Classification of organisms

classification of living organisms

1. KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA W.C.L CHANDRAPUR Science Holiday Homework Made by: M.S . Saraswati Class: 9 Sub.: Biology Topic: Diversity in Living Organisms

2. Robert Harding Whittaker  (December 27, 1920 – October 20, 1980) was a distinguished American plant ecologist, active in the 1950s to the 1970s. Born in Wichita, Kansas, he obtained a B.A. at Washburn Municipal College (now Washburn University) in Topeka, Kansas, and, following military service, his Ph.D. at the University of Illinois. Robert whittaker

3. Charles Robert Darwin , (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist and geologist, best known for his contributions to evolutionary theory. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and in a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. Charles darwin

4. Carl Linnaeus   (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his  ennoblement  as  Carl von Linné  , was a Swedish  botanist , physician, and  zoologist , who laid the foundations for the modern biological naming scheme of  binomial nomenclature . He is known as the father of modern taxonomy , and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. Many of his writings were in  Latin , and his name is rendered in Latin as  Carolus Linnæus  (after 1761  Carolus a Linné ). CAROLUS LINNAEUS

5. Five kingdom classification MONERA PROTISTA FUNGI plantae animalia

6. Monera is a kingdom that contains unicellular organisms with a prokaryotic cell organization (having no nuclear membrane), such as bacteria. The taxon Monera was first proposed as a phylum by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Subsequently, the phylum was elevated to the rank of kingdom in 1925 by Édouard Chatton. The last commonly accepted mega-classification with the taxon . Monera was the five-kingdom classification system established by Robert Whittaker in 1969. Under the three-domain system of taxonomy, introduced by Carl Woese in 1977, which reflects the evolutionary history of life, the organisms found in kingdom Monera have been divided into two domains, Archaea and Bacteria (with ‘ Eukary ’ as the third domain). Furthermore, the taxon Monera is paraphyletic (does not include all descendants of their most recent common ancestor), as ‘ Archaea ’ and ‘ Eukarya ’ are currently believed to be more closely related than either is to Bacteria. The term " monera " is the informal name of members of this group and is still sometimes used (as is the term "prokaryote") to denote a member of either domain. Most bacteria were classified under Monera ; however, Cyanobacteria (often called the blue-green algae) were initially classified under Plantae due to their ability to photosynthesize. Kingdom monera

7. anabaena

8. mycoplasma

9. A rchaebacteria

10. Eubacteria

11. In some biological taxonomy schemes, protists were a large group of diverse eukaryotic, mainly unicellular microorganisms, that do not form tissues. Formerly, these were assigned to the now-obsolete kingdom Protista . However, in modern taxonomy the Protista are understood to be paraphyletic (not a clade ), so the term remains in use only for convenience, similar to "invertebrate". An equivalent term Protoctista is used for these organisms by various organisations and institutions. Molecular analyses in modern taxonomy have been used to redistribute former members of this group into diverse and sometimes distantly related phyla. When used, the term “ protists ” is now considered to mean similar-appearing but diverse phyla that are not related through an exclusive common ancestor, and which have different life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures. Besides their relatively simple levels of organization, the protists do not have much in common. Kindgom protista The term protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms: the unicellular "animal-like" protozoa, the "plant-like" protophyta (mostly unicellular algae), and the "fungus-like" slime molds and water molds.

12. Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually by binary fission. Some species, for example Plasmodium falciparum , have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually. However, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange between different strains of Plasmodium in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species. Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years ago.The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists . Although sexual reproduction is widespread among extant eukaryotes, it seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that sex appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had the capability for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For example, the common intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, G. lamblia was recently found to have a core set of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present among sexual eukaryotes. These results suggested that G. lamblia is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of sex, was also found in G. lamblia . Kingdom Protista contd ….

13. Nutrition can vary according to the type of protist . Most eukaryotic algae are autotrophic, but the pigments were lost in some groups. Other protists are heterotrophic, and may present phagotrophy , osmotrophy , saprotrophy or parasitism. Some are mixotrophic . Many protists are flagellate, for example, and filter feeding can take place where the flagella find prey. Other protists can engulf bacteria and other food particles, by extending their cell membrane around them to form a food vacuole and digest them internally, in a process termed phagocytosis . Nutritional types in protist metabolism Nutritional type Source of energy Source of carbon Examples   Photoautotrophs    Sunlight   Organic compounds or carbon fixation  Most algae    Chemoheterotrophs  Organic compounds   Organic compounds    Apicomplexa , Trypanosomes or Amoebae  M etabolism

14. Phylogenetic and symbiotic tree of living organisms

15. PARAMOECIUM

16. Phylum Protozoa (Gr., protos -first; zoon - animals; early animals) Unicellular , mostly aquatic (fresh water or marine) animals. Solitary or colonial, free living or parasitic or symbiotic. Body naked or covered by pellicle or hard shells. Body shape may be irregular, spherical, oval, elongated or flattened. Cytoplasm differentiated into outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm.

17. 6. Uninucleate , binucleate or multinucleate. 7. Locomotion using finger-like pseudo- -podia, flagella or cilia. 8. Nutrition is mostly heterotrophic. 9. Asexual reproduction by binary fission, multiple fission, and sexual reproduction by conjugation.

18. Phylum Protozoa is further divided into the following five classes: Class 1: Mastigophora : 1. Locomotory organs are flagella. Examples: Euglena, Noctiluca , Trypanosoma (causes sleeping sickness), Giardia (causes dysentery), Leishmania (causes kala azar ), Volvox

19. euglena

20. Noctiluca

21. Class 2: Sarcodina ( Rhizopoda ): Pseudopodia are the chief organelles of locomotion and food catching. Examples: Amoeba, Entamoeba (causes dysentery), Polystomella , Arcella .

22. Amoeba

23. entamoeba

24. Class 3: Sporozoa : 1. Lack locomotory organelles. 2. All are parasites. Examples: Plasmodium (causes malaria), Monocytosis .

25. plasmodium

26. monocytosis

27. Class 4: Ciliata : Cilia are the chief locomotory and food catching organelles. Examples: Paramoecium , Opalina , Nyctotherus , Vorticella

28. Class 5: Suctoria : Adult without any locomotory organelles Examples: Ephelota

29. FUNGI

30. KINGDOM FUNGI A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes unicellular microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as multicellular fungi that produce familiar fruiting forms known as mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi , which is separate from the other life kingdoms of plants, animals, protists , and bacteria. One difference that places fungi in a different kingdom is that its cell walls contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of plants, bacteria and some protists . Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs , that is, they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores, which may travel through the air or water (a few of which are flagellated). Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota ( true fungi or Eumycetes ), that share a common ancestor (is a monophyletic group ). This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology. In the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany; today it is a separate kingdom in biological taxonomy. Fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.

31. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil, on dead matter. They are both symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles, as a leavening agent for bread, in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins , such as alkaloids and polyketides , that are toxic to animals including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. Kingdom Fungi contd ….

32. The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi, which has been estimated at 1.5 million to 5 million species, with about 5% of these having been formally classified. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christian Hendrik Persoon , and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification of Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla. The classification of fungi is based largely on the characteristics of their spores and spore-bearing structures. Kingdom Fungi contd ….

33. The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos ( σφογγος "sponge"), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds;the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ("sponge") and Schimmel ("mold"). The use of the word mycology , which is derived from the Greek mykes ( μύκης "mushroom") and logos ( λόγος "discourse"),to denote the scientific study of fungi is thought to have originated in 1836 with English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley's publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. A group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular), e.g., "the mycobiota of Ireland". Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , a parasite that has been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. This organism spends part of its life cycle as a motile zoospore, enabling it to propel itself through water and enter its amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean. Kingdom Fungi contd ….

34. Aspergillus

35. Rhizopus is a genus of common saprophytic fungi on plants and specialized parasites on animals. They are found on a wide variety of organic substrates, including "mature fruits and vegetables", jellies, syrups, leather, bread, peanuts, and tobacco. Some Rhizopus species are opportunistic agents of human zygomycosis (fungal infection) and can be fatal. Rhizopus infections may also be a complication of diabetic ketoacidosis.This widespread genus includes at least eight species. Rhizopus species grow as filamentous, branching hyphae that generally lack cross-walls (i.e., they are coenocytic ). They reproduce by forming asexual and sexual spores. In asexual reproduction, sporangiospores are produced inside a spherical structure, the sporangium. Sporangia are supported by a large apophysate columella atop a long stalk, the sporangiophore . Sporangiophores arise among distinctive, root-like rhizoids. In sexual reproduction, a dark zygospore is produced at the point where two compatible mycelia fuse. Upon germination, a zygospore produces colonies that are genetically different from either parent. rhizopus

36. plantae

37. Eichler system of classification in plants

38. cladophora

39. animalia