Chapter 7 - The Nervous System

Chapter 7 - The Nervous System

1. The Nervous System

2. Functions of the Nervous System Sensory input—gathering information To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body Changes = stimuli Integration To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed

3. Functions of the Nervous System Motor output A response to integrated stimuli The response activates muscles or glands

4. Functions of the Nervous System Figure 7.1

5. Structural Classification of the Nervous System Central nervous system (CNS) Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord Spinal nerves Cranial nerves

6. Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System Sensory (afferent) division Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system Motor (efferent) division Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system

7. Organization of the Nervous System Figure 7.2

8. Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System Motor (efferent) division (continued) Two subdivisions Somatic nervous system = voluntary Autonomic nervous system = involuntary

9. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as “neuroglia” Function: to support, insulate, and protect neurons

10. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Astrocytes Abundant, star-shaped cells Brace neurons Form barrier between capillaries and neurons Control the chemical environment of the brain

11. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Figure 7.3a

12. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Microglia Spiderlike phagocytes Dispose of debris

13. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Figure 7.3b

14. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Ependymal cells Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord Circulate cerebrospinal fluid

15. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Figure 7.3c

16. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Oligodendrocytes Wrap around nerve fibers in the central nervous system Produce myelin sheaths

17. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Figure 7.3d

18. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Satellite cells Protect neuron cell bodies Schwann cells Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system

19. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Figure 7.3e

20. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Neurons = nerve cells Cells specialized to transmit messages Major regions of neurons Cell body—nucleus and metabolic center of the cell Processes—fibers that extend from the cell body

21. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Cell body Nissl substance Specialized rough endoplasmic reticulum Neurofibrils Intermediate cytoskeleton Maintains cell shape

22. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Figure 7.4

23. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Cell body Nucleus Large nucleolus Processes outside the cell body Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the cell body Axons—conduct impulses away from the cell body

24. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Figure 7.4

25. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Axons end in axonal terminals Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap Synaptic cleft—gap between adjacent neurons Synapse—junction between nerves

26. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Myelin sheath—whitish, fatty material covering axons Schwann cells—produce myelin sheaths in jelly roll–like fashion Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin sheath along the axon

27. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Figure 7.5

28. Neuron Cell Body Location Most neuron cell bodies are found in the central nervous system Gray matter—cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the central nervous system Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system

29. Functional Classification of Neurons Sensory (afferent) neurons Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS Cutaneous sense organs Proprioceptors —detect stretch or tension Motor (efferent) neurons Carry impulses from the central nervous system to viscera, muscles, or glands

30. Functional Classification of Neurons Figure 7.7

31. Functional Classification of Neurons Interneurons (association neurons) Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system Connect sensory and motor neurons

32. Neuron Classification Figure 7.6

33. Figure 7.8a Structural Classification of Neurons Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the cell body

34. Structural Classification of Neurons Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite Figure 7.8b

35. Structural Classification of Neurons Unipolar neurons—have a short single process leaving the cell body Figure 7.8c

36. Functional Properties of Neurons Irritability Ability to respond to stimuli Conductivity Ability to transmit an impulse

37. Nerve Impulses Resting neuron The plasma membrane at rest is polarized Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell Depolarization A stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s membrane A depolarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow inside the membrane The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron

38. Nerve Impulses Figure 7.9a–b

39. Nerve Impulses Action potential If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire axon Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath

40. Nerve Impulses Figure 7.9c–d

41. Nerve Impulses Repolarization Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the membrane The sodium-potassium pump, using ATP, restores the original configuration

42. Nerve Impulses Figure 7.9e–f

43. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon terminal The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter An action potential is started in the dendrite

44. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Figure 7.10 Axon terminal Vesicles Synaptic cleft Action potential arrives Synapse Axon of transmitting neuron Receiving neuron Neurotrans - mitter is re- leased into synaptic cleft Neurotrans- mitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter molecules Ion channels Receiving neuron Transmitting neuron Receptor Neurotransmitter Na + Na + Neurotransmitter broken down and released Ion channel opens Ion channel closes

45. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Figure 7.10, step 1 Axon terminal Vesicles Synaptic cleft Action potential arrives Synapse Axon of transmitting neuron Receiving neuron

46. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Figure 7.10, step 2 Axon terminal Vesicles Synaptic cleft Action potential arrives Synapse Axon of transmitting neuron Receiving neuron Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Synaptic cleft Ion channels Receiving neuron Transmitting neuron

47. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Figure 7.10, step 3 Axon terminal Vesicles Synaptic cleft Action potential arrives Synapse Axon of transmitting neuron Receiving neuron Neurotrans - mitter is re- leased into synaptic cleft Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter molecules Ion channels Receiving neuron Transmitting neuron

48. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Figure 7.10, step 4 Axon terminal Vesicles Synaptic cleft Action potential arrives Synapse Axon of transmitting neuron Receiving neuron Neurotrans- mitter is re- leased into synaptic cleft Neurotrans- mitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter molecules Ion channels Receiving neuron Transmitting neuron

49. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Figure 7.10, step 5 Axon terminal Vesicles Synaptic cleft Action potential arrives Synapse Axon of transmitting neuron Receiving neuron Neurotrans- mitter is re- leased into synaptic cleft Neurotrans - mitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter molecules Ion channels Receiving neuron Transmitting neuron Receptor Neurotransmitter Na + Ion channel opens

50. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Figure 7.10, step 6 Axon terminal Vesicles Synaptic cleft Action potential arrives Synapse Axon of transmitting neuron Receiving neuron Neurotrans- mitter is re- leased into synaptic cleft Neurotrans- mitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter molecules Ion channels Receiving neuron Transmitting neuron Receptor Neurotransmitter Na + Na + Neurotransmitter broken down and released Ion channel opens Ion channel closes

51. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Figure 7.10, step 7 Axon terminal Vesicles Synaptic cleft Action potential arrives Synapse Axon of transmitting neuron Receiving neuron Neurotrans- mitter is re- leased into synaptic cleft Neurotrans- mitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter molecules Ion channels Receiving neuron Transmitting neuron Receptor Neurotransmitter Na + Na + Neurotransmitter broken down and released Ion channel opens Ion channel closes

52. The Reflex Arc Reflex—rapid, predictable, and involuntary response to a stimulus Occurs over pathways called reflex arcs Reflex arc—direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector

53. The Reflex Arc Figure 7.11a Stimulus at distal end of neuron Skin Spinal cord (in cross section) Interneuron Receptor Effector Sensory neuron Motor neuron Integration center (a)

54. The Reflex Arc Figure 7.11a, step 1 Stimulus at distal end of neuron Skin Receptor (a)

55. The Reflex Arc Figure 7.11a, step 2 Stimulus at distal end of neuron Skin Receptor Sensory neuron (a)

56. The Reflex Arc Figure 7.11a, step 3 Stimulus at distal end of neuron Skin Spinal cord (in cross section) Interneuron Receptor Sensory neuron Integration center (a)

57. The Reflex Arc Figure 7.11a, step 4 Stimulus at distal end of neuron Skin Spinal cord (in cross section) Interneuron Receptor Sensory neuron Motor neuron Integration center (a)

58. The Reflex Arc Figure 7.11a, step 5 Stimulus at distal end of neuron Skin Spinal cord (in cross section) Interneuron Receptor Effector Sensory neuron Motor neuron Integration center (a)

59. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11b–c Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron Inter- neuron Motor (efferent) neuron Motor (efferent) neuron Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Sensory (afferent) neuron Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) Effector (quadriceps muscle of thigh) Effector (biceps brachii muscle) Synapse in ventral horn gray matter (c) (b)

60. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11b, step 1 Spinal cord Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) (b)

61. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11b, step 2 Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) (b)

62. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11b, step 3 Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Synapse in ventral horn gray matter (b)

63. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11b, step 4 Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron Motor (efferent) neuron Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Synapse in ventral horn gray matter (b)

64. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11b, step 5 Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron Motor (efferent) neuron Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Effector (quadriceps muscle of thigh) Synapse in ventral horn gray matter (b)

65. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11c, step 1 Spinal cord Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) (c)

66. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11c, step 2 Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) (c)

67. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11c, step 3 Spinal cord Inter- neuron Sensory (afferent) neuron Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) (c)

68. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11c, step 4a Spinal cord Inter- neuron Motor (efferent) neuron Sensory (afferent) neuron Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) (c)

69. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11c, step 4b Spinal cord Inter- neuron Motor (efferent) neuron Sensory (afferent) neuron Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) Effector (biceps brachii muscle) (c)

70. Simple Reflex Arc Figure 7.11b–c Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron Inter- neuron Motor (efferent) neuron Motor (efferent) neuron Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Sensory (afferent) neuron Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) Effector (quadriceps muscle of thigh) Effector (biceps brachii muscle) Synapse in ventral horn gray matter (c) (b)

71. Types of Reflexes and Regulation Somatic reflexes Activation of skeletal muscles Example : When you move your hand away from a hot stove

72. Types of Reflexes and Regulation Autonomic reflexes Smooth muscle regulation Heart and blood pressure regulation Regulation of glands Digestive system regulation

73. Types of Reflexes and Regulation Patellar, or knee-jerk, reflex is an example of a two-neuron reflex arc Figure 7.11d

74. Central Nervous System (CNS) CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles Four chambers within the brain Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

75. Central Nervous System (CNS) Figure 7.12a

76. Regions of the Brain Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum) Diencephalon Brain stem Cerebellum

77. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.12b

78. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain Includes more than half of the brain mass The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)

79. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.13a

80. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Lobes of the cerebrum Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes Surface lobes of the cerebrum Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe

81. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.13b

82. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Specialized areas of the cerebrum Primary somatic sensory area Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors Located in parietal lobe Primary motor area Sends impulses to skeletal muscles Located in frontal lobe Broca’s area Involved in our ability to speak

83. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.13c

84. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.14

85. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Cerebral areas involved in special senses Gustatory area (taste) Visual area Auditory area Olfactory area

86. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Interpretation areas of the cerebrum Speech/language region Language comprehension region General interpretation area

87. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.13c

88. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Layers of the cerebrum Gray matter—outer layer in the cerebral cortex composed mostly of neuron cell bodies White matter—fiber tracts deep to the gray matter Corpus callosum connects hemispheres Basal nuclei—islands of gray matter buried within the white matter

89. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.15

90. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Figure 7.16

91. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Sits on top of the brain stem Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres Made of three parts Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus

92. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Figure 7.12b

93. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Figure 7.16a

94. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon

95. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Figure 7.16b

96. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Thalamus Surrounds the third ventricle The relay station for sensory impulses Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and interpretation

97. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Hypothalamus Under the thalamus Important autonomic nervous system center Helps regulate body temperature Controls water balance Regulates metabolism

98. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Hypothalamus (continued) An important part of the limbic system (emotions) The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus

99. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Epithalamus Forms the roof of the third ventricle Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland) Includes the choroid plexus—forms cerebrospinal fluid

100. Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Attaches to the spinal cord Parts of the brain stem Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata

101. Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Figure 7.16a

102. Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Midbrain Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers Has two bulging fiber tracts— cerebral peduncles Has four rounded protrusions— corpora quadrigemina Reflex centers for vision and hearing

103. Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Pons The bulging center part of the brain stem Mostly composed of fiber tracts Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing

104. Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Medulla Oblongata The lowest part of the brain stem Merges into the spinal cord Includes important fiber tracts Contains important control centers Heart rate control Blood pressure regulation Breathing Swallowing Vomiting

105. Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Reticular Formation Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem Involved in motor control of visceral organs Reticular activating system (RAS) plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness

106. Regions of the Brain: Reticular Formation of the Brain Stem Figure 7.16b

107. Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces Provides involuntary coordination of body movements

108. Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum Figure 7.16a

109. Protection of the Central Nervous System Scalp and skin Skull and vertebral column Meninges Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Blood-brain barrier

110. Protection of the Central Nervous System Figure 7.17a

111. Meninges Dura mater Double-layered external covering Periosteum —attached to inner surface of the skull Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain Folds inward in several areas

112. Meninges Arachnoid layer Middle layer Web-like Pia mater Internal layer Clings to the surface of the brain

113. Meninges Figure 7.17b

114. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Similar to blood plasma composition Formed by the choroid plexus Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord

115. Figure 7.18a–b Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid

116. Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid Figure 7.18c

117. Hydrocephalus in a Newborn Hydrocephalus CSF accumulates and exerts pressure on the brain if not allowed to drain Figure 7.19

118. Blood-Brain Barrier Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body Excludes many potentially harmful substances Useless as a barrier against some substances Fats and fat soluble molecules Respiratory gases Alcohol Nicotine Anesthesia

119. Traumatic Brain Injuries Concussion Slight brain injury No permanent brain damage Contusion Nervous tissue destruction occurs Nervous tissue does not regenerate Cerebral edema Swelling from the inflammatory response May compress and kill brain tissue

120. Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) Commonly called a stroke The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies Loss of some functions or death may result

121. Alzheimer’s Disease Progressive degenerative brain disease Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers within neurons Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion, and ultimately, hallucinations and death

122. Spinal Cord Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end

123. Spinal Cord Anatomy Figure 7.20 (1 of 2)

124. Spinal Cord Anatomy Figure 7.20 (2 of 2)

125. Spinal Cord Anatomy Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies Dorsal (posterior) horns Anterior (ventral) horns Gray matter surrounds the central canal Central canal is filled with cerebrospinal fluid Exterior white matter—conduction tracts Dorsal, lateral, ventral columns

126. Spinal Cord Anatomy Figure 7.21

127. Spinal Cord Anatomy Meninges cover the spinal cord Spinal nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae Dorsal root Associated with the dorsal root ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system Ventral root Contains axons

128. Pathways Between Brain and Spinal Cord Figure 7.22

129. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue

130. PNS: Structure of a Nerve Endoneurium surrounds each fiber Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium Fascicles are bound together by epineurium

131. PNS: Structure of a Nerve Figure 7.23

132. PNS: Classification of Nerves Mixed nerves Both sensory and motor fibers Sensory (afferent) nerves Carry impulses toward the CNS Motor (efferent) nerves Carry impulses away from the CNS

133. PNS: Cranial Nerves 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and neck Only the pair of vagus nerves extend to thoracic and abdominal cavities Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only

134. PNS: Cranial Nerves I Olfactory nerve—sensory for smell II Optic nerve—sensory for vision III Oculomotor nerve—motor fibers to eye muscles IV Trochlear—motor fiber to eye muscles

135. PNS: Cranial Nerves V Trigeminal nerve—sensory for the face; motor fibers to chewing muscles VI Abducens nerve—motor fibers to eye muscles VII Facial nerve—sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve—sensory for balance and hearing

136. PNS: Cranial Nerves IX Glossopharyngeal nerve—sensory for taste; motor fibers to the pharynx X Vagus nerves—sensory and motor fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera XI Accessory nerve—motor fibers to neck and upper back XII Hypoglossal nerve—motor fibers to tongue

137. PNS: The Cranial Nerves Table 7.1 (1 of 4)

138. PNS: The Cranial Nerves Table 7.1 (2 of 4)

139. PNS: The Cranial Nerves Table 7.1 (3 of 4)

140. PNS: The Cranial Nerves Table 7.1 (4 of 4)

141. PNS: Distribution of Cranial Nerves Figure 7.24

142. PNS: Spinal Nerves There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs Formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord Named for the region from which they arise

143. PNS: Spinal Nerves Figure 7.25a

144. PNS: Anatomy of Spinal Nerves Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of the posterior trunk Ventral rami—form a complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior

145. PNS: The Spinal Nerves Figure 7.25b

146. PNS: Spinal Nerve Plexuses Table 7.2 (1 of 2)

147. PNS: Spinal Nerve Plexuses Table 7.2 (2 of 2)

148. Figure 7.26a PNS: Distribution of Major Peripheral Nerves of the Upper and Lower Limbs

149. PNS: Distribution of Major Peripheral Nerves of the Upper and Lower Limbs Figure 7.26b

150. PNS: Distribution of Major Peripheral Nerves of the Upper and Lower Limbs Figure 7.26c

151. PNS: Autonomic Nervous System Motor subdivision of the PNS Consists only of motor nerves Also known as the involuntary nervous system Regulates activities of cardiac and smooth muscles and glands Two subdivisions Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division

152. PNS: Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Nerves Somatic: one motor neuron Autonomic: preganglionic and postganglionic nerves Effector organs Somatic: skeletal muscle Autonomic: smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

153. PNS: Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Neurotransmitters Somatic: always use acetylcholine Autonomic: use acetylcholine, epinephrine, or norepinephrine

154. PNS: Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Figure 7.27

155. PNS: Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division Originates from T 1 through L 2 Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the spinal cord) Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long post-ganglionic neuron transmit impulse from CNS to the effector Norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters to the effector organs

156. Figure 7.28 PNS: Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System

157. PNS: Sympathetic Pathways Figure 7.29

158. PNS: Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division Originates from the brain stem and S 1 through S 4 Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs Always uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter

159. PNS: Autonomic Functioning Sympathetic—“fight or flight” Response to unusual stimulus Takes over to increase activities Remember as the “E” division Exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment

160. PNS: Autonomic Functioning Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites Conserves energy Maintains daily necessary body functions Remember as the “D” division digestion, defecation, and diuresis

161. Table 7.3 (1 of 2) Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the ANS

162. Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the ANS Table 7.3 (2 of 2)

163. Development Aspects of the Nervous System The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop

164. Development Aspects of the Nervous System No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation continues for several years The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult