childhood exanthems.pptxOf course. Here are detailed, lecture-style notes on ELISA designed for medical students, organized for clarity and understanding, moving from basic principles to clinical applications. --- Lecture Notes: Enzyme-Linked Immunosorb

,HERE IS A COMPREHENSIVE AND DETAILED ANALYSIS OF ANTIBIOTICS, ANTIPROTOZOAL, AND ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS, PREPARED AS LECTURE-GRADE NOTES FOR MEDICAL STUDENTS.

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ESSAY ON CLASSES OF ANTIBIOTICS: MODES OF ACTION, ADVERSE EFFECTS, CONTRAINDICATIONS, AND CLINICAL USES

1. INTRODUCTION

ANTIBIOTICS ARE ...

,HERE IS A COMPREHENSIVE AND DETAILED ANALYSIS OF ANTIBIOTICS, ANTIPROTOZOAL, AND ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS, PREPARED AS LECTURE-GRADE NOTES FOR MEDICAL STUDENTS.

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ESSAY ON CLASSES OF ANTIBIOTICS: MODES OF ACTION, ADVERSE EFFECTS, CONTRAINDICATIONS, AND CLINICAL USES

1. INTRODUCTION

ANTIBIOTICS ARE CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS THAT EITHER KILL (BACTERICIDAL) OR INHIBIT THE GROWTH OF (BACTERIOSTATIC) BACTERIA. THEY ARE FUNDAMENTAL TO MODERN MEDICINE. THEIR CLASSIFICATION IS PRIMARILY BASED ON CHEMICAL STRUCTURE, MECHANISM OF ACTION, AND SPECTRUM OF ACTIVITY (NARROW VERSUS BROAD-SPECTRUM). THE RATIONAL SELECTION OF AN ANTIBIOTIC REQUIRES A DEEP UNDERSTANDING OF ITS PHARMACOLOGY, SPECTRUM, AND POTENTIAL FOR HARM, ESPECIALLY IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBAL ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE.

2. MAJOR CLASSES OF ANTIBIOTICS

A. BETA-LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS
THIS CLASS,CHARACTERIZED BY A BETA-LACTAM RING, IS THE LARGEST AND MOST WIDELY USED GROUP OF ANTIBIOTICS. THEY ARE PRIMARILY BACTERICIDAL.

· MODE OF ACTION: THEY IRREVERSIBLY INHIBIT PENICILLIN-BINDING PROTEINS (PBPS), ENZYMES CRITICAL FOR THE FINAL STAGES OF PEPTIDOGLYCAN CROSS-LINKING IN THE BACTERIAL CELL WALL. THIS LEADS TO DEFECTIVE CELL WALL SYNTHESIS, OSMOTIC INSTABILITY, AND BACTERIAL LYSIS.
· SUBCLASSES, ADVERSE EFFECTS, CONTRAINDICATIONS, AND CLINICAL USES:
· PENICILLINS:
· NATURAL PENICILLINS (E.G., PENICILLIN G, PENICILLIN V):
· ADVERSE EFFECTS: HYPERSENSITIVITY (RASH TO ANAPHYLAXIS), DIARRHEA, HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA, JAKE SCH SYNDROME (PROCAINE TOXICITY).
· CONTRAINDICATIONS: PREVIOUS ANAPHYLAXIS TO ANY PENICILLIN.
· CLINICAL USES & DOSAGE:
· PENICILLIN G (IV/IM): SYPHILIS (2.4 MILLION UNITS IM SINGLE DOSE FOR PRIMARY), MENINGOCOCCAL MENINGITIS (4 MILLION UNITS IV EVERY 4 HOURS), STREPTOCOCCAL ENDOCARDITIS.
· PENICILLIN V (ORAL): STREPTOCOCCAL PHARYNGITIS (250-500MG EVERY 6-8 HOURS FOR 10 DAYS).
· PENICILLINASE-RESISTANT PENICILLINS (E.G., METHICILLIN [DISCONTINUED], CLOXACILLIN, FLUCLOXACILLIN):
· ADVERSE EFFECTS: SIMILAR TO OTHER PENICILLINS; INTERSTITIAL NEPHRITIS (HISTORICALLY WITH METHICILLIN).
· CONTRAINDICATIONS: PENICILLIN ANAPHYLAXIS.
· CLINICAL USES & DOSAGE: PENICILLINASE-PRODUCING STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS (NON-MRSA). FLUCLOXACILLIN: 250-500MG ORALLY EVERY 6 HOURS FOR CELLULITIS.
· AMINOPENICILLINS (E.G., AMPICILLIN, AMOXICILLIN):
· ADVERSE EFFECTS: HIGH INCIDENCE OF MACULOPAPULAR RASH, ESPECIALLY IN EBV INFECTION; DIARRHEA.
· CONTRAINDICATIONS: PENICILLIN ANAPHYLAXIS.
· CLINICAL USES & DOSAGE: OTITIS MEDIA, SINUSITIS, LRTIS, URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS (UTIS). AMOXICILLIN: 500MG EVERY 8 HOURS OR 1GM EVERY 12 HOURS. OFTEN COMBINED WITH BETA-LACTAMASE INHIBITORS (E.G., CLAVULANATE) TO EXTEND SPECTRUM.
· ANTI-PSEUDOMONAL PENICILLINS (E.G., PIPERACILLIN, TICARCILLIN):
· ADVERSE EFFECTS: HYPERSENSITIVITY, ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCES (HYPERNATREMIA WITH TICARCILLIN), PLATELET DYSFUNCTION.
· CONTRAINDICATIONS: PENICILLIN ANA