COMPARATORS and Thread measurement and metrology
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Aug 09, 2024
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About This Presentation
COMPARATORS and Thread measurement and metrology
Slide Content
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Comparators
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Comparators
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Aug 9, 2024
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Interchangeability
•Interchangeability consists in making the different
parts of a mechanism so uniform in size and
contour that each part of a certain model will
assemble with any mating part of the same model
regardless of the lot to which it belongs or when it
was made.
•To have interchangeability, all the components
are manufactured within the required tolerance
and the system of limits have been standardised.
•Interchangeability means that the parts which
make up a device on a machine are made and
gaged, so that they can be interchanged or
replaced with other parts similarly made and
gaged and assembled into a complete unit without
the necessities of manual fitting.
Aug 9, 2024
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Interchangeability
•Interchangeability consists in making the different
parts of a mechanism so uniform in size and
contour that each part of a certain model will
assemble with any mating part of the same model
regardless of the lot to which it belongs or when it
was made.
•To have interchangeability, all the components
are manufactured within the required tolerance
and the system of limits have been standardised.
•Interchangeability means that the parts which
make up a device on a machine are made and
gaged, so that they can be interchanged or
replaced with other parts similarly made and
gaged and assembled into a complete unit without
the necessities of manual fitting.
Aug 9, 2024
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Selective assembly
•After manufacturing the components, they are
measured and grouped into different groups. Each
group containing components within close values.
They are then assembled with the mating parts
which have been similarly groups. This is used in
bearings, pillar die sets etc.
•A practical example of selective method of
assembling is found in the production of ball
bearings. The balls are sorted into groups,
according to their size, to facilitate the assemble
of any bearing with balls of uniform size.
Aug 9, 2024
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Selective assembly
•After manufacturing the components, they are
measured and grouped into different groups. Each
group containing components within close values.
They are then assembled with the mating parts
which have been similarly groups. This is used in
bearings, pillar die sets etc.
•A practical example of selective method of
assembling is found in the production of ball
bearings. The balls are sorted into groups,
according to their size, to facilitate the assemble
of any bearing with balls of uniform size.
Aug 9, 2024
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Interchangeability and selective assembly
Interchangeability
refers to
producing finished
duplicate parts in
lots to the desired
accuracy IN two
different isolated
production units at
a different
geographical
regions.
Selective assembly
refers to SORTING
and ASSEMBLING
of parts according
to their size,
generally WITHIN
the single
production unit.
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Interchangeability and selective assembly
Interchangeability
refers to
producing finished
duplicate parts in
lots to the desired
accuracy IN two
different isolated
production units at
a different
geographical
regions.
Selective assembly
refers to SORTING
and ASSEMBLING
of parts according
to their size,
generally WITHIN
the single
production unit.
Aug 9, 2024
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COMPARATORS
Comparators can give precision measurements, with
consistent accuracy by eliminating human error. They are
employed to find out, by how much the dimensions of the
given component differ from that of a known datum.
It is an indirect type of instrument and
used for linear measurement. If the
dimension is less or greater, than the
standard, then the difference will be
shown on the dial.
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COMPARATORS
Comparators can give precision measurements, with
consistent accuracy by eliminating human error. They are
employed to find out, by how much the dimensions of the
given component differ from that of a known datum.
It is an indirect type of instrument and
used for linear measurement. If the
dimension is less or greater, than the
standard, then the difference will be
shown on the dial.
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Characteristics of Good Comparators:
1. It should be compact.
2. It should be easy to handle.
3. It should give quick response or quick result.
4. It should be reliable, while in use.
5. There should be no effects of environment on the
comparator.
6. Its weight must be less.
7. It must be cheaper.
8. It must be easily available in the market.
9. It should be sensitive as per the requirement.
10. The design should be robust.
11. It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and
get uniform response
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Characteristics of Good Comparators:
1. It should be compact.
2. It should be easy to handle.
3. It should give quick response or quick result.
4. It should be reliable, while in use.
5. There should be no effects of environment on the
comparator.
6. Its weight must be less.
7. It must be cheaper.
8. It must be easily available in the market.
9. It should be sensitive as per the requirement.
10. The design should be robust.
11. It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and
get uniform response
Aug 9, 2024
Aug 9, 2024 7
Mechanical Comparator:
It is self controlled and no power or any other form of energy
is required. It employs mechanical means for magnifying the
small movement of the measuring stylus. The movement is
due to the difference between the standard and the actual
dimension being .checked
The method for magnifying the small stylus movement in all
the mechanical comparators is by means of levers, gear
trains or combination of these.
Mechanical Comparator:
It is self controlled and no power or any other form of energy
is required. It employs mechanical means for magnifying the
small movement of the measuring stylus. The movement is
due to the difference between the standard and the actual
dimension being .checked
The method for magnifying the small stylus movement in all
the mechanical comparators is by means of levers, gear
trains or combination of these.
Aug 9, 2024 8
Dial Indicator
Corresponds to a spindle movement of 1 mm. The movement mechanism
of the instrument is housed in a metal case for it's protection. The large
dial scale is graduated into 100 divisions. The indicator is set to zero by
the use of slip gauges representing the basic size of part.
Dial Indicator
Corresponds to a spindle movement of 1 mm. The movement mechanism
of the instrument is housed in a metal case for it's protection. The large
dial scale is graduated into 100 divisions. The indicator is set to zero by
the use of slip gauges representing the basic size of part.
Aug 9, 2024 9
Requirements of Good Dial Indicator:
1. It should give trouble free and dependable readings over
a long period.
2. The pressure required on measuring head to obtain zero
reading must remain constant over the whole range.
3. The pointer should indicate the direction of movement of
the measuring plunger.
4. The accuracy of the readings should be within close
limits of the various sizes and ranges
5. The movement of the measuring plunger should be in
either direction without affecting the accuracy.
6. The pointer movement should be damped, so that it will
not oscillate when the readings are being taken.
Requirements of Good Dial Indicator:
1. It should give trouble free and dependable readings over
a long period.
2. The pressure required on measuring head to obtain zero
reading must remain constant over the whole range.
3. The pointer should indicate the direction of movement of
the measuring plunger.
4. The accuracy of the readings should be within close
limits of the various sizes and ranges
5. The movement of the measuring plunger should be in
either direction without affecting the accuracy.
6. The pointer movement should be damped, so that it will
not oscillate when the readings are being taken.
Aug 9, 2024 10
Applications:
1. Comparing two heights or distances between narrow limits.
2. To determine the errors in geometrical form such as ovality,
roundness and taper.
3. For taking accurate measurement of deformation such as
intension and compression.
4. To determine positional errors of surfaces such as
parallelism, squareness and alignment.
5. To check the alignment of lathe centers by using suitable
accurate bar between the centers.
6. To check trueness of milling machine arbours and to check
the parallelism of shaper arm with table surface or vice.
Applications:
1. Comparing two heights or distances between narrow limits.
2. To determine the errors in geometrical form such as ovality,
roundness and taper.
3. For taking accurate measurement of deformation such as
intension and compression.
4. To determine positional errors of surfaces such as
parallelism, squareness and alignment.
5. To check the alignment of lathe centers by using suitable
accurate bar between the centers.
6. To check trueness of milling machine arbours and to check
the parallelism of shaper arm with table surface or vice.
Aug 9, 2024 11
Johansson Mikrokator
Principle:
It works on the principle of a Button spring, spinning on a
loop of string like in the case of Children’s toys.
Johansson Mikrokator
Principle:
It works on the principle of a Button spring, spinning on a
loop of string like in the case of Children’s toys.
Aug 9, 2024 12
When the plunger moves by a small distance in upward
direction the bell crank lever turns to the right hand side.
This exerts a force on the twisted strip and it causes a change
in its length by making it further twist or untwist.
Hence the pointer at the centre rotates by some amount.
Magnification up to 5000X can be obtained by this comparator
When the plunger moves by a small distance in upward
direction the bell crank lever turns to the right hand side.
This exerts a force on the twisted strip and it causes a change
in its length by making it further twist or untwist.
Hence the pointer at the centre rotates by some amount.
Magnification up to 5000X can be obtained by this comparator
Aug 9, 2024 13
Advantages of Mechanical Comparator:
1. They do not require any external source of energy.
2. These are cheaper and portable.
3. These are of robust construction and compact design.
4. The simple linear scales are easy to read.
5. These are unaffected by variations due to external source of
energy such air, electricity etc.
Disadvantages:
1. Range is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
2. Pointer scale system used can cause parallax error.
3. There are number of moving parts which create problems due
to friction, and ultimately the accuracy is less.
4. The instrument may become sensitive to vibration due to high
inertia.
Advantages of Mechanical Comparator:
1. They do not require any external source of energy.
2. These are cheaper and portable.
3. These are of robust construction and compact design.
4. The simple linear scales are easy to read.
5. These are unaffected by variations due to external source of
energy such air, electricity etc.
Disadvantages:
1. Range is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
2. Pointer scale system used can cause parallax error.
3. There are number of moving parts which create problems due
to friction, and ultimately the accuracy is less.
4. The instrument may become sensitive to vibration due to high
inertia.
Aug 9, 2024 14
Mechanical - Optical Comparator
Principle:
In mechanical optical comparator, small variation in the
plunger movement is magnified: first by mechanical system
and then by optical system.
Mechanical - Optical Comparator
Principle:
In mechanical optical comparator, small variation in the
plunger movement is magnified: first by mechanical system
and then by optical system.
Aug 9, 2024 15
Advantages:
1.These Comparators are almost weightless and have less
number of moving parts, due to this there is less wear and
hence less friction.
2. Higher range even at high magnification is possible as the
scale moves past the index.
3. The scale can be made to move past a datum line and
without having any parallax errors.
4. They are used to magnify parts of very small size and of
complex configuration such as intricate grooves, radii or steps.
Advantages:
1.These Comparators are almost weightless and have less
number of moving parts, due to this there is less wear and
hence less friction.
2. Higher range even at high magnification is possible as the
scale moves past the index.
3. The scale can be made to move past a datum line and
without having any parallax errors.
4. They are used to magnify parts of very small size and of
complex configuration such as intricate grooves, radii or steps.
Aug 9, 2024 16
Disadvantages:
1. The accuracy of measurement is limited to 0.001 mm
2. They have their own built in illuminating device which tends
to heat the instrument.
3. Electrical supply is required.
4. Eyepiece type instrument may cause strain on the operator.
5. Projection type instruments occupy large space and they are
expensive.
6. When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential
to take the instrument to a dark room in order to take the
readings easily.
Disadvantages:
1. The accuracy of measurement is limited to 0.001 mm
2. They have their own built in illuminating device which tends
to heat the instrument.
3. Electrical supply is required.
4. Eyepiece type instrument may cause strain on the operator.
5. Projection type instruments occupy large space and they are
expensive.
6. When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential
to take the instrument to a dark room in order to take the
readings easily.
The plunger is attached to a bar which is supported between the bending
plates at the top and bottom portion as shown in Figure
Aug 9, 2024 17
Sigma Comparator
plates at the top and bottom portion as shown in Figure
Aug 9, 2024 17
Sigma Comparator
Aug 9, 2024 18
Aug 9, 2024 19
Electrical Comparators:
Components like levers, gears, racks and pinions, activate
mechanical devices. The accuracy and life of the instruments
are affected as they are subjected to wear and friction
Electrical comparators
have no moving parts.
Thus a high degree of
reliability is expected
from these instruments.
applications of electrical
Comparators:
Used as measuring heads
Used for electrical gauging heads, to provide usual
indication to check the dimensions within the limits laid
down
Electrical Comparators:
Components like levers, gears, racks and pinions, activate
mechanical devices. The accuracy and life of the instruments
are affected as they are subjected to wear and friction
Electrical comparators
have no moving parts.
Thus a high degree of
reliability is expected
from these instruments.
applications of electrical
Comparators:
Used as measuring heads
Used for electrical gauging heads, to provide usual
indication to check the dimensions within the limits laid
down
Aug 9, 2024 20
Advantages:
1. Measuring units can be remote from indicating units.
2. Variable sensitivity which can be adjusted as per requirement.
3. No moving parts, hence it can retain accuracy over long
periods.
4. Higher magnification is possible as compared to mechanical
comparator.
5. Compact sizes of probes arc available.
Disadvantages:
1. The accuracy of working of these comparators is likely to be
affect due to temperature and humidity.
2. It is not a self contained unit; it needs stabilized power supply
for its operation.
3. Heating of coils can cause zero drifts and it may alter
calibration.
4. It is more expensive than mechanical comparator
Advantages:
1. Measuring units can be remote from indicating units.
2. Variable sensitivity which can be adjusted as per requirement.
3. No moving parts, hence it can retain accuracy over long
periods.
4. Higher magnification is possible as compared to mechanical
comparator.
5. Compact sizes of probes arc available.
Disadvantages:
1. The accuracy of working of these comparators is likely to be
affect due to temperature and humidity.
2. It is not a self contained unit; it needs stabilized power supply
for its operation.
3. Heating of coils can cause zero drifts and it may alter
calibration.
4. It is more expensive than mechanical comparator
Aug 9, 2024 21
Pneumatic Comparators (Solex Gauge):
Principle:
•It works on the principle of pressure difference generated by
the air flow.
• Air is supplied at constant pressure through the orifice and the
air escapes in the form of jets through a restricted space which
exerts a back pressure.
•The variation in the back pressure is then used to find the
dimensions of a component.
Pneumatic Comparators (Solex Gauge):
Principle:
•It works on the principle of pressure difference generated by
the air flow.
• Air is supplied at constant pressure through the orifice and the
air escapes in the form of jets through a restricted space which
exerts a back pressure.
•The variation in the back pressure is then used to find the
dimensions of a component.
Aug 9, 2024 22
Aug 9, 2024 23
Autocollimator
Autocollimator
Aug 9, 2024 24
Aug 9, 2024 25
Aug 9, 2024 26
It is a special form of telescope, which is used to measure small
angles with high degree of resolution. It is used for various
applications such as precision alignment, verification of angle
standards, and detection of angular movement and so on.
It projects a beam of collimated light on to a reflector, which is
deflected by a small angle about the vertical plane. The light
reflected back is magnified and focused either on to an eye piece
‐
or a photo detector. The deflection between the beam and the
reflected beam is a measure of angular tilt of the reflector.
The reticle is an illuminated target with cross hair pattern, which
is positioned in the focal plane of an objective lens. A plane mirror
perpendicular to the optical axis serves the purpose of reflecting
an image of the pattern back on to the observation point.
It is a special form of telescope, which is used to measure small
angles with high degree of resolution. It is used for various
applications such as precision alignment, verification of angle
standards, and detection of angular movement and so on.
It projects a beam of collimated light on to a reflector, which is
deflected by a small angle about the vertical plane. The light
reflected back is magnified and focused either on to an eye piece
‐
or a photo detector. The deflection between the beam and the
reflected beam is a measure of angular tilt of the reflector.
The reticle is an illuminated target with cross hair pattern, which
is positioned in the focal plane of an objective lens. A plane mirror
perpendicular to the optical axis serves the purpose of reflecting
an image of the pattern back on to the observation point.
Aug 9, 2024 27
A viewing system is required to observe the relative position of
the image of the cross wires. This is done in most of the
autocollimators by means of a simple eye piece.
‐
If rotation of the plane reflector by an angle θ results in the
displacement of the image by an amount d, then, d = 2f θ, where f
is the focal length of the objective lens.
It is clear from this relationship that the sensitivity of
autocollimator depends on the focal length of the objective lens.
Longer the focal length, larger is the linear displacement for a
given tilt of the plane reflector.
A viewing system is required to observe the relative position of
the image of the cross wires. This is done in most of the
autocollimators by means of a simple eye piece.
‐
If rotation of the plane reflector by an angle θ results in the
displacement of the image by an amount d, then, d = 2f θ, where f
is the focal length of the objective lens.
It is clear from this relationship that the sensitivity of
autocollimator depends on the focal length of the objective lens.
Longer the focal length, larger is the linear displacement for a
given tilt of the plane reflector.
Aug 9, 2024 28
Classification of Autocollimator
Autocollimators may be classified into three types:
Visual or conventional autocollimator
Digital autocollimator, and
Laser autocollimator
Visual Autocollimator
The displacement of the reflected image is determined
visually in this type of autocollimator. A pinhole light source is
used, whose reflected image is observed by the operator
through an eye piece.
‐
Visual collimators are typically focused at infinity, making
them useful for both short distance as well as long distance
measurements.
Classification of Autocollimator
Autocollimators may be classified into three types:
Visual or conventional autocollimator
Digital autocollimator, and
Laser autocollimator
Visual Autocollimator
The displacement of the reflected image is determined
visually in this type of autocollimator. A pinhole light source is
used, whose reflected image is observed by the operator
through an eye piece.
‐
Visual collimators are typically focused at infinity, making
them useful for both short distance as well as long distance
measurements.
Aug 9, 2024 29
Digital Autocollimator
Digital autocollimator uses an electronic photo detector to detect
the reflected light beam.
A major advantage of this type of collimator is that it uses digital
signal processing technology to detect and process the reflected
beam.
This enables filtering out of stray scattered light, which sharpens
the quality of the image.
Digital Autocollimator
Digital autocollimator uses an electronic photo detector to detect
the reflected light beam.
A major advantage of this type of collimator is that it uses digital
signal processing technology to detect and process the reflected
beam.
This enables filtering out of stray scattered light, which sharpens
the quality of the image.
Aug 9, 2024 30
Laser Autocollimator
Laser autocollimators represent the future of precision angle
measurement in the industry.
Superior intensity of the laser beam makes it ideal for
measurement of angles of very small objects (1 mm in
diameter) as well as long measuring range extending to 15
meters or more.
Another marked advantage is that a laser autocollimator can
be used for the measurement of non mirror quality surfaces.
‐
in addition, high intensity of the laser beam creates ultra low
‐
noise measurements, thereby increasing the accuracy of
measurement.
Laser Autocollimator
Laser autocollimators represent the future of precision angle
measurement in the industry.
Superior intensity of the laser beam makes it ideal for
measurement of angles of very small objects (1 mm in
diameter) as well as long measuring range extending to 15
meters or more.
Another marked advantage is that a laser autocollimator can
be used for the measurement of non mirror quality surfaces.
‐
in addition, high intensity of the laser beam creates ultra low
‐
noise measurements, thereby increasing the accuracy of
measurement.
Aug 9, 2024 31
Optical Flats
Optical Flats
Aug 9, 2024 32
•An optical flat is a disk of high quality glass or quartz.
•When an optical flat is laid over a flat reflecting surface, it
orients at a small angle θ, because of the presence of air
damper between the two surfaces.
•When light from a monochromatic light source is made to fall
on an optical flat, which is oriented at a very small angle with
respect to a flat reflecting surface, alternate band of light and
dark patches are seen by the eye.
• In case of a perfectly flat surface, the fringe pattern is regular,
parallel and uniformly spaced. Any deviation from this pattern
is a measure of error in the flatness of the surface being
measured
•An optical flat is a disk of high quality glass or quartz.
•When an optical flat is laid over a flat reflecting surface, it
orients at a small angle θ, because of the presence of air
damper between the two surfaces.
•When light from a monochromatic light source is made to fall
on an optical flat, which is oriented at a very small angle with
respect to a flat reflecting surface, alternate band of light and
dark patches are seen by the eye.
• In case of a perfectly flat surface, the fringe pattern is regular,
parallel and uniformly spaced. Any deviation from this pattern
is a measure of error in the flatness of the surface being
measured
Aug 9, 2024 33
Optical flats in case. About 1 inch (2.5
cm) in diameter
Optical flats in case. About 1 inch (2.5
cm) in diameter
34
Fig. shows photos of reference flats being used to check two test flats at
different stages of completion, showing the different patterns of interference
fringes.
• The reference flats are resting with their bottom surfaces in contact with
the test flats, and they are illuminated by a monochromatic light source.
• The light waves reflected from both surfaces interfere, resulting in a
pattern of bright and dark bands.
• The surface in the left photo is nearly flat, indicated by a pattern of
straight parallel interference fringes at equal intervals.
• The surface in the right photo is uneven, resulting in a pattern of curved
fringes.
Aug 9, 2024
Fig. shows photos of reference flats being used to check two test flats at
different stages of completion, showing the different patterns of interference
fringes.
• The reference flats are resting with their bottom surfaces in contact with
the test flats, and they are illuminated by a monochromatic light source.
• The light waves reflected from both surfaces interfere, resulting in a
pattern of bright and dark bands.
• The surface in the left photo is nearly flat, indicated by a pattern of
straight parallel interference fringes at equal intervals.
• The surface in the right photo is uneven, resulting in a pattern of curved
fringes.
Aug 9, 2024
Aug 9, 2024 35
Terminology of screw threads
Terminology of screw threads
Aug 9, 2024 36
Screw thread-definition
Screw thread-definition
Aug 9, 2024 37
Aug 9, 2024 38
Screw thread -use
Screw thread -use
Aug 9, 2024 39
Screw Thread terminology
Screw Thread terminology
Aug 9, 2024 40
Screw Thread terminology
Screw Thread terminology
Aug 9, 2024 41
Screw Thread terminology
Screw Thread terminology
Aug 9, 2024 42
Screw Thread terminology
Screw Thread terminology
Aug 9, 2024 43
MEASUREMENT OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF THREAD
MEASUREMENT OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF THREAD
Aug 9, 2024 44
Measurement of major diameter
Measurement of major diameter
Aug 9, 2024 45
Ordinary micrometer:
Ordinary micrometer:
Aug 9, 2024 46
Measurement by Bench micrometer
Measurement by Bench micrometer
Aug 9, 2024 47
Measurement by Bench micrometer
Measurement by Bench micrometer
Aug 9, 2024 48
Measurement by Bench micrometer
Measurement by Bench micrometer
Aug 9, 2024 49
Measurement by Bench micrometer
Measurement by Bench micrometer
Aug 9, 2024 50
Measurement of the major diameter of an Internal thread
An indirect approach of measuring internal diais
obtained by obtaining the cast of the Thread. The main
art thus lies in obtaining a perfect cast.
Measurement of the major diameter of an Internal thread
An indirect approach of measuring internal diais
obtained by obtaining the cast of the Thread. The main
art thus lies in obtaining a perfect cast.
Aug 9, 2024 51
Aug 9, 2024 52
Measurement of Minor diameter
Measurement of Minor diameter
Aug 9, 2024 53
Aug 9, 2024 54
Measurement of Minor diameter
Measurement of Minor diameter
Aug 9, 2024 55
Measurement of Minor diameter of Internal threads:
The Minor diameter of Internal threads are measured by
1. Using taper parallels
2. Using Rollers.
Measurement of Minor diameter of Internal threads:
The Minor diameter of Internal threads are measured by
1. Using taper parallels
2. Using Rollers.
Aug 9, 2024 56
Measurement of Minor diameter of Internal threads:
Measurement of Minor diameter of Internal threads:
Aug 9, 2024 57
Pitch measurement
Pitch measurement
Aug 9, 2024 58
Tool makers microscope:
Tool makers microscope:
Aug 9, 2024 59
Tool makers microscope
Tool makers microscope
Aug 9, 2024 60
Tool makers microscope
Tool makers microscope
Aug 9, 2024 61
Pitch measuring machine
Spring loaded head permits the stylus to move up
the flank of the thread and down into the next
space as it is moved along.
Pitch measuring machine
Spring loaded head permits the stylus to move up
the flank of the thread and down into the next
space as it is moved along.
Aug 9, 2024 62
Accurate positioning of the stylus between the two flanks is
obtained by ensuring that the pointer T is always opposite to
its index mark when readings are taken.
When the pointer is accurately placed in position, the
micrometer reading is noted. The stylus is then moved
along into the next thread space, by rotation of the
micrometer, and a second reading taken.
The difference between the two readings is the pitch of the
thread. Readings are taken in this manner until the whole
length of the screw thread has been covered.
Accurate positioning of the stylus between the two flanks is
obtained by ensuring that the pointer T is always opposite to
its index mark when readings are taken.
When the pointer is accurately placed in position, the
micrometer reading is noted. The stylus is then moved
along into the next thread space, by rotation of the
micrometer, and a second reading taken.
The difference between the two readings is the pitch of the
thread. Readings are taken in this manner until the whole
length of the screw thread has been covered.
Aug 9, 2024 63
Screw pitch gauge
Screw pitch gauge
Aug 9, 2024 64
Measurement of screw thread angle(Flank angle)
Measurement of screw thread angle(Flank angle)
Aug 9, 2024 65
Measurement of effective diameter
Measurement of effective diameter
Aug 9, 2024 66
Two wire method:
Two wire method:
Aug 9, 2024 67
Two wire method
Two wire method
Aug 9, 2024 68
Aug 9, 2024 69
Two wire method
Two wire method
Aug 9, 2024 70
Two wire method
Two wire method
Aug 9, 2024 71
Aug 9, 2024 72
Three Wire method
Three Wire method
Aug 9, 2024 73
Three Wire method
Three Wire method
Aug 9, 2024 74
Aug 9, 2024 75
Aug 9, 2024 76
Aug 9, 2024 77
Aug 9, 2024 78
BEST WIRE SIZE
BEST WIRE SIZE
Aug 9, 2024 79
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