Complete grammar UNIT III Vocabulary with example

English grammar

1. Unit III Vocabulary Prepared by: MAZHAR HUSSAIN Email: [email protected] Whats: 03439773724 Mphil English , Qurtaba University of sciences and information tectnology

2. Letter and Alphabits A letter is a basic written symbol used in language. The English alphabet is made up of letters, each with its own shape and sound. Letters are combined to create words, which are the building blocks of language . Alphabets are sets of letters arranged in a specific order. The English alphabet, for example, consists of 26 letters, starting with "A" and ending with "Z." Vocabulary refers to the set of words that a person understands and uses in a particular language.

3. Word A word is the smallest unit of language that carries meaning and can stand alone or be combined with other words to form meaningful sentences. Words are the basic elements used to express thoughts, ideas, and feelings. Words can be classified into various categories, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. In written and spoken language, words can represent objects, actions, qualities, concepts, and more. E.g : Word : Sunshine Category : Noun Meaning : Direct sunlight or the quality of being cheerful.

4. ( Word Formation) Root and Stem The root word is the core of a word, to which prefixes and suffixes can be added. It is the part of the word that carries its primary meaning . Eg : Words: Play Derived Words : Play s , Play ed , Play ing , Play er , Re play, Play ful The stem is similar to the root but may not be the smallest unit carrying the core meaning. It is a base form to which affixes (prefixes or suffixes) can be added to create related words . Eg : Words: Happi Derived Words: Happ ily , Happi ness , Happ ier , Happi est , Un happy

5. ( Word Formation) Affixation Affixation is a process where morphemes (the smallest units of meaning) are added to a root or stem to create a new word. Affixes can be prefixes or suffixes or infixes. Affixes: Affixes are morphemes, added to a word to create a new word or to change the meaning of the existing word. There are different types of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. Prefixes: Prefixes are affixes added to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning. They often change the word's grammatical category or convey a sense of negation, repetition, or intensity . Eg : Re -: Repeat, Revisit, Rebuild Mis -: Misunderstand, Misplace, Mislead Pre -: Preview, Prefix, Predict Sub -: Submarine, Submerge, Subdivide

6. ( Word Formation) Affixation Suffixes: Suffixes are affixes added to the end of a word to alter its meaning or indicate a grammatical function. They are commonly used to form different parts of speech or to create variations in tense, number, or degree. - able : Readable, Comfortable, Teachable - ful : Beautiful, Successful, Colorful - tion : Information, Celebration, Evaluation - ing : Running, Jumping, Singing Infixes: Infixes are less common than prefixes and suffixes. An infix is a word or word part (i.e., a morpheme) added to the middle of a word stem to alter the meaning, change a word's grammatical form, or as a type of wordplay . Word: runner-up (meaning second place) Stem: runner (the person or thing that takes second place) Infix: runner s -up (plural form)

7. Words are categorized in various parts called Parts of Speech or word class . A  part of speech  (also called a  word class ) is a category that describes the role a word plays in a sentence. Understanding the different parts of speech can help you analyze how words function in a sentence and improve your writing . The parts of speech are classified differently in different grammars, but most traditional grammars list eight parts of speech in English :  nouns ,  pronouns ,  verbs ,  adjectives ,  adverbs ,  prepositions ,  conjunctions , and  interjections . Some modern grammars add others, such as  determiners  and  articles . Word’s Categories

8. Categories of Word Words are categorized in Parts of Speech . in a language, each serving a specific grammatical function and conveying a particular meaning. There are eight traditional parts of speech in English. NOUN A  noun  is a word that refers to a person, concept, place, or thing . Nouns can act as the subject of a sentence (i.e., the person or thing performing the action) or as the object of a verb (i.e., the person or thing affected by the action).

9. Types of Nouns: Common Nouns: These are general names for people, places, things, or ideas. Examples: dog, city, book, happiness. Proper Nouns: These are specific names for people, places, or things, and they are capitalized. Examples: John, Paris, Coca-Cola. Concrete Nouns: These are tangible, physical objects that you can see or touch. Examples: table, tree, car. Abstract Nouns: These are intangible concepts, qualities, or ideas. Examples: love, courage, freedom.

10. Types of Nouns: Countable Nouns: These are nouns that can be counted as individual units. Examples: three apples, five cars. Uncountable Nouns: These are nouns that cannot be counted as separate units. Examples: water, happiness . Advice, hair, weather, Co2, Stress Collective Nouns: These refer to a group of people, animals, or things. Examples: team, family, flock . Gerunds A  gerund  is a noun that is identical to the  present participle  (the “- ing ” form) of a verb . Examples: When I’m on vacation,  sunbathing  and  reading  are my favorite activities .

11. Types of Nouns: Attributive nouns Attributive nouns are nouns that are used like  adjectives , to modify another noun. This noun is appeared before the other noun to modify it. I’m a big fan of  carrot cake , but  ice cream is my favorite dessert. Appositive nouns An   appositive noun  (or appositive noun phrase) is a noun that comes after another noun to provide additional information about it . My colleague Adam  has really bad breath. My car, a Honda Civic,   broke down yesterday.

12. Noun Cases Nominative / Subjective Case: In this case, the noun is seen in the place of subject in a sentence. Example: The cat is on the roof . Objective Case: This is the case used for the object of a verb or preposition. Example: I gave the ball to Hamza . Possessive Noun/ Possessive Case : This is the case used to show ownership. Example: John's car is parked outside Note: If a word is ended with letters ‘s ’ or ‘ es ’ then don’t use ‘s’ after apostrophe. Example: Tribes’ money were distributed in families. It’s Shams’ mobile.

13. ( Execise) Find out Nouns in the following sentences and examine its type: The cat chased the mouse around the garden. My sister bought a new car yesterday. The teacher assigned homework to the students. The sunrise over the mountains was breathtaking. The chef prepared a delicious meal for the guests. A book on the shelf caught my attention. The baby giggled at the colorful toy. The scientist conducted an experiment in the laboratory. The concert featured a talented singer and a skilled guitarist. The police officer investigated the crime scene thoroughly.

14. Pronoun A  pronoun  is a word that stands in for a  noun , often to avoid the need to repeat the same noun over and over. Like nouns, pronouns can refer to people, things, concepts, and places. Most sentences contain at least one noun or pronoun.

15. Pronoun Antecedents The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun that it refers back to. It’s usually mentioned in the text before the pronoun, but sometimes it comes just after it in a sentence. Sania  was late to class again because  she  missed the bus. As  they  debated the point, the students  became increasingly animated . (In sentence 1 the noun ‘ Sania ’ is the antecedent of the pronoun ‘ She ’) (In sentence 2 the noun phrase ‘ The Students ’ is the antecedent of the pronoun ‘ They ’)

16. How are pronouns used in sentences? P ronouns commonly serve as the  Subject  of a sentence, followed by a  verb . I  like to play chess. We  have never been to Germany before. It  is difficult to stay calm in stressful situations . A pronoun can also function as the object in a sentence—either a direct or indirect object: The  direct object  is something or someone that is directly acted upon by the verb. The  indirect object  is someone or something that receives the direct object . Give  me   that! Can you promise  her this ?

17. Pronoun Types of Pronouns Personal Pronouns: These replace specific people or things. Examples: I, you, he, she, it, we, they. Example sentence: She is going to the store. Demonstrative Pronouns: These point to specific things. Examples: this, that, these, those. Example sentence: I like this book. Possessive Pronouns: These show ownership. Examples: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. Example sentence: The car is ours .

18. List of Personal Pronoun

19. Pronoun Relative Pronouns: These introduce a dependent clause and relate it to the noun it modifies. Examples: who, whom, whose, which, that. Example sentence: The person who called you is waiting outside . Interrogative Pronouns: These are used in asking questions. Examples: who, whom, whose, which, what. Example sentence: What is your favorite color? Indefinite Pronouns: These do not refer to a specific person, thing, or amount. Examples: all, some, none, anyone, everyone, nobody. Example sentence: Everyone is invited to the party. Reciprocal Pronouns: These indicate a mutual action or relationship. Examples: each other, one another. Example sentence: They love each other .

20. Pronoun ( Exercise) Find out Pronouns in the following sentences and examine its type : She is going to meet him at the cafe later. We finished our project ahead of schedule. They found themselves lost in the unfamiliar city. He and she enjoyed each other's company during the weekend getaway. I appreciate your help with the difficult task. You should be proud of your achievements. We are looking forward to our vacation next month. She shared her thoughts with us during the meeting. He told her that he would be late for their dinner date. They promised to bring their contributions to the potluck dinner.

21. Verb A  verb  is a word that describes what the subject of a sentence is doing. Verbs can indicate (physical or mental) actions, occurrences , and states of being . Verbs are essential for constructing meaningful sentences and conveying actions or conditions.

22. Mood Grammatical mood Function Example Indicative Express a fact “Sara   likes  chocolate.” Imperative Express a command or a request “ Wash  the dishes.” Interrogative Ask a question “ Did  you do your homework?” Conditional Express a condition “If you want to borrow that book, you  can .” Subjunctive Express a wish, demand, doubt, or hypothetical situation “If I  were  rich, I would buy an island.” The  mood  of a verb indicates the tone and intention of a sentence. There are five grammatical moods in English:

23. Verb Tense Past Present Future Simple I  looked  at the painting. I  look  at the painting. I  will look  at the painting. Progressive I  was looking  at the painting. I  am looking  at the painting. I  will be looking  at the painting. Perfect I  had looked  at the painting. I  have looked  at the painting. I  will have looked  at the painting. Perfect progressive I  had been looking  at the painting. I  have been looking  at the painting. I  will have been looking  at the painting. Verbs are also conjugated based on  tense . There are three main tenses in English:

24. Types of Verbs Regular vs. irregular verbs Regular verbs  follow the standard conjugation rules for English verbs—most verbs are regular. A verb is considered regular if its  simple past  and  past participle  are formed by adding the suffix “- ed ” (or “-d” if the word already ends in the letter “e”). Sarah  finished   her work. Claude  had finished  his dinner when James called. Jock  has finished  writing in his journal. Irregular verbs  form their simple past and past participles in some way other than by adding the suffix “-ed .” Andre  swam  in all five of the Great Lakes last summer. I  had swum  almost a mile when the island came into view. Melissa  has swum  every Saturday for the last three years.

25. Types of Verbs Action Verbs: These verbs describe a physical or mental action. Examples: run, eat, think, write. Example sentence: She runs every morning . Linking Verbs : These verbs connect the subject of a sentence to a subject complement (an adjective or noun). Examples: am, is, are, was, were. Example sentence: The cake is delicious .

26. Verb Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs: These verbs are used with main verbs to create different tenses, moods, voices, etc. Examples: have, has, had, do, does, did, can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must. Example sentence: He has finished his homework. Modal Verbs: These are a type of auxiliary verb that express possibility, necessity, ability, permission, etc. Examples: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must. Example sentence: You can borrow my pen.

27. Verb Forms Base Form : The simplest form of a verb. Example: They like to sing . Past Tense: Indicates an action that has already occurred. Example: He walked to the store . Present Tense: Describes actions happening now. Example: She writes beautiful poems . Future Tense: Predicts actions that will happen. Example: We will travel to Europe next summer. Gerund: The - ing form of the verb used as a noun. Example: Swimming is her favorite activity. Participle: The - ed or - ing form of the verb used as an adjective. Example: The broken window needs repair.

28. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs A  transitive verb  is a verb that acts on someone or something and therefore takes a direct object (the thing being acted upon ). Kelly  asks  a question. Toby  buys  groceries. Intransitive verbs  do not act on someone or something and therefore do not take a direct object . While an intransitive verb does not take a direct object, it can be used along with an  adverb  or  adverbial phrase  (as can a transitive verb). Rita  coughed. Rita  coughed   loudly. Rita  coughed  on me! Some verbs are  ditransitive , meaning they have two objects: a direct object and an indirect object (usually the person for whom the action is being performed). Amira   reads  me a book.

29. Phrasal verbs A  phrasal verb  is a phrase made up of two or more words that acts as an individual verb. Phrasal verbs typically combine a  verb  with an adverb or  preposition  to create a meaning independent of the original words. For example, the verb “kick” and the preposition “off” combine to form the phrasal verb “kick off,” which means “begin .” I’m going to  move out   next month . Be sure to  put on  a life jacket before getting into the boat. We  left out  the trash for pickup. It’s time to  get on  the plane. What will she  think up  next? I’m having some trouble  working out  the solution to this equation. We’re going to have to  put off  our vacation until next year. Stand up  when speaking in class, please. We’ll have to  wake up  early if we want breakfast. Take off  your shoes before you walk on the carpet. My dog likes to  break out  of his kennel to chase squirrels.

30. Verb (Exercise) Find out Verb in the following sentences and examine its type : I am typing a response to your question. She is reading a book in the library. They were playing soccer in the park. He has completed his homework. We will go to the beach for our vacation. You should try the new restaurant in town. The cat is sleeping on the windowsill. She has been practicing the piano for hours. They were hiking in the mountains last weekend. I have just finished reading a fascinating article.

31. Adjective An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun by providing more information about its qualities, characteristics, or attributes. Adjectives add detail and depth to our language, helping to make descriptions more vivid and specific . Adjectives play a crucial role in adding detail and precision to our language, allowing us to convey a more vivid and accurate picture of the things we describe.

32. Adjective Types Descriptive Adjectives: These adjectives provide details about the physical or observable qualities of a noun. Examples: tall, blue, old, beautiful. Example sentence: The red roses are blooming in the garden . Quantitative Adjectives: These adjectives indicate the quantity or amount of a noun. Examples: many, few, some, several. Example sentence: There are many books on the shelf . Demonstrative Adjectives: These adjectives point out or specify which noun is being referred to. Examples: this, that, these, those. Example sentence: I'll take this shirt, please.

33. Adjective Possessive Adjectives: These adjectives indicate ownership or possession. Examples: my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Example sentence: Her car is parked in the driveway . Interrogative Adjectives: These adjectives are used in asking questions about a noun. Examples: which, what, whose. Example sentence: Which book do you prefer ?

34. Adjective Indefinite Adjectives: These adjectives give a general idea of a noun but do not specify it. Examples: some, any, several, all. Example sentence: All students must attend the meeting . Comparative and Superlative Adjectives: Comparative adjectives are used to compare two things, while superlative adjectives are used to compare three or more things. Examples: Comparative : Taller (than) Superlative: Tallest (of) Example sentence: He is the tallest person in the room.

35. Adjective Appositive adjectives An  appositive adjective  is an adjective (or series of adjectives) that occurs after the noun it modifies. It is typically set off by commas or dashes. It works similarly to an  appositive noun . Example: Then the cliffs , ominous and dark ,  came into view . Compound adjectives A  compound  adjective  is an adjective that is formed using two or more words that express a single idea (e.g., in-depth). When a compound adjective occurs before the noun it modifies (attributive), the individual words are typically connected by a  hyphen . A  well-known   man lives here. Mark is  well known .

36. Adjective Participial adjectives A  participial adjective  is an adjective that is identical to the  participle  form of a verb (typically ending in “- ing ,” “- ed ,” or “-en”). Examples: The light produced a  blinding   effect . Eva was pretty  confused. Proper adjectives A  proper adjective  is an adjective formed from a proper noun and used to indicate origin. Like proper nouns, proper adjectives are always capitalized . Examples: There is a popular  Indian  restaurant nearby. Liza is not a fan of  Shakespearean  drama.

37. Adjective Denominal adjectives A  denominal adjective  is an adjective formed from a noun, often with the addition of a suffix (e.g., “- ish ,” “- ly ,” “- esque ”). Example: Amira thinks Han is childish, but at least he’s friendly. Nominal adjectives A  nominal adjective  (also called a  substantive adjective ) is an adjective that functions as a noun. Nominal adjectives are typically preceded by the definite article “the.” The candidate appealed to both the  rich   and the  poor . It’s important to take care of the  elderly .

38. Adjective Order/Sequence Generally, the adjective order in English is : Quantity or number Quality or opinion Size Age Shape Color Proper adjective (often nationality, other place of origin, or material) Purpose or qualifier Examples: I love that  beautiful old big green antique  car that always parked at the end of the street. [quality - age - size - color - proper adjective] My sister has a  big beautiful tan and white  bulldog. [size - quality - color - color] A  wonderful old Italian  clock. [opinion - age - origin] A  big square blue  box. [dimension - shape - color] A  disgusting pink plastic  ornament. [opinion - color - material]

39. Ways to Form Adjectives Suffixes: - ful ( joyful, playful ) -less ( careless, fearless ) - ous ( delicious, courageous ) -y ( happy, sunny ) Comparative and Superlative: Comparative: - er or more ( fast → faster, beautiful → more beautiful ) Superlative: - est or most ( fast → fastest, beautiful → most beautiful ) Prefixes : un- ( unhappy, unfair ) mis - ( misunderstood, misused) pre- ( prehistoric, prearranged ) Compound Adjectives: Combine words with a hyphen ( time-consuming, well-known, high-tech )

40. Ways to Form Adjectives Conversion from Nouns: Turn nouns into adjectives (coffee stain → coffee-stained) Adjective Phrases: Phrases that act as adjectives (a man with a heart of gold) Borrowing from Other Languages: Adopt adjectives from other languages (salsa dancing, al dente pasta) Participle Adjectives: Formed from verb participles (- ing or - ed ) (fascinating book, confused expression)

41. Adjectives ( Exercise) Find out Verb in the following sentences and examine its type : The red rose in the garden caught my eye. Her new dress is beautiful and elegant. The old book on the shelf is interesting. His energetic and playful dog chased the ball. The enormous elephant walked slowly through the jungle. Their cozy home is filled with warm colors. The tall mountain peak was covered in white snow. The delicious aroma of freshly baked cookies filled the kitchen. Her inquisitive and intelligent mind led her to success. The quiet village became lively during the festive season.

42. Adverb An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective , another adverb or an entire sentence. Adverbs provide information about how, when, where, or to what degree an action is performed.

43. Adverb Types of Adverbs Adverbs of Manner: Describe how an action is performed. Example: She sang beautifully . Adverbs of Frequency: Indicate how often an action occurs. Example: I always take the bus. Adverbs of Time: Provide information about when an action takes place. Example: We will meet tomorrow. Adverbs of Place: Tell us where an action occurs. Example: They searched everywhere.

44. Adverb Adverbs of Degree: Modify adjectives or adverbs to indicate the intensity or degree. Example: It's very hot today. Adverbs of Certainty: Express the level of certainty or probability. Example: She will definitely come. Interrogative Adverbs: Used to ask questions and often start with wh - words. Example: Why are you late? Relative Adverbs: Connect clauses and often relate to time or place. Example: The house where I grew up.

45. Formation of Adverbs Adding "- ly ": Many adverbs are formed by adding "- ly " to an adjective. Example: quick → quickly, smooth → smoothly. Irregular Adverbs: Some adverbs do not follow the "- ly " pattern. Example: good → well, fast → fast . Using the Same Form as Adjectives: Some adjectives and adverbs have the same form. Example: late (adjective) → He arrived late (adverb). Using Adverbial Phrases: Phrases that function as adverbs. Example: She worked with great diligence.

46. Adverbs (Exercise) Find out Adverb in the following sentences and examine its type : She quickly finished her homework. He carefully examined the fragile artifact. They happily celebrated their achievements. The car drove slowly along the winding road. We will eagerly await your response. She spoke softly to the baby to avoid waking him. He ran fast to catch the bus. They completed the task efficiently and effectively. The sun shone brightly in the clear sky. I worked hard to achieve my goals.

47. Preposition Prepositions are words that show how two or more parts of a sentence are connected. They can show connections between things like time, place, direction, and other abstract or logical connections. Most of the time, a preposition goes right before the word or phrase it points to, which is called its object . It can be hard to pick the right preposition because they are important to the meaning of a sentence and can mean a variety of different things. Reading and practicing them is the best way to become good at prepositions.

48. Using prepositions Prepositions are often used to describe where, when, or how something happens. Relationship expressed Examples How Accuracy was increased  by   repeating the test . I fixed the light  with   a screwdriver . When Jeremy has wanted to be a musician  since   childhood . The meeting resumes  at   10:30 a.m. Where The conference room is  through   that door . The crushing machine is located  in   the mechanics lab .

49. Confusion in Preposition prepositions are easy to confuse and misuse. The same preposition can often be used in different ways, and the meaning can only be deduced from the context. The cat is hiding behind the curtains . The teacher is always behind her students’ encouragement There might be something behind his sudden decision to resign . I am running behind schedule; I'll be there as soon as I can . The manager is behind the new project's success . The cat is resting under the table . here might be a reason under his sudden decision to resign . I am working under a tight deadline; I'll do my best to finish on time . Our team is currently under the top performers in the league . The manager is under the success of the new project.

50. Preposition Types 1. Prepositions of Place: These prepositions show where something is located. Examples: in, on, at, under, over, beside, between, among . Usage: The cat is on the chair. 2. Prepositions of Time: These prepositions indicate when something happens. Examples: at, in, on, before, after, during. Usage: I will see you at the party on Saturday. 3. Prepositions of Movement/Direction: These prepositions describe the direction or movement of something. Examples: into, out of, towards, across, along. Usage : She walked into the room.

51. Preposition Types 4. Prepositions of Agency or Instrumentality: This type indicates the means or method by which something is done. Example: By, With, Using, Through, Via Usage: The letter was written by Sarah. 5. Prepositions of Manner: These prepositions describe how something is done. Examples: with, like . Like, As, In Usage : He painted the wall with a brush.

52. Preposition Types 6. Prepositions of Possession: This type shows ownership or the relationship between things. Example: of Usage: The color of the sky is blue . The book of the teacher 7. Other Common Prepositions: These prepositions serve various purposes in different contexts. Examples: about, after, against, amid, despite, without. Usage: We talked about the movie after dinner.

53. Preposition Types 6. Prepositions of Possession: This type shows ownership or the relationship between things. Example: of Usage: The color of the sky is blue. The book of the teacher 7. Other Common Prepositions: These prepositions serve various purposes in different contexts. Examples: about, after, against, amid, despite, without. Usage: We talked about the movie after dinner.

54. Commonly confused prepositions Example Meaning Of/for The aim is to replicate the results  of   the engineering team . The engineering team produced the results. The aim is to replicate the results  for   the engineering team . Someone else produced the results. At/to The prize was awarded  at   the office . The office is the location where the prize was awarded. The prize was awarded  to   the office . The office received the prize. On/in This report examines the impacts of plastic pollution  on   developing countries . The impact suffered by developing countries due to plastic pollution (including pollution that occurs elsewhere). This report examines the impacts of plastic pollution  in   developing countries . The impacts of the plastic pollution that occurs within developing countries.

55. Some Prepositions for better understanding

56. Preposition (Exercise) Find out Preposition in the following sentences and examine its type : We were walking along the river. The Himalaya Mountains are towards the north. James Bond came into the room and took his gun out of his pocket. He walked around the table and moved toward the window. They saw someone running away from the school, past a car and towards the road. He jumped off the platform and ran over the rails just before the train arrived. The prisoners squeezed through the window, ran across the grass, and escaped under the fence. Jack and Jill walked up the hill. Pretty soon they were tumbling down the hill. Did you walk here from home? They didn't go to school yesterday.

57. Conjunction A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence. Conjunctions are used to coordinate and combine ideas, showing how different parts of a sentence relate to each other.

58. Conjunction Types There are three basic types of conjunctions :   coordinating ,  subordinating , and  correlative . 1. Coordinating conjunctions This type of conjunction is used to connect items that are grammatically equal: two words, two phrases, or two independent clauses. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English, and you can remember them using the mnemonic device FANBOYS:  f or,  a nd,  n or,  b ut,  o r,  y et,  s o . Words Coordinating conjunctions can join two nouns,  verbs ,  adjectives , or other types of word. The data was gathered through questionnaires  and  interviews. I don’t like to run  or   swim. He was clever  but   lazy.

59. Conjunction Types II. Words Coordinating conjunctions can join two nouns,  verbs ,  adjectives , or other types of word. The data was gathered through questionnaires  and   interviews. I don’t like to run  or  swim. He was clever  but  lazy . III. Phrases They can also join different types of phrases. The dog wagged his tail  and  panted excitedly. The results were undeniably intriguing  yet   ultimately inconclusive. She usually studies in the library  or   at a cafe.

60. Conjunction Types  Punctuating coordinating conjunctions When joining two words or phrases with a coordinating conjunction, do not use a  comma . When joining two independent clauses, however, use a comma before the conjunction. Comma error Correction Data was gathered through questionnaires and selected respondents participated in interviews. Data was gathered through questionnaires,  and  selected respondents participated in interviews. She usually studies in the library but when it is too busy she goes to a cafe. She usually studies in the library,  but  when it is too busy she goes to a cafe.

61. Conjunction Rules Subordinating conjunctions This type of conjunction includes words like  because ,  if ,  although ,  since ,  until , and  while . A subordinating conjunction is used to introduce a  dependent clause also known as a subordinate clause.

62. Common subordinating conjunctions The subordinating conjunction defines the relationship between the clauses. The table below shows some common subordinating conjunctions and the relationships they express, but note that this is not a complete list . Relationship Common subordinating conjunctions Cause and effect because, since, as Time when, before, after, once, until, whenever, since, while Place where, wherever Condition if, unless, in case Contrast although, though, whereas

63. Conjunction Rules Punctuating subordinating conjunctions when the dependent clause contains essential information about the independent clause, don’t use a comma . Comma error Correction She will receive a major bonus ,  if she succeeds in closing the corporate partnership deal. She will receive a major bonus   if  she succeeds in closing the corporate partnership deal . John’s friends snuck into his apartment to set up a surprise party ,  while he was at work. John’s friends snuck into his apartment to set up a surprise party  while  he was at work . In general, when the dependent clause contains essential information about the independent clause, don’t use a comma.

64. Conjunction (Exercise) when the subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma at the end of the dependent clause . Comma error Correction If she succeeds in closing the corporate partnership deal she will receive a major bonus. If  she succeeds in closing the corporate partnership deal ,  she will receive a major bonus. While John was at work his friends snuck into his apartment to set up a surprise party. While  John was at work ,  his friends snuck into his apartment to set up a surprise party.

65. Conjunction (Exercise) Correlative conjunctions This type of conjunction always comes in a pair and is used to join grammatically equal elements in a sentence. Common pairs include  either … or ,  neither … nor ,  not only … but also , and  both … and . In most cases, no comma should be used between the two elements . He was   not only   invited for dinner   but also   for checking his body language and spoken style.

66. Conjunction (Exercise) Correlative conjunctions must use  parallel structure , which means the two elements should take the same grammatical form . She planned to collect data by  either   using an online survey  or  phone interviews ( Incorrect ) She planned to collect data by  either  using an online survey  or  conducting phone interviews ( Correct )

67. Conjunction (Exercise) Correlative conjunctions must use  parallel structure , which means the two elements should take the same grammatical form . She planned to collect data by  either   using an online survey  or  phone interviews ( Incorrect ) She planned to collect data by  either  using an online survey  or  conducting phone interviews ( Correct )

68. Conjunction (Exercise) Find out Preposition in the following sentences and examine its type : He wanted to go to the party, but she preferred to stay home. They could either choose to hike to the summit or explore the hidden caves. She not only finished her project on time but also exceeded expectations. We can go to the beach and have a picnic if the weather is nice. He is not only a talented musician but also a skilled painter. They wanted to travel to Europe yet were concerned about their budget. She worked hard on the presentation so that it would impress the clients. We can either go for a walk or relax at home with a good book. He studied diligently but struggled with the difficult exam. She likes both chocolate and vanilla ice cream, but today she chose chocolate.

69. INTERJECTION An  interjection  is a word or phrase used to express a feeling or to request or demand something. While interjections are a  part of speech , they are not grammatically connected to other parts of a sentence. Interjections are common in everyday speech and informal writing. While some interjections such as “well” and “indeed” are acceptable in formal conversation, it’s best to avoid interjections in formal or  academic writing .

70. I nterjections used in sentences? Interjections can be either a single word or a phrase, and they can be used on their own or as part of a sentence. Examples: Uses of interjections  Phew! Shoot, I’ve broken a nail. Oh really ? I didn’t know that. As interjections are a grammatically independent part of speech, they can often be excluded from a sentence without impacting its meaning. Examples: Sentences with and without interjections Oh boy , I’m tired. I’m tired. Ouch! That hurts! That hurts!

71. Interjection Types Primary interjections Ugh ! That’s disgusting. Um-hum. I think that could work. We won the game.  Yippee ! Secondary interjections Goodness! That was a close one. Shoot! My flight has been canceled. Awesome! Do that trick again . Volitive interjections Shh ! I can’t focus when you’re singing. Psst . Pass me an eraser. Ahem. Please pay attention.

72. Interjection Types Emotive interjections Ew . I’m not eating that. Yay! I’m so excited to see you. Yum! This apple pie is delicious. Cognitive interjections Um, can you explain it once more? Wow! I wasn’t expecting that. Eureka! I’ve solved the puzzle . Greetings and parting words Hey! Hello! It’s good to see you. Bye! See you soon! Drive safe.

73. Interjection Types Interjections and punctuation When the emotion or thought being expressed is less extreme, an interjection can also be followed by a period . Oh. I don’t know. We’ve just won the lottery.  Hurray! Hmm? When an interjection is used as part of a sentence, it should be set off from the rest of the sentence using  commas . Hmm, how are we going to do this? It was an interesting lecture,  indeed. The project is,  uh , going well.

74. Dictionary A dictionary is like a big book that has a lot of words in it, and it tells you what those words mean. It's like a guide for words, helping you understand their meanings, how to say them, and sometimes even how to use them in sentences.

75. How to Use a Dictionary Find the Word: First, you need to know how the word is spelled. Look at the first letter of the word, and then find that section in the dictionary. Guide Words: The top of each page in a dictionary has guide words. These words show you the first and last words on that page. They help you quickly find the section you need. Alphabetical Order: Words in a dictionary are in alphabetical order, just like the ABCs. So, when you find the right section, look for the word in the list. Pronunciation: Sometimes, you'll see special symbols next to the word. These symbols show you how to say the word. There might also be a guide to help you understand the pronunciation symbols.

76. How to Use a Dictionary Meaning: After the word, you'll find its meaning or meanings. This tells you what the word stands for or represents. Parts of Speech: A good dictionary will also tell you the part of speech of a word, like whether it's a noun, verb, adjective, etc. This helps you know how the word is used. Example Sentences: Some dictionaries have example sentences. These are sentences that show you how the word is used in a real situation. It helps you understand the word better. Synonyms and Antonyms: If you see words like "synonyms" or "antonyms," they are telling you other words that are similar (synonyms) or opposite (antonyms) to the word you looked up.

77. How to Use a Dictionary Meaning: After the word, you'll find its meaning or meanings. This tells you what the word stands for or represents. Parts of Speech: A good dictionary will also tell you the part of speech of a word, like whether it's a noun, verb, adjective, etc. This helps you know how the word is used. Example Sentences: Some dictionaries have example sentences. These are sentences that show you how the word is used in a real situation. It helps you understand the word better .

78. How to Use a Dictionary Synonyms and Antonyms: If you see words like "synonyms" or "antonyms," they are telling you other words that are similar (synonyms) or opposite (antonyms) to the word you looked up . Abbreviations: Dictionaries might use abbreviations to give you more information. For example, "n." means noun, "v." means verb, and so on.

79. Thank You