Comprehensive Biology ( EXAMPLE ) Notes (NCERT)

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1. Examples
1)AsexualReproductioni.Binary Fission :Amoeba
ii.Budding :Yeast
iii.Cell Division : Protists andMonerans
2)Asexual ReproductionStructuresi.Zoospores :Chlamydomonas
ii.Conidia :Penicillium
iii.Buds : Hydra
iv.Gemmules :Sponge
3)Vegetative Propagules inAngiospermsi.Eyes :Potato
ii.Rhizome : Ginger,Banana
iii.Bulbil :Agave
iv.Leaf buds :Bryophyllum
v.Offset : WaterHyacinth
4)OestrusCycleTiger, cows, sheep, rats, deers,dogs
5)MenstrualCycleMonkeys, apes andhumans
6)Monoecious Plants (Bisexualplants)Cucurbits and coconut,Chara
7)Dioecious Plants (UnisexualPlants)Papaya and date palm,Marchantia

2. Examples
8)Bisexual animals(Hermaphrodite)Earthworm, sponge, tapeworm andleech
9)UnisexualanimalsCockroach
10)ParthenogenesisRotifers, honeybees, some lizards, birds(Turkey)
11)ExternalfertilizationMost aquatic organisms –Majority of algaeand
fishes as well asamphibians
12)Internalfertilizationi.Many terrestrial organisms –Belonging tofungi
ii.Higher animals (reptiles, birds,mammals)
iii.Majority of plants –Bryophytes,pteridophytes,
gymnosperms andangiosperms)
13)Multicarpellary, SyncarpouspistilPapaver
14)Multicarpellary, ApocarpusgynoeciumMichelia
15)Presence of one ovule in anovaryWheat, Paddy,Mango
16)Presence of many ovules in anovaryPapaya, Watermelon,Orchids

3. Examples
16)AutogamyViola (common pansy), Oxalis andCommelina
17)Abiotic agents ofpollinationWind and water
18)Biotic agents ofpollinationAnimals [Bees, Butterflies, beetles, wasp, ants, moths,
birds (sunbird and humming birds), bats, some
primates(lemurs) and arboreal(tree-dwelling) rodents,
reptiles (gecko lizard and gardenlizard)]
19)WindpollinationGrasses
20)WaterpollinationAlgae, bryophytes,pteridophytes
§Vallisneria and Hydrilla (grow in freshwater
§Zostera (grow in marine water)
Insect or Wind pollination –Water hyacinth and waterlily
21)Endosperms completely consumedby
developing embryo before seedmaturation
Pea, groundnuts,beans

4. Examples
22) PersistentEndospermCastor andcoconut
23) AlbuminousseedWheat, maize, barley, castor,sunflower
24) Non-AlbuminousseedPea andgroundnut
25) TruefruitsMost of thefruits
26) FalsefruitsApple, strawberry,cashew
27) ParthenocarpicfruitsBanana
28)ApomixisAsteraceae andgrasses
29)PolyembryonyCitrusfruits
30) Hormones released duringpregnancy§hCG, hPL, Estrogens, Progestogens(by
placenta)
§Relaxin (byovary)
§During pregnancy levels of estrogens,
progestrogens, cortisol, prolactin,thyroxine are
also increased in maternalblood

5. Examples
31) Natural methods ofcontraception§Periodicabstinence
§Withdrawal or coitusinterrupts
§Lactationalamenorrhea
32) Barrier methods ofcontraception§Condoms, Diaphragms, cervical caps andvaults
33)IUDs §Non-medicated IUDs –Lippesloop
§Copper releasing IUDs –CuT, Cu7, Multiload375
§Hormone releasing IUDs –Progestasert andLNG-20
34) IncompleteDominanceDog flower (snapdragon or Antirrhinumspecies)
35)Co-dominanceABO bloodgrouping
36) MultipleAllelismABO bloodgrouping
37)PleiotropyPhenylketonuria

6. Examples
38) MaleHeterogametyHumans and drosophila(XY)
39) FemaleHeterogametyBirds(ZW)
40) PointmutationSickle cellanemia
41) MendelianDisordersHaemophilia, Cystic fibrosis, Sickle cellanemia,
colorblindness, phenylketonuria,thalassemia
42) ChromosomaldisordersDown’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome,Turner’s
syndrome
43)PurinesAdenine andGuanine
44)PyrimidinesCytosine, Uracil andThymine
45) Homologous structures
(Divergentevolution)
§Forelimbs of whales, bats, cheetah andhumans
§Vertebrate hearts orbrains
§Thorns and tenders of Bougainvillea andCucurbita

7. Examples
46) Analogous structures (Convergent
evolution)
§Wings of butterfly andbirds
§Eye of octopus andmammals
§Flippers of penguins anddolphins
47) RootmodificationSweetpotato
48) StemmodificationPotato
49) Adaptiveradiation§Darwinfinches
§AustralianMarsupial
50) PlacentalmammalsMole, anteater, mouse, lemur, flyingsquirrel,
bobcat,wolf
51) AustralianmammalsMarsupial mole, numbat(anteater),marsupial
mouse, spotted cuscus, flying phalanger, Tasmanian
tiger cat, Tasmanianwolf
52) PassiveImmunityColostrum, Injection in case of snakebites
53) Primary lymphoidorgansBone marrow, andthymus

8. Examples
54) Secondary lymphoidorgansSpleen lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’spatches
of small intestine andappendix
55) Fresh waterfishCatla, Rohu, and Commoncarp
56) MarinefishesHilsa, sardines, Mackerel andPomfrets
57) Semi-dwarf varieties ofwheatSonalika and KalyanSona
58) Semi-dwarf varieties ofriceJaya andRatna
59) Diseases caused byfungiBrown rust of wheat, red rot of sugarcane,late blight
ofpotato
60) Diseases caused bybacteriaBlack rot odcrucifers
61) Diseases caused byvirusesTobacco mosaic and turnipmosaic
62) Free living nitrogen fixingbacteriaAzospirillum,Azotobacter
63) Cyanobacteria as NitrogenfixersAnabaena, Nostoc,Oscillatoria
64) Symbiotic Nitrogen fixingBacteriaRhizobium

9. Examples
65) Major biomes ofIndia§Tropical rainforest
§Deciduousforest
§Desert
§Seacoast
66)PredationPrickly pear cactus and cactus feeding predator (amoth)
67)Parasitism§Life cycle of human liverfluke
§Malarialparasite
§Cuscuta
68) A bruteparasitismCuckoo (Koel) and thecrow
69)Commensalism§Barnacles growing on the back of awhale
§An orchid growing on as an epiphyte on amango
branch
§Cattle Egret and grazingcattle
§Sea anemone and clownfish

10. Examples
70)Mutualism§Lichens–mutualisticrelationshipbetweena
fungusandaphotosynthesizingalgaeor
cyanobacteria
§Mycorrhizae–associationbetweenfungi
androotsofhigherplants
§Pollination(zoophily,entomophily)
§Betweenfigtreeandwasp
71) Gaseous nutrientcycleNitrogen, carboncycle
72) SedimentarycycleSulphur and phosphoruscycle
73) Plants with HallucinogenicpropertiesErythroxylum coca, Atropa belladonnaand
Datura
74) Symbiotic Nitrogen fixingbacteriaRhizobium
75) Free living Nitrogen fixingbacteriaAzospirillumandAzotobacter
76) Cyanobacteria as nitrogenfixerAnabaena, Nostoc,Oscillatoria

11. Examples
77)CompetitionBetween superior barnacle Balanusand
smallerbarnacle
78) In situconservationBiosphere reserve, national parks,wildlife
sanctuaries
79) Ex situconservationZoological parks, botanical gardensand
wildlife safariparks

12. Examples
1)Red DinoflagellatesGonyaulax
2)EuglenoidsEuglena
3)AmoeboidprotozoansAmoeba,Entamoeba
4)FlagellateprotozoansTrypanosoma
5)CiliatedprotozoansParamoecium
6)SporozoansPlasmodium (malarialparasite)
7)PhycomycetesMucor, Rhizopus, Albugo (the parasitic fungi onmustard)
8)AscomycetesPenicillium(multicellular), yeast (unicellular), Aspergillus, Claviceps and
Neurospora
9)BasidiomycetesAgaricus(mushroom), Ustilago(smut), Puccinia(rustfungus)
10)DeuteromycetesAlternaria, Colletotrichum andTrichoderma
11)ColonialalgaeVolvox
12)FilamentousalgaeUlothrix andSpirogyra

13. Examples
13)Isogamousreproduction§Flagellated and similar in size :Ulothrix
§Non-flagellated (non-motile) but similar in size :Spirogyra
14)AnisogamousreproductionEudorina
15)OogamousreproductionVolvox,Fucus
16)Marine algae used asfoodPorphyra, Laminaria andSargassum
17)Algae producing hydrocolloids
(water holdingsubstance)
Algin (brown algae) and carrageen (redalgae)
18)Unicellular algae rich in protein used as
food supplement by space travellers
Clorella
19)ChlorophyceaeChlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra andChara
20)PhaeophyceaeEctocarpus, Dicyota, Laminaria, Sargassum andFucus
21)RhodophyceaePolysiphonia, Poryphyra, Gracilaria andGelidium

14. Examples
22)Liverworts(Bryophytes)Marchantia
23)Mosses (Bryophytes)Funaria, Polytrichum andSphagnum
24)PteridophyteClasses§Psilopsida :Psilotum
§Lycopodium : Selaginella,Lycopodium
§Sphenopsida :Equisetum
§Pteropsida : Dryopteris, Pteris,Adiantum
25)Pteridophytes havingmicrophyllsSelaginella
26)Pteridophytes havingmacrophyllsFerns
27)Pteridophytes having strobilyor
cones
Selaginella,Equisetum
28)HeterosporousPteridophytesSelaginella andSalvinia
29)UnbranchedstemCycas

15. Examples
30) BranchedstemPinus,Cedrus
31) BisexualgymnospermPinus
32) UnisexualgymnospermCycas
33) Haplontic lifecycleSpirogyra, Volvox, some species ofChlamydomonas
34) Diplontic lifecycleFucus, Gymnosperms andAngiosperms
35)Haplo-diplonticBryophytes and Pteridophytes,Ectocarpus,
Polysiphonia,kelps
36)CoelomatesAnnelids, Molluscs, arthropods,echinoderms,
hemichordates andchordates
37)PseudocoelomatesAschelminthes
38)AcoelomatesPlatyhelminthes
39) Phylum –PoriferaSycon (Scypha), Spongilla (Fresh water sponge)and
Euspongia (Bathsponge)

16. Examples
40) Phylum –Coelenterata
(Cnidaria)
Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (Sea anemone),
Pennatula (Sea-pen), Gorgonia(Sea-fan) and Meandrina
(Braincoral)
41) Phylum –CtenophoraPleurobrachia andCtenoplana
42) Phylum –PlatyhelminthesTaenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liverfluke)
43) Phylum –AschelminthesAscaria (Roundworm), Wuchereria (Filariaworm),
Ancylostoma(Hookworm)
44) Phylum –AnnelidaNereis, Pheretima (Earthworm), and Hirudinaria(Blood
suckingleech)
45) Phylum –Arthropoda§Economically important insects –Apis (Honeybee),
Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (Lacinsect)
§Vectors –Anopheles, Culex and Aedes(mosquitoes)
§Gregarious pest –Locusta(Locust)
§Living fossils –Limulus (Kingcrab)

17. Examples
46) Phylum –MolluscaPila (Apple snail), Pinctada (Pearl oyster), Sepia(cuttlefish), Loligo
(Squid), Octopus (Devil fish), Aplysia (Sea-hare), Dentalium (Tusk
shell) and Chaetopleura(Chiton)
47) Phylum –EchinodermataAsteria (Star fish), Echinus (sea urchin), Antedon (Sealily),
Cucumaria (sea cucumber) amd Ophiura (Brittlestar)
48) Phylum –HemichordataBalanoglossus andSaccoglossus
49)UrochordataAscidia, Salpa,Doliolum
50)CephalochordataBranchiostoma, Amphioxus orLancelet
51)CyclostomataPetromyzon (Lamprey), Myxine(Hagfish)
52)ChondrichthyesScoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Saw fish), Carcharodon(Great white
shark), Trygon (Stingray)
53)Osteichthyes§Marine : Exocoetus (Flying fish), Hippocampus (Seahorse)
§Fresh water : Labeo (Rohu), Catla (Katla), Clarias(Magur)
§Aquarium : Betta (Fighting fish), Pterophyllum (Angelfish)

18. Examples
54)AmphibiaBufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog), Salamandra (Salamander), Ichthyophis
(Limblessamphibia)
55)Reptilia§Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise), Chameleon (Tree lizard), Calotes (Garden lizard),
Crocodilus (Crocodile), Alligator (Alligator), Hemidactylus (Walllizard)
§Poisonoussnakes-Naja (Cobra), Bangarus (Krait), Vipera(Viper)
56)AvesCorvus (Crow), Columba (Pigeon), Psittacula (Parrot), Struthio (Ostrich), Pavo
(Peacock), Aptenodytes (Penguin), Neophron(Vulture)
57)Mammalia§Oviparous –Ornithorhynchus(Platypus)
§Viviparous –Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying fox), Camelus (Camel), Macaca
(Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis (Dog), Felis (Cat), Elephas (Elephant), Equus (Horse),
Delphinus (Common Dolphin), Balaenoptera (Blue whale), Panthera Tigris (Tiger),
Panthera leo(Lion)
58)Tap rootsystemMustard

19. Examples
59)Fibrous rootsystemMonocotyledonousplants
60)Adventitious rootsystemGrass, Monstera and the banyantree
61)ProprootsBanyantree
62)StiltrootsMaize, sugarcane
63)PneumatophoresRhizophora
64)ModifiedstemPotato, ginger, turmeric, zaminkand,Colocasia,
65)ModifiedrootSweetpotato
66)Pinnately compoundleafNeem
67)Palmately compoundleafSilk cotton
68)AlternatephyllotaxyChina rose, mustard and sunflowerplants
69)OppositephyllotaxyCalotropis and guavaplants
70)WhorledphyllotaxyAlstonia

20. Examples
71)ActinomorphicMustard, datura,chili
72)ZygomorphicPea, gulmohur, bean,Cassia
73)Hypogynous flower, superiorovaryMustard, china rose,brinjal
74)Perigynous flower, half inferiorovaryPlum, rose,peach
75)Epigynous flower, inferiorovaryGuava andcucumber
76)ValvateaestivationCalotropis
77)TwistedaestivationChina rose, lady’s finger andcotton
78)Imbricate aestivationCassia andgulmohur
79)VexillaryaestivationPea and beanflowers
80)MonoadelphousandroeciumChinarose
81)DiadelphousandroeciumPea
82)PolyadelphousandroeciumCitrus

21. Examples
83)ApocarpousgynoeciumLotus androse
84)SyncarpousgynoeciumMustard and tomato
85)MarginalplacentationPea
86)AxileplacentationChina rose, tomato andlemon
87)ParietalplacentationMustard andArgemone
88)Free centralplacentationDianthus andPrimrose
89)BasalplacentationSunflower,marigold
90)Fabaceae§Pulses –gram, arhar, sem, moong,soyabean
§Edible oil –Soya bean, groundnut
§Dye –Indigofera
§Fibers –sunhemp
§Fodder –Sesbania,Trifolium
§Ornamentals –Lupin, sweetpea
§Medicine -muliathi

22. Examples
91)SolanaceaeTomato, brinjal, potato, spice (chili), medicine (belladonna,
ashwagandha), fumigatory (tobacco), ornamentals
(petunia)
92)LiliaceaeTulip, Gloriosa, source of medicine (Aloe), vegetables
(Asparagus), and colchine (Cilchicumautumnale)
93)Endo membranesystemEndoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi complex, lysosomes and
vacuoles
94)PigmentsCarotenoids,Anthocyanins
95)AlkaloidsMorphine,Codeine
96)TerpenoidesMonoterpenes,Diterpenes
97)Essentialoils Lemon grassoil
98)ToxinsAbrin,Ricin
99)LectinsConcanavalinA

23. Examples
100)DrugsVinblastin,curcumin
101)PolymericsubstanceRubber, gums,cellulose
102)MacronutrientsCarbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,phosphorous,
sulphur, potassium, calcium andmagnesium
103)MicronutrientsIron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron,
chlorine andnickel
104)BeneficialelementsSodium, silicon, cobalt andselenium
105)Chlorosis is caused by the deficiencyofN, K, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn ANDCo
106)Necrosis or death of tissue is caused by the
deficiencyof
Ca, Mg, Cu,K
107)Inhibition of cell division is caused by the
deficiencyof
N, K, S,Mo
108)Delay in flowering is caused by the
deficiencyof
N, S,Mo

24. Examples
109)NitrifyingbacteriaNitrosomonas, Nitrococcus,Nitrobacter
110)DenitrifyingbacteriaPseudomonas,Thiobacillus
111)Vernalization§Biennial plants –Sugarbeet, cabbages,carrots
112)Respiration by simple diffusion (over entire body
surface)
Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates,
flatworms
113)CutaneousrespirationEarthworms
114)TrachealrespirationInsects
115)Branchial respiration(Gills)Most of the aquatic arthropods andmolluscs
116)PulmonaryrespirationAmphibians, reptiles, birds andmammals
117)2-chamberedheartFishes
118)3-chamberedheartAmphibians and reptiles (exceptcrocodiles)
119)4-chamberedheartBirds andmammals

25. Examples
120)AmmonotelicanimalsMany bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquaticinsects
121)UreotelicanimalsMammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marinefishes
122)UricotelicanimalsReptiles, birds, land snails andinsects
123)Excretorystructures§Protonephridia or flame cells –flatworm (Planaria), rotifers, some annelids
and the cephalochordate –Amphioxus
§Nephridia –earthworms and otherannelids
§Malpighian tubules –most of the insects includingcockroaches
§Antennal glands or green glands –crustaceans likeprawns
124)AmoeboidmovementAmoeba
125)CiliarymovementCoordinated movement of cilia in trachea, passage of ova through the female
reproductivetracts
126)MuscularmovementMovement of our jaws, limbs,tongue
127)FlagellarmovementSwimming of spermatozoa, canal system of sponges, locomotion of protozoans
likeEuglena

26. Examples
128)FibrousjointsSutures ofskull
129)CartilaginousjointsBetween the adjacent vertebrae in the vertebralcolumn
130)Synovial joint§Ball and socket joints –between humerus andpectoral
girdle)
§Hinge joint –Kneejoint
§Pivot joint –between atlas andaxis
§Gliding joint –between thecarpals
§Saddle joint –between carpal and metacarpal ofthumb
131)MultipolarneuronsIn cerebralcortex
132)Bipolar neuronsRetina ofeye
133)UnipolarneuronsUsually in the embryonicstage
134)Peptide,polypeptide,
proteinhormones
Insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, hypothalamichormones
135)SteroidsCortisol, testosterone, estradiol,progesterone

27. Examples
136)IodothyroninesThyroidhormones
137)Amino –acidderivativesEpinephrine
138)Hormones with membrane –boundreceptorsProteinhormones
139)Hormones with intracellularreceptorsSteroid hormones,idothyronines