusedforelectricwiresduetothenatureofverygoodconductorof
electricity,usedforelectricalcomponentsductile,
Copperisusedinwaterpipesbecausecopperisnon-poisonous,strong,malleableand
ductile,corrosionresistant,usedin
EXTRACTION OF COPPEREXTRACTION OF COPPER
ductile,corrosionresistant,usedin
Copperusedforcookingutensilsbecauseitisexcellentconductorofheat,
nonpoisonous,strong,malleable,corrosionresistant
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17. Metallurgy of Lead (Pb)
AtomicnumberofLeadis82anditsatomicweightis207.2anddenotedby
symbolPb.Densityofleadis11.34g/cm
3
.Itisasoft,malleable,ductile,bluish-white,
densemetallicelement.
Healtheffectsoflead:
Extraction of metals from sulphideores
 Damagemostorgans:kidney,hepatic
 Deathcanoccuratextremely
highlevels,
Cognitivedevelopmentinchildren
Occurrence
Leadrarelyfoundpureinnatureanmainlyoccursasgalena(PbS),andOthercommon
varietiesincludecerussite(PbCO
3
)andangelsite(PbSO
4
).
15
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18. EXTRACTIONOFLEAD
CrushingandOreDressing
Theprocessesofsizereductioninvolvethebreakageorfractureofparticleswhereas
Forsmallore,crushingandgrindingdoesn’tneedbecauselosingofenergy,thenfine
grindingcanbeallowedforsmalloreinsize.
EXTRACTION OF LEAD
Oredressingistheprocessofseparatingcommerciallyvaluablemineralsfrom
theirores.FlotationProcessisgenerallyusedinoredressingprocess.Asubstanceis
addedthatwetsthezincore,allowingittosinktothebottom,butdoesnotwetthe
galena,allowingittobecaughtupinafoamthatfloatsonthesurfaceofthewater.
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19. Cont’d
Leadsmelting
Thestandardmethodforleadproductionisroast-reduction.Duetothesulfurcontent,carbon
fromthecokewillnotbeabletoreducelead.Therefore,themineralmustberoastedto
oxidizesulfurandcreateametaloxideoutofgalena.
2PbS+3O
2
→2PbO+2SO
2
*gelenaisroastedtoremovesulfer
EXTRACTION OF LEAD
2PbO+C→2Pb+2CO
2
Analternativemethodistheroast-reactionthatisraworeisthenaddedtotheproductsandis
heatedfurther.
2PbO+PbS→3Pb+SO
2
ThestandardGibbsfreeenergychangeforthisreactionisnagativeabove900°C,butisless
sothatthecorrespondingcopperreaction,FurthermorePbS,PbOandPbarerathervolatile,
Whichsetsasupperlimittothetemperaturewhichcanbeusedwithoutexcessivevaporlosses.
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20. Cont’d
Theresultisnotjustleadsulphide,butalsothesulphidesofcopper,iron,zinc,
antimonyandarsenic.Theenrichedoreisthenroastedinovenstodriveoffasmuch
ofthesulphuraspossible.Theroastedoremustbegroundandsinteredtoputitinthe
formofporouschunksthatallowgasestopassthroughfreely,andwillnotcollapse
intoathick,imperviouslayerintheblastfurnace.
EXTRACTION OF LEAD
intoathick,imperviouslayerintheblastfurnace.
Leadoresaresuchthatthesetwooperationsarebestcombinedintoonesimultaneous
roasting-sinteringprocessthatproducesasinterreadyfortheleadblastfurnace.
Sintering:Thelead(II)oxideisheatedandmadeintolumps,aprocessknownas
sintering.Thelumps(thesinter)arecrushedandsortedtoasuitablesizefor
subsequenttreatmentinablastfurnace,similarinconstructiontothoseformakingiron
butsmaller.
18
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21. EXTRACTION OF LEAD
Fig: Sintering Machine
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22. Cont’d
Thesecondstageofsmeltingcantakeplaceinanorehearth,oralargerblastfurnace.
Thesinteredoreischarged,withcoke,limestoneflux,andotheradditives
dependingontheimpuritiespresent.
Theproductsthataccumulateatthebottomarelead,matte(containingironand
copper),speiss(containingironandarsenic),andslag(containingthesilicates,zinc,
EXTRACTION OF LEAD
copper),speiss(containingironandarsenic),andslag(containingthesilicates,zinc,
ironandcalcium).Coldairisblowninatthebottom,andfluedustandgasescome
outthetop.
Zinc,incidentally,doesnotdissolveinmoltenlead,andcanbeaddedtoextract
impuritiesbydifferentialsolubility.
20
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23. Cont’d
Whentheleadhasbeensufficientlyrefined,itiscooledandcastintoblockswhichmay
weighasmuchasaton.Thisisthefinishedproduct.Leadalloysmayalsobeproducedat
thesmelterplant.
EXTRACTION OF LEAD
21
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24. Applicationoflead
Widelyusedinbatteries,
Cableandironrodsheathsforcorrosives,
Soldering,
Bullets
EXTRACTION OF LEADEXTRACTION OF LEAD
Bullets
Usedwithothercompoundsinmanufacturingofpaintsandpigments
Shipbuilding,lightindustry,
Leadoxide,
Radiationprotection/radiationshieldingandotherindustries.
DUC 2019/20
22

26. Metallurgy of Zinc (Zn)
Atomicnumberof Zinc is30 and itsatomicweightis66.39and denotedby
symbolZn.Densityofzincis7.13g/cm
3
.ItishaswhitesilvercolorwithT
m
:420
0
c.
Occurrence
EXTRACTION OF ZINC
ZincoccursinnaturemainlyasSphalerite(ZnS),Zincite(ZnO),Calamine
(Zn
2
(OH)
2
SiO
3
),Smithsone(ZnCO
3
),andFranklinite(ZnO(Fe,Mn)2O
4
)
Typicalzincoresgenerallycontainabout5-15%metals.
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27. EXTRACTIONOFZINC
Zinccanbeextractinbothpyro-metallurgyandhydro-metallurgythesefollowselectrochemical
treatment.
Pyrometallurgicaltreatment
Inironandcopperduringreductionprocessvaporpressureofmetalisnegligiblewhereas,inzinc
metalthevaporpressureisappreciableinthepyro-matllurgyproduction,themetalisobtainedasa
EXTRACTION OF ZINC
metalthevaporpressureisappreciableinthepyro-matllurgyproduction,themetalisobtainedasa
gasratherthanasaliquid.
Thevaporpressureofpuremetalisgivenby:
RTlnP
Metal
=-ΔG
Vapor
=-ΔH
Vapor
+TΔS
Vapor
ParticlarlytherearenophasetransformationinthecondensedphaseofZnthenΔH
Vapor
and
ΔS
Vapor
areindependentwithtemperatureandvaporpressurevarieswiththetemperatureaccording
therelation:logP
metal
=A/T+B
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28. Crushingandoredressing
Thezincblende(sphalerite:zincsulphide)isfirstcrushedtopowder,wetgrinding
andthentreatedbyfrothflotation.
FrothfloatationhasbeenusedwithaidofCuSO
4
tocollectZincore.
Roasting
RoastingwasdonetoconvertsulphideZincorestoitsoxide,byO
2
flow&removalof
EXTRACTION OF ZINC
SO
2
at700-800°C.Thisreactionisexothermic,whichincreasesthetemperatureupto
1000°C.
ZnS+3/2O
2
→ZnO+SO
2
(Pyro-Metallurgy)
ZnS+2O
2
→ ZnSO
4
(Hydro-Metallurgy)
Solubleinwater&diluteacids
26
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29. EXTRACTION OF ZINC
Zinc sulphide
ores
Crushing and
grinding
Flotation
Acid
Flotation
Concentrated
sulfide ore
Roasting
ZnO(<1% S)
Smelting
SO
2
Acid
plant
Air blow
700-600 °C
Fig:ProductionZinc
27
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30. Smelting
Thezincoxideisthenreducedtothemetalusingeitherathermaloranelectrolytic
process.
ZnOistreatedinblastfurnace,reductiondonewithcarbon&limestoneat500°Cas
apreheating,thenO
2
suppliedfromtopfurnacetoproducecarbonmonoxide(CO)at
1300°C.
EXTRACTION OF ZINC
Reductionsmeltingreactionasfollows:
C+½O
2
→CO
C+O
2
→CO
2
CO
2
+C→2CO
ZnO+CO→Zn(g)+CO
2
P
CO2
/P
CO
=K
1
/P
Zn
ZninVapor
28
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31. Cont’d
Znvaporisdrawnat1000°Cthencooledrapidlyto550°Cinmoltenleadbathto
producecondensatezinc(containsmallamountofCd)whichisdenserthanother
component(Znsinktothebottom),thentappedof,whileslug(lighter)tappedfromabove.
Twolayerswillformasfollows:
1.Zinccontains1wt%Pb→drawntomorerefiningbydistillationtoproducepureZn.
EXTRACTION OF ZINC
1.Zinccontains1wt%Pb→drawntomorerefiningbydistillationtoproducepureZn.
2.Pbcontains2.25wt%Zn→returntocondenser.
ThenRedistillationatT=765
0
ctovaporizeCdoff.
Zincproducedbythisprocessisabout98.5%pureandcanbefurtherrefinedifrequired.
Around15%oftheworld'szincisproducedthisway.
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32. EXTRACTION OF ZINC
Fig: Blast furnace used in zinc process
30

33. Electrolyticrefining(Hydrometallurgy)
Zincrefiningincluded;leaching,purification,electrolysis,andmelting&casting.
Thecrudezincoxideisdissolvedindilutesulphuricacid
(H
2
SO
4
)
toproduceasolution
ofZincsulphateafterfiltrationandpurificationthesolution.
ZnO+H
2
SO
4
→ZnSO
4
+H
2
O
EXTRACTION OF ZINC
ZnO+H
2
SO
4
→ZnSO
4
+H
2
OZnSO
4
electrolysedusinga(Pb-1%Ag)anodeandanaluminumcathode.
O
2
isreleasedatanode,whileZincisdepositedonthecathode.H
2
SO
4
isregeneratedat
theanodeandcanbeusedagain.
31
Fig;Electrolyticrefiningofzinc

34. ApplicationofZinc
Protectivecoatingforsteel(Galvanizing)
Usedtocoatsteeltoprotectitfromcorrosionatroomtemperatureandfor
decorativefinish.
FabricationofalloyssuchasCu-Znbrasses
EXTRACTION OF ZINCEXTRACTION OF ZINC
Rolledzincplatesareusedindrycellbatteries
formabilityofthemetalmakesitidealforforgingandextrusion
Usedwithothercompoundsinmanufacturingofpaintsandpigments
DUC 2019/20
33

36. Metallurgy of Nickel (Ni)
Atomicnumberof nickel is28and itsatomicweightis58.69and denotedby
symbolNi.DensityofNickelis7.13g/cm
3
.Asilverymetalthatresistscorrosion
even
athightemperatures.
EXTRACTION OF NICKEL
Occurrence
NickeloccursinnaturemainlyasNickel-ironsulfides(FeNi
4
S
4
+3
)and
laterite(Hydrousnickelsilicate).Bothofthemtypicallycontain1-3%ofnickel.
35
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37. Extractionofnickel
Crushingandoredressing
Thenickelsulfideisfirstcrushedtopowder,wetgrindingandthentreatedby
frothflotation.
Frothfloatationhasbeenusedtoseparatofthenickelsulfidemineralfromthe
gangue.Thisoperationisconductedinaflotationchamberwherethegroundore
EXTRACTION OF NICKEL
gangue.Thisoperationisconductedinaflotationchamberwherethegroundore
mixedwithwateristreatedbyairbubbleswhichmoveupwardandcauseflotation
ofthemineralparticlestothetopofthechamber.
36
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38. Smelting
AtthisstagetheconcentrateissmeltedintheBessemerconvertertoproducea
mixtureofnickel,copperandothermetalscalledmatte.Thegangueisabsorbedby
theslagandremoved.
EXTRACTION OF NICKEL
Extractionofnickelfromthelateriteores
Extractionofnickelfromthelateriteoresiscarriedoutbyeitherpyrometallurgicalor
hydrometallurgicalprocess:
Hydrometallurgicalprocessinvolvesammoniacalorsulfuricacidleachingfollowed
bynickelprecipitatation.
pyrometallurgicalprocesstheoreisdriedandcalcinedinarotarykilnandthen
smeltedinanelectricfurnacewithadditionofcarbon.
37

39. Cont’d
Mondprocess
TheMondprocess,sometimesknownasthecarbonylprocess,isatechniquecreated
byLudwigMondin1890,toextractandpurifynickel.Thisprocessconvertsnickel
oxidesintopurenickel.
Thisprocessinvolvesthefactthatcarbonmonoxidecombineswithnickelreadilyand
EXTRACTION OF NICKEL
Thisprocessinvolvesthefactthatcarbonmonoxidecombineswithnickelreadilyand
reversiblytogivenickelcarbonyl.Nootherelementformsacarbonylcompoundunder
themildconditionsusedintheprocess.
Mondprocess:
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40. Mondprocesshasthreesteps:
1.NickeloxidereactswithSyngasat200°Ctogivenickel,togetherwithimpurities
includingironandcobalt.
NiO(s)+H
2
(g)→Ni(s)+H
2
O(g)
2.Theimpurenickelreactswithcarbonmonoxideat50–60°Ctoformthegasnickel
carbonyl,leavingtheimpuritiesassolids.
EXTRACTION OF NICKEL
carbonyl,leavingtheimpuritiesassolids.
Ni(s)+4CO(g)→Ni(CO)
4
(g)
3.ThemixtureofnickelcarbonylandSyngasisheatedto 220–250°C,resultingin
decompositionbacktonickelandcarbonmonoxide:
Ni(CO)
4
(g)→Ni(s)+4CO(g)
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41. ApplicationofNickel
Usedforalloyingelements(stainlesssteel),
Coatings,
Inkitchenwares,
Medicalequipment,
Transport,buildings,
EXTRACTION OF NICKELEXTRACTION OF NICKEL
Transport,buildings,
Powergenerationandjewellery.
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42. EXTRACTION OF Sulfides EXTRACTION OF Sulfides
Reaction Gibb’sfree energy
41

43. “The future can not be predicted,
but it can be made !”