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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

SYLLABUS

1. Introduction to Computers
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2. Register Transfer and Micro operations
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3. Computer Arithmetic
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4. Programming the Basic Computer
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5. Organization of a Computer
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6. Input-Output Organization
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7. Memory Organization
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8. Parallel Processing and Vector Processing
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9. Multiprocessors
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References: -
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3. vctpsdkI/eW1akIpeP/nUgkInkd/IwOeeSbSt//gaeSMotbe
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SYLLABUS

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Introduction to Computers

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Register Transfer and Micro operations

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MN1er sergNRfoOgateNzpn Tcemt sergNRfoOgateNzp3

Computer Arithmetic

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Programming the Basic Computer

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Organization of a Computer

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Input-Output Organization

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Memory Organization
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Introduction to Parallel Processing

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Vector Processing

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Multiprocessors

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Unit 1 : Introduction to Computers
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Unit 2: Register Transfer and Micro operationsi
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Unit 3 : Programming elements
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Unit 4 : Programming the Basic Computer
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Unit 5  : Central Progressing Unit (CPU)
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Unit 6: Input-Output Organization
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Unit-7 Memory Organization
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UNIT 8 :  Introduction to Parallel Processing
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Unit 9:  Victor Processing
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UNIT 10 :  Multiprocess
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

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1.1 Introduction
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1.2 WHAT IS COMPUTER?

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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1.3 VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
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UM/DEM/IeH1e5M/gtdaentooInkgtoaegaekI/pIDeMaeHardwiredbe dkekUgaegaeMe5I/1egoiyIugHyIe
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idonkgtoabehoeadnUeMenMaIekUI/IegaeMeoIIDetieMentok/tyeagloMyOeEUgnUeDg/InkaekUIePf3ekte
sI/it/pIDe Me asIngigne M/gkUpIkgne t/e ytlgne idonkgtoe toe kUIe DMkMbe RUI/Iit/IOe goe adnUe Me
a1akIpOeH1enUMolgolekUIentok/tyeagloMyekUIeDIag/IDeidonkgtoenMoeHIesI/it/pIDetoeDMkMbe

1
Representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner suitable for
communication, interpretation, or processing by humans or by automatic means. Any
representations such as characters or analog quantities to which meaning is or might be
assigned

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Az2 NoOgateNzn ycerc zOOIp tN 4O oOgmNgCOI Nz tcO Iatan tcOz raz 4O N4taezOI 42
ogN-eIez1 a pOt Nm rNztgNS pe1zaSp3 .cepn mNg a zOy NoOgateNz NzO NzS2 zOOIp tN rcaz1O
tcO pOt Nm rNztgNS pe1zaSp3

Putn cNy raz tcOpO rNztgNS pe1zaSp 42 puooSeOI" MOt up tg2 tN azpyOg tcep mgNC tcO
IOmezeteNz Nm a ogN1gaC3 A ogN1gaC rNzpeptp Nm a pO/uOzrO Nm ptOop3 Larc Nm tcOpO ptOopn
gO/uegO rOgtaez agetcCOter Ng SN1eraS Ng ezoutkNutout NoOgateNz tN 4O oOgmNgCOI Nz Iata3
.cOgOmNgOn Oarc ptOo Ca2 gO/uegO a zOy pOt Nm rNztgNS pe1zaSp3 Yp et oNppe4SO mNg up tN
ogN-eIO a uze/uO rNIO mNg Oarc pOt Nm rNztgNS pe1zaSp"  5OSS tcO azpyOg ep 2Op3 Put ycat
IN yO IN yetc tcOpO rNIOp" 5cat a4Nut aIIez1 a cagIyagO pO1COztn ycerc arrOotp a
rNIO azI 1OzOgatOp tOgCOI ap :NztgNS Vzet 9:VE3 .cepn a ogN1gaC zNy rNzpeptp Nm a
pO/uOzrO Nm rNIOp3 .cep CarcezO ep /uetO mSOBe4SOn ap yO NzS2 zOOI tN ogN-eIO a zOy
pO/uOzrO Nm rNIOp mNg a zOy ogN1gaC3 Larc rNIO epn ez OmmOrtn azI ezptgurteNzn mNg tcO
rNCoutOg .cO cagIyagO eztOgogOtp Oarc Nm tcOpO ezptgurteNzp azI 1OzOgatOp gOpoOrte-O
rNztgNS pe1zaSpn

.cO AgetcCOter MN1er Vzet 9AMVE azI tcO :NztgNS Vzet 9:VE tN1OtcOg agO tOgCOI ap tcO
:OztgaS lgNrOppez1 Vzet 9:lVE3 .cO :lV ep tcO CNept eCoNgtazt rNCoNzOzt Nm a
rNCoutOgOp cagIyagO3 .cO AMV oOgmNgCp tcO agetcCOter NoOgateNzp purc ap aIIeteNzn
pu4tgarteNzn CuSteoSerateNz azI Ie-epeNzn azI tcO SN1eraS NoOgateNzp purc apb DYp A IP"W
95cOgO A azI P agO 4Ntc zuCOger Ng aSocazuCOger IataEn DYp a 1e-Oz rcagartOg O/uaS tN
s 9mNg CaSOE Ng 8 9mNg mOCaSOE"W .cO rNztgNS uzet eztOgogOtp ezptgurteNzp azI ogNIurOp tcO
gOpoOrte-O rNztgNS pe1zaSp3

ASS tcO agetcCOter azI SN1eraS foOgateNzp agO oOgmNgCOI ez tcO :lV ez poOreaS ptNga1O
agOap raSSOI gO1eptOgp3 P.cO pe(O Nm tcO gO1eptOg ep NzO Nm tcO eCoNgtazt rNzpeIOgateNz ez
IOtOgCezez1 tcO ogNrOppez1 raoa4eSeteOp Nm tcO :lV3 UO1eptOg pe(O gOmOgp tN tcO aCNuzt Nm
ezmNgCateNz tcat raz 4O cOSI ez a gO1eptOg at a teCO mNg ogNrOppez13 .cO Sag1Og tcO
gO1eptOg pe(On tcO maptOg Ca2 4O tcO poOOI N ogNrOppez13 A :lVOp ogNrOppez1 oNyOg ep
COapugOI ez seSSeNz YzptgurteNzp lOg TOrNzI 9sYlTE3 .cO oOgmNgCazrO Nm tcO :lV yap
COapugOI ez CeSSepOrNzIp 9NzO tcNupazI Nm a pOrNzIE Nz tcO megpt 1OzOgateNz rNCoutOgpn
ez CergNpOrNzIp 9NzO CeSSeNztc Nm a pOrNzIE Nz pOrNzIR1OzOgateNz rNCoutOgpn azI ep
OBoOrtOI tN 4O COapugOI ez lerNRpOrNzIp 9NzO w–––
th
Nm a zazNRpOrNzIE ez tcO SatOg
1OzOgateNzp3 7Ny raz tcO ezptgurteNz azI Iata 4O out eztN tcO rNCoutOgp" Az OBtOgzaS
Oz-egNzCOzt puooSeOp tcO ezptgurteNz azI Iatan tcOgOmNgOn az ezout CNIuSO ep zOOIOI3
.cO Caez gOpoNzpe4eSet2 Nm ezout CNIuSO yeSS 4O tN out tcO Iata ez tcO mNgC Nm pe1zaSp
tcat raz 4O gOrN1ze(OI 42 tcO p2ptOC3 TeCeSagS2n yO zOOI azNtcOg rNCoNzOztn ycerc yeSS
gOoNgt tcO gOpuStp ez tcO gOpuStp ez ogNoOg mNgCat azI mNgC3 .cep rNCoNzOzt ep raSSOI
Nutout CNIuSO3 .cOpO rNCoNzOztp agO gOmOggOI tN1OtcOg ap ezoutkNutout 9YkfE
rNCoNzOztp3 Yz aIIeteNzn tN tgazpmOg tcO ezmNgCateNzn tcO rNCoutOg p2ptOC eztOgzaSS2
zOOIp tcO p2ptOC eztOgrNzzOrteNzp3 sNpt rNCCNz ezoutkNutout IO-erOp agO FO24NagIn
CNzetNg azI ogeztOgn azI tcO CNpt rNCCNz eztOgrNzzOrteNz ptgurtugO ep tcO Pup
ptgurtugO3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

umpg yptpg +ng:nisnvpv tgtdrre:epv grnmgog+nm1evEg:nisd pmFgbncgCp:odtpgevsd gMpTe:ptg
:ovg CmevEg evt md: envtg nmg Mo og nvhPg tpGdpv eohhPg ovMg og smnEmoig ioPg vn g Cpg pAp:d pMg
tpGdpv eohhPg otg Edisg evt md: envtg ompg vnmiohhPg pv:ndv pmpMg evg smnEmoiievEOg Rvg
oMMe envcg inmpg yovg nvpg Mo og phpipv tg ioPg Cpg mpGdempMg o g og eipOg xypmprnmpcg og
pisnmomPg t nmoEpg ompog etg vppMpMg evg og :nisd pmg ng t nmpg pisnmomehPg ypg evt md: envtg
ovMg ypg Mo oOg xyetg :nisnvpv g etg mprpmmpMg ng otg ipinmPOg R g +otg snev pMg nd g CPg Tnvk
bpdiovvg yo g ypgtoipgipinmPg:ovgCpgdtpMgnmgt nmevE gMo ogovMgevt md: envtOgRvgtd:yg
:otptg ypg Mo og :ovg Cpg mpo pMg otg Mo og nvg +ye:yg smn:pttevEg :ovg Cpg spmrnmipMcg +yehpg
evt md: envtg :ovg Cpg mpo pMg otg Mo ocg +ye:yg :ovg Cpg dtpMg rnmg ypg Epvpmo envg nrg :nv mnhg
teEvohtOgg
∑
xypg ipinmPg dve g t nmptg ohhg ypg evrnmio envg evg og Emndsg nrg ipinmPg :phhtcg ohtng :ohhpMg
ipinmPg hn:o envtcg otg CevomPg MeEe tOg fo:yg ipinmPg hn:o envg yotg og dveGdpg oMMmpttg ovMg
:ovg Cpg oMMmpttpMg evMpspvMpv hPOg xypg :nv pv tg nrg ypg MptempMg ipinmPg hn:o envtg ompg
smnTeMpMg ng ypg :pv mohg smn:pttevEg dve g CPg mprpmmevEg ng ypg oMMmpttg nrg ypg ipinmPg
hn:o envOgxypgoindv gnrgevrnmio envg yo g:ovgCpgyphMgevg ypgioevgipinmPgetg1vn+vgotg
ipinmPg :oso:e POg xypg :oso:e Pg nrg ypg ioevg ipinmPg tgipotdmpMg evg 8ehng NP ptg /8N0g nmg
SpEog NP ptg /N0Og wvpk1ehng CP pg t ovMtg rnmg ;
10
g CP ptcg +ye:yg ompg :C;=g CP ptg /nmg
ossmnAeio phPg :CCCg CP pt0Og ug ipEog CP pg t ovMtg rnmg ;
20
g CP ptcg +ye:yg etg ossmnAeio phPg
he  hpgnTpmgnvpgiehhenvgCP ptOg.ypvg>=kCe ga-.QtgCp:nipg:niinvgipinmPg+ehhgt om g ngCpg
tsn1pvgoCnd gevg pmoCP ptcgsp oCP ptcgovMgpAoCP ptO∑
∑
• wvpg1ehnCP pgpGdohtg;g ng ypg:C
th
gsn+pmcgnmg:cC;=gCP ptOgg
• wvpgipEoCP pgpGdohtg;g ng ypg;C
th
gsn+pmcgnmg:cC=Bc@A>gCP ptOgg
• wvpgEeEoCP pgpGdohtg;g ng ypg<C
th
gsn+pmcgnmg:cCA<cA=:cB;=gCP ptOgg
• wvpg pmoCP pgpGdohtg;g ng ypg=C
th
gsn+pmcgnmg:cC??@::c>;AcAA>gCP ptOgg
• wvpgsp oCP pgpGdohtg;g ng ypg@C
th
gsn+pmcgnmg:c:;@cB??c?C>cB=;c>;=gCP ptOgg
• wvpgpAoCP pgpGdohtg;g ng ypg>C
th
gsn+pmcgnmg:c:@;c?;:c@C=c>C>cB=>c?A>gCP ptOgg
• wvpg2p  oCP pgpGdohtg;g ng ypgAC
th
gsn+pmcgnmg:c:BCc@?:c>;CcA:Ac=::c<C<c=;=gg
• wvpg Pn  oCP pg pGdohtg ;g ng ypg BC
th
g sn+pmcg nmg
:c;CBc?;@cB:?c>:=c>;?c:A=cAC>c:A>gg
Note:gxypmpgetgtnipgho:1gnrgt ovMomMe2o envgnvg yptpg pmitg+ypvgosshepMg ngipinmPgovMg
Met1g :oso:e POg SpinmPg tsp:ere:o envtg pvMg ng oMypmpg ng ypg Mpreve envtg oCnTpg +ypmpotg
Met1g :oso:e Pg tsp:ere:o envtg pvMg ng teisherPg yevEtg ng ypg :C
th
g sn+pmg Mpreve envtg
(kilo=10
3
cgipEoI:C
6
cgEeEoI:C
9
cgp :O0gevgnmMpmg ngsmnMd:pgpTpvgvdiCpmtOg
∑
Ip gdtgtdiiome2pg ypg1pPgrpo dmptgnrgogTnvgbpdiovvgio:yevpOg
• xypgyomM+ompgnrg ypgTnvgbpdiovvgio:yevpg:nvtet tgnr goga-.cg+ye:ygev:hdMptg
ovguI.govMga.Og
• ugioevgipinmPgtPt pigg
• uvgRvsd Dnd sd gtPt pigg
• xypgTnvgbpdiovvgio:yevpgdtptgt nmpMgsmnEmoig:nv:ps cgpOEOcg ypgsmnEmoigovMg
Mo ogompgt nmpMgevg ypgtoipgipinmPgdve Ogxypg:nisd pmtgsmenmg ng yetgeMpogdtpMg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

kteakt/Ies/tl/MpaeMoDeDMkMetoeaIsM/MkIepIpt/gIabeAokI/goleMoDeptDgi1golekUIaIe
s/tl/MpaeEI/Ie5I/1eDgiigndykeMaekUI1eEI/IeIokI/IDepModMyy1eH1eaIkkgoleaEgknUIae
MoDesydllgoleMoDedosydllgolbee
• AMnUe ytnMkgtoe tie kUIe pIpt/1e tie 5toe CIdpMooe pMnUgoIenMoe HIe MDD/IaaIDe
goDIsIoDIoky1bee
• AuIndkgtoe tie goak/dnkgtoae goe 5toe CIdpMooe pMnUgoIe gae nM//gIDe tdke goe Me
aIGdIokgMye iMaUgtoe 4doyIaae Iusygngky1e MykI/IDe H1e kUIe s/tl/Mpe gkaIyi6e i/tpe toIe
goak/dnkgtoektekUIeoIukbee
e
RUIe ityytEgole igld/Ie aUtEae kUIe HMagne ak/dnkd/Ie tie 5toe CIdpMooe pMnUgoIbe Pe 5toe
CIdpMooe pMnUgoIe UMae toy1e Me agolyIe sMkUe HIkEIIoe kUIepMgoe pIpt/1e MoDe ntok/tye
dogke 4c36be RUgae iIMkd/IDe ntoak/Mgoke gae /IiI/IIDe kteMae 5toe CIdpMooe HtkkyIoInTbe
WI5I/MyetkUI/eM/nUgkInkd/IaeUM5IeHIIoeadllIakIDeit/eptDI/oentpsdkI/ae
e
5toeCIdpMooeSMnUgoIe
e
• Pkk/gHdkIDekte7tUoe5toeCIdpMooe
• R/IMkaeG/tl/MpeMoDe9MkMeIGdMyy1e
• 0oIest/kekteSIpt/1ebeWgpsygigIDe8M/DEM/Ie
• R5toe CIdpMooe tkkyIoInTRe 4/MkIe Mke EUgnUe DMkMe MoDe s/tl/Mpe nMoe lIke gokte kUIe
cG3egaeygpgkIDeH1ekUIeHMoDEgDkUetiekUIegokI/ntooInk6e
e
bee
1.4 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Magnegoit/pMkgtoeMHtdkekUIekInUotytlgnMyeDI5IytspIokek/IoDaegoentpsdkI/egoekUIesMake
MoDegkaes/tEInkgtoaegoekUIeidkd/IbehieEIeEMokekteTotEeMHtdkentpsdkI/aentpsyIkIy1ekUIoe
EIe pdake akM/ke i/tpe kUIe Ugakt/1e tie ntpsdkI/ae MoDe yttTe gokte kUIe DIkMgyae tie 5M/gtdae
kInUotytlgnMye MoDe gokIyyInkdMye H/IMTkU/tdlUbe RUIaIeM/Ie IaaIokgMye kte lg5Ie dae kUIe iIIye tie
UtEepdnUeEt/TeMoDeIiit/keUMaeHIIoeDtoIektelIkekUIentpsdkI/egoekUgaeaUMsIbee
e
RUIe MonIakt/ae tie ptDI/oe MlIe ntpsdkI/e EI/Ie kUIe pInUMognMye MoDe IyInk/t2pInUMognMye
DI5gnIabeRUgaeMonIak/1enMoeHIek/MnIDeMaeHMnTeMoDe:A
th
enIokd/1OeEUIoekUIeig/akepMnUgoIe
nMsMHyIetiesI/it/pgoleitd/epMkUIpMkgnMyetsI/MkgtoaOe5g(beMDDgkgtoOeadHk/MnkgtoOeDg5gagtoe
MoDepdykgsygnMkgtoOeMssIM/IDbe
e
1.4.1 MECHANICAL COMPUTERS
e
1.4.1.1.ePascaline:

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

yMgaIeGManMyepMDIekUIe5I/1eig/akeMkkIpskektEM/DaekUgaeMdktpMkgnentpsdkgolbe8Ie
go5IokIDe Me DI5gnIOe EUgnUe ntoagakIDe tie ytkae tie lIM/ae MoDe nUMgoae MoDe daIDe kte sI/it/pe
/IsIMkIDe MDDgkgtoe MoDe adHk/Mnkgtoabe RUgae DI5gnIe EMae nMyyIDe GManMygoIbe fMkI/e pMo1e
MkkIpskaeEI/IepMDIegoekUgaeDg/InkgtoKeEIeEgyyeotkeltegoekUIeDIkMgyaetiekUIaIepInUMognMye
nMyndyMkgoleDI5gnIabe dkeEIepdakeDgandaaeatpIeDIkMgyaeMHtdkekUIegoot5MkgtoeH1ecUM/yIae
HMHHMlIOekUIel/MoDiMkUI/etieptDI/oentpsdkI/be8IeDIagloIDekEtentpsdkI/a9e
e
1.4.1.2. THE DIFFERENCE ENGINE e

hkeEMaeHMaIDetoekUIepMkUIpMkgnMyes/gongsyIetieigogkIeDgiiI/IonIaeMoDeEMaedaIDekteaty5Ie
nMyndyMkgtoae toe yM/lIe odpHI/ae dagole Me it/pdyMbe hke EMae Myate daIDe it/e aty5gole kUIe
sty1otpgMyeMoDek/gltotpIk/gneidonkgtoabe

1.4.1.3. THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE BY BABBAGE: ee
e
hke EMae lIoI/Mye sd/staIe ntpsdkgole DI5gnIOe EUgnUe ntdyDe HIe daIDe it/e sI/it/pgole Mo1e
pMkUIpMkgnMyetsI/MkgtoeMdktpMkgnMyy1behkentoagakIDetiekUIeityytEgolentpstoIoka9e
• THE STORE:e Pe pInUMognMye pIpt/1e dogke ntoagakgole tie aIkae tie ntdokI/e
EUIIyabe
• THE MILL:ePoeM/gkUpIkgnedogkOeEUgnUegaenMsMHyIetiesI/it/pgolekUIeitd/eHMagne
M/gkUpIkgnetsI/Mkgtoabe
• CARDS:eRUI/IeM/IeHMagnMyy1ekEtek1sIaetienM/Da9e
o Operation Cards:e WIyInkae toIe tie itd/e M/gkUpIkgne tsI/Mkgole H1e
Mnkg5MkgolekUIepgyyektesI/it/pekUIeaIyInkIDeidonkgtobe
o Variable Cards:eWIyInkaekUIepIpt/1eytnMkgtoaekteHIedaIDeH1ekUIepgyye
it/e Me sM/kgndyM/e tsI/Mkgtoe 4gbIbe kUIe atd/nIe tie kUIetsI/MoDae MoDe kUIe
DIakgoMkgtoetiekUIe/Iadyka6be
• OUTPUT:ectdyDeHIeDg/InkIDekteMes/gokI/et/eMenM/DsdonUeDI5gnIbe
e
Logical Structure of Babbage’s Analytical Engine
Instructions
Results
The Mill
performs
the job of
arithmetic
Store
used as
memory
Output or
Printer or
punched
card.
Operational Variable
Cards Cards

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

The basic features of this analytical engine were:
• R g+otgogEpvpmohgsdmsntpgsmnEmoiioChpgio:yevpOg
• R g yoMg ypg smnTetenvg nrg od nio e:g tpGdpv:pg :nv mnhcg ydtg pvoChevEg smnEmoitg ng
oh pmge tgtpGdpv:pgnrgnspmo envtOg
• xypgsmnTetenvgnrgteEvg:yp:1evEgnrgmptdh gpAet pMOg
• Sp:yovetig rnmg oMTov:evEg nmg mpTpmtevEg nrg :nv mnhg :omMg +pmpg spmie pMg ydtg
pvoChevEg pA:pd envg nrg ovPg MptempMg evt md: envOg Rvg n ypmg +nmMtcg NoCCoEpg yoMg
MpTe:pMg og :nvMe envohg ovMg Cmov:yevEg evt md: envtcg ypg CoCCoEpg io:yevpg etg
rdvMoipv ohhPg ypg toipg otg inMpmvg :nisd pmOg .vrnm dvo phPg NoCCoEpg +nm1g
:ndhMg vn g Cpg :nishp pMOg Nd g otg og meCd pg g ng ayomhptg NoCCoEpg yetg uvohP e:ohg
fvEevpg +otg :nishp pMg evg ypg hot g Mp:oMpg ovMg etg vn+gnvg MetshoPg o g ypg t:epv:pg
Sdtpdigo gInvMnvOg
bpA g vn oChpg o pis tg n+omMtg :nisd pmg +pmpg php: mn ip:yove:ohg 4dtpg dtpMg
php: mnip:yove:ohgmphoPtg yo g:ndhMgCpgpe ypmgnspvpMgnmg:hntpMgod nio e:ohhPOgxydtcg ypg
dtpgnrgCevomPgMeEe tcgmo ypmg yovgMp:eiohgvdiCpmtgt om pMOg
∑
1.4.1.4. HARVARD MARK I AND THE BUG
∑
xypgvpA gteEvere:ov gprrnm g n+omMtgMpTetevEgovgphp: mnip:yove:ohg:nisd pmg+otgioMpgo g
ypg yomTomMg .veTpmte Pcg Enev hPg tsnvtpmpMg CPg RNSg ovMg ypg /psom ipv g nrg .bg boTPcg
zn+omMgue1pvgnrgzomTomMg.veTpmte PgMpTphnspMgogtPt pig:ohhpMgSom1gRgevg:?==OgSom1gRg
+otgMp:eiohgio:yevpOg
DnipgnrgPndgidt gyoTpgypomMgog pmig:ohhg“bug”OgR getgioevhPgdtpMg ngevMe:o pgpmmnmtgevg
:nisd pmgsmnEmoitOgxyetg pmig+otg:nevpMcg+ypvgnvpgM oPcgogsmnEmoigevgSom1gRgMeMgvn g
mdvg smnspmhPg Mdpg ng og tynm k:em:de evEg ypg :nisd pmOg Dev:pg ypvcg ypg 5CdE6g yotg Cppvg
hev1pMg +e yg pmmnmtg nmg smnChpitg evg :nisd pmg smnEmoiievEOg xypg smn:pttg nrg pheievo evEg
pmmnmgevgogsmnEmoigetg ydtcg1vn+vgotg“debugging”%∑
∑
xypgCote:gMmo+Co:1gnrg yptpgip:yove:ohgovMgphp:mnip:yove:ohg:nisd pmtg+pmp9g
• ,me: envDevpm eognrginTevEg:nisnvpv tgyoMgheie pMg ypgtsppMOg
• xypgMo oginTpipv gdtevEgEpomtgovMghevpmg+otgGde pgMerre:dh govMgdvmpheoChpOg
• xypg:yovEpg+otg ngyoTpgt+e :yevEgovMgt nmevEgip:yovetig+e ygvnginTevEgsom tg
ovMg ypvg ypg php: mnve:g t+e :yevEg p:yveGdpg 5 menMp6g To:ddig dCptg +pmpg dtpMg
ovMgypv:pgCnmvg ypgremt gphp: mnve:g:nisd pmOg
• xypg pTnhd envg nrg MeEe ohg :nisd evEg etg nr pvg MeTeMpMg ev nggenerationsOg fo:yg
Epvpmo envg etg :yomo: pme2pMg CPg Mmoio e:g eismnTpipv tg nTpmg ypg smpTendtg
Epvpmo envgevg ypg p:yvnhnEPgdtpMg ngCdehMg:nisd pmtcg ypgev pmvohgnmEove2o envg
nrg :nisd pmg tPt pitcg ovMg smnEmoiievEg hovEdoEptOg uh yndEyg vn g dtdohhPg
ottn:eo pMg+e yg:nisd pmgEpvpmo envtcg ypmpgyotgCppvgogt poMPgeismnTpipv gevg
ohEnme yitcg ev:hdMevEg ohEnme yitg dtpMg evg :nisd o envohg t:epv:pOg xypg rnhhn+evEg
yet nmPg yotg Cppvg nmEove2pMg dtevEg yptpg +eMphPg mp:nEve2pMg Epvpmo envtg otg
iehpsnt tOg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

1.4.2 First Generation Electronic Computers (1937-1953)

RU/IIepMnUgoIaeUM5IeHIIoes/tptkIDeMke5M/gtdaekgpIaeMaekUIeig/akeIyInk/tognentpsdkI/abe
RUIaIe pMnUgoIae daIDe IyInk/togne aEgknUIaOe goe kUIe it/pe tie 5Mnddpe kdHIaOe goakIMDe tie
IyInk/tpInUMognMye /IyM1abe hoe s/gongsyIe kUIe IyInk/togne aEgknUIae EtdyDe HIe pt/Ie /IygMHyIOe
agonIe kUI1e EtdyDe UM5Ie ote pt5gole sM/kae kUMke EtdyDe EIM/e tdkOe Hdke kUIe kInUotytl1e EMae
akgyyeoIEeMkekUMkekgpIeMoDekUIekdHIaeEI/IentpsM/MHyIekte/IyM1aegoe/IygMHgygk1beAyInk/togne
ntpstoIokae UMDe toIe pMEt/e HIoIigkOe UtEI5I/9e kUI1e ntdyDe SStsIoQQe MoDe SSnytaIQQe MHtdke
:OCCCekgpIaeiMakI/ekUMoepInUMognMyeaEgknUIabee
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ntoadykMoke kte kUIe AChPce s/tEInkOe HIlMoe Et/Te toe Me oIEe pMnUgoIe HIit/Ie AChPce EMae
igogaUIDbeRUIepMgoentok/gHdkgtoetieA9rPcOekUIg/eoIEes/tEInkOeEMaekUIeotkgtoetieMestored
programbeRUI/IegaeatpIentok/t5I/a1et5I/eEUteDIaI/5IaekUIen/IDgkeit/ekUgaegDIMOeHdkeotoIe
t5I/e UtEe gpst/kMoke kUIe gDIMe EMae kte kUIe idkd/Ie tie lIoI/Mye sd/staIe ntpsdkI/abe AChPce
EMaentok/tyyIDeH1eMeaIketieIukI/oMyeaEgknUIaeMoDeDgMyaKektenUMolIekUIes/tl/Mpe/IGdg/IDe
sU1agnMyy1eMykI/golekUIeaIkkgolaetoekUIaIentok/tyabeRUIaIentok/tyaeMyateygpgkIDekUIeasIIDe
tie kUIe gokI/oMye IyInk/togne tsI/Mkgtoabe RU/tdlUe kUIedaIe tie Me pIpt/1e kUMke EMae yM/lIe
IotdlUekteUtyDeHtkUegoak/dnkgtoaeMoDeDMkMOeMoDedagolekUIes/tl/Mpeakt/IDegoepIpt/1ekte
ntok/tyekUIet/DI/etieM/gkUpIkgnetsI/MkgtoaOeA9rPceEMaeMHyIekte/doet/DI/aetiepMlogkdDIe
iMakI/e kUMoe AChPcbe 1e akt/gole goak/dnkgtoae goe kUIe aMpIe pIDgdpe Mae DMkMOe DIagloI/ae
ntdyDentonIok/MkIetoegps/t5golekUIegokI/oMyeak/dnkd/IetiekUIepMnUgoIeEgkUtdkeEt//1gole
MHtdkepMknUgolegkektekUIeasIIDetieMoeIukI/oMyentok/tybee
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• ctonIskaeadnUeMaedaIetie5g/kdMyepIpt/1eMoDegoDIue/IlgakI/e41tdeEgyyeTotEept/Ie
MHtdkekUIaIekI/paegoeMD5MonIDentd/aIa6be
• GdonUIDenM/DaeEI/IedaIDeMaegosdkeDI5gnIbe
• SMloIkgnekMsIaeMoDepMloIkgneD/dpaeEI/IedaIDeMaeaIntoDM/1epIpt/1be
• goM/1entDIet/epMnUgoIeyMoldMlIeEMaedaIDeit/es/tl/Mppgolbe
• RtEM/DaekUIeIoDeDdIekteDgiigndykgIaeIontdokI/IDegoedaIetiepMnUgoIeyMoldMlIeMae
s/tl/Mppgole yMoldMlIOe kUIe daIe tie a1pHtygne yMoldMlIOe EUgnUe gae otEe nMyyIDe
MaaIpHy1eyMoldMlIOeakM/kIDbe
• PaaIpHyI/Oe Me s/tl/MpOe EUgnUe k/MoayMkIae MaaIpHy1e yMoldMlIe s/tl/Mpae kte
pMnUgoIeyMoldMlIOeEMaepMDIbe
• ctpsdkI/e EMae MnnIaagHyIe kte toy1e toIe s/tl/MppI/e Mke Me kgpIe 4agolyIe daI/e
Io5g/topIok6be

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

• PD5Ioketierto2CIdpMooeP/nUgkInkd/Ibe

1.4.3 Second Generation (1954-1962)
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RUIe aIntoDe lIoI/Mkgtoe aMEe aI5I/Mye gpst/kMoke DI5IytspIokae Mke Myye yI5Iyae tie ntpsdkI/e
a1akIpeDIagloOei/tpekUIekInUotytl1edaIDekteHdgyDekUIeHMagneng/ndgkaektekUIes/tl/Mppgole
yMoldMlIaedaIDekteE/gkIeangIokgigneMssygnMkgtoabee
e
AyInk/togneaEgknUIaegoekUgaeI/MeEI/IeHMaIDetoeDgan/IkIeDgtDIeMoDek/Moagakt/ekInUotytl1e
EgkUe Me aEgknUgole kgpIe tie Mss/tugpMkIy1e Cb<e pgn/taIntoDabeThe first machines to be
built with this technology include TRADIC at Bell L aboratories in 1954 and TX-0
at MIT's Lincoln Laboratory.eSIpt/1ekInUotytl1eEMaeHMaIDetoepMloIkgnent/IaeEUgn Ue
ntdyDe HIeMnnIaaIDegoe /MoDtpet/DI/OeMaetsstaIDektepI/nd/1eDIyM1e ygoIaOegoeEUgnUe DMkMe
EMaeakt/IDeMaeMoeMntdakgneEM5IekUMkesMaaIDeaIGdIokgMyy1ekU/tdlUekUIepIDgdpeMoDentdyDe
HIeMnnIaaIDetoy1eEUIoekUIeDMkMept5IDeH1ekUIehD0egokI/iMnIbee
e
9d/gole kUgae aIntoDe lIoI/Mkgtoe pMo1e UglUe yI5Iye s/tl/Mppgole yMoldMlIae EI/Ie
gok/tDdnIDOe gonydDgole F0xRxPCe 4:?@>6Oe Pfm0fe 4:?@B6Oe MoDe c0 0fe 4:?@?6be hpst/kMoke
ntppI/ngMyepMnUgoIaetiekUgaeI/MegonydDIekUIeh SeAC=eMoDegkaeadnnIaat/aOekUIeAC?eMoDe
AC?=beRUIeyMkkI/egok/tDdnIDehD0es/tnIaat/aeit/eHIkkI/ekU/tdlUsdkeHIkEIIoehD0eDI5gnIae
MoDepMgoepIpt/1bee
RUIe aIntoDe lIoI/Mkgtoe Myate aMEe kUIeig/ake kEteadsI/ntpsdkI/ae DIagloIDe asIngignMyy1e it/e
odpI/gne s/tnIaagole goe angIokgigne MssygnMkgtoabe RUIekI/pe SSadsI/ntpsdkI/QQe gae lIoI/Myy1e
/IaI/5IDe it/e Me pMnUgoIe kUMke gae Moe t/DI/e tie pMlogkdDIe pt/Ie stEI/idye kUMoe tkUI/e
pMnUgoIaetiegkaeI/MbeREtepMnUgoIaetiekUIe:?@CaeDIaI/5IekUgaekgkyIbeRUIefg5I/pt/IePktpgne
xIaIM/nUe ctpsdkI/e 4fPxc6e MoDe kUIe h Se AC<Ce 4MTMe Wk/IknU6e EI/Ie IM/y1e IuMpsyIae tie
pMnUgoIae kUMke t5I/yMssIDe pIpt/1e tsI/Mkgtoae EgkUe s/tnIaat/e tsI/Mkgtoae MoDe UMDe
s/gpgkg5Ieit/paetiesM/MyyIyes/tnIaagole

1.4.4 Third Generation (1963-1972)
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eRUIe kUg/De lIoI/Mkgtoe H/tdlUke UdlIe lMgoae goe ntpsdkMkgtoMye stEI/behoot5Mkgtoae goe kUgae
I/Me gonydDIe kUIe daIe tie gokIl/MkIDe ng/ndgkaOe t/e hcae4aIpgntoDdnkt/e DI5gnIae EgkUe aI5I/Mye
k/Moagakt/aeHdgykegoktetoIesU1agnMyentpstoIok6OeaIpgntoDdnkt/epIpt/gIaeakM/kgolekteHIe
daIDe goakIMDe tie pMloIkgne nt/IaOe pgn/ts/tl/Mppgole Mae Me kInUogGdIe it/e IiigngIoky1e
DIaglogole ntpsyIue s/tnIaat/aOe kUIe ntpgole tie MlIe tiesgsIygogole MoDe tkUI/e it/pae tie
sM/MyyIyes/tnIaagolOeMoDekUIegok/tDdnkgtoetietsI/Mkgolea1akIpaeMoDekgpI2aUM/golbee
e
RUIeig/akehcaeEI/IeHMaIDetoesmall-scale integration (SSI) circuitsOeEUgnUeUMDeM/tdoDe
:CeDI5gnIaesI/eng/ndgke4t/eSSnUgsQQ6OeMoDeI5ty5IDektekUIedaIetiemedium-scale integrated
(MSI) circuitsOeEUgnUeUMDedsekte:CCeDI5gnIaesI/enUgsbeSdykgyM1I/IDes/gokIDeng/ndgkaeEI/Ie
DI5IytsIDe MoDe nt/Ie pIpt/1e EMae /IsyMnIDe H1e iMakI/Oe atygDe akMkIe pIpt/gIabe ctpsdkI/e
DIagloI/ae HIlMoe kte kMTIe MD5MokMlIe tie sM/MyyIygape H1e dagole pdykgsyIe idonkgtoMye dogkaOe
t5I/yMssgole cG3e MoDe hD0e tsI/MkgtoaOe MoDe sgsIygogole4gokI/oMye sM/MyyIygap6e goe HtkUe kUIe

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

evt md: envg t mpoig ovMg ypg Mo og t mpoiOg xypg DwIwSwbg :nisd pmcg MpTphnspMg CPg
.pt evEyndtpg anmsnmo envcg ovMg ypg RIIRuag Rlcg Enev hPg MpTphnspMg CPg NdmmndEytcg ypg
/psom ipv g nrg /prpvtpg ovMg ypg .veTpmte Pg nrg Rhhevnetcg +otg mpsmptpv o eTpg nrg ypg remt g
somohhphg:nisd pmtOgg

1.4.5. Fourth Generation (1972-1984)
g
xypgvpA gEpvpmo envgnrg:nisd pmgtPt pitgto+g ypgdtpgnrglarge scale integration (LSIgkg
:CCCg MpTe:ptg spmg :yes0g ovMgvery large scale integration (VLSIg kg :CCcCCCg MpTe:ptg spmg
:yes0gevg ypg:nvt md: envgnrg:nisd evEgphpipv tOgu g yetgt:ohpgpv empgsmn:pttnmtg+ehhgre g
nv ng og tevEhpg :yescg ovMg rnmg teishpg tPt pitg ypg pv empg :nisd pmg /smn:pttnmcg ioevg
ipinmPcgovMgRDwg:nv mnhhpmt0g:ovgre gnvgnvpg:yesOg-o pgMphoPtgMmnsspMg ngoCnd g:vtgspmg
Eo pOgg
g
Dpie:nvMd: nmg ipinmeptg mpsho:pMg :nmpg ipinmeptg otg ypg ioevg ipinmPg evg int g
tPt pitKgdv ehg yetg eipg ypgdtpgnrgtpie:nvMd: nmgipinmPgevgint gtPt pitg+otgheie pMg
ng mpEet pmtg ovMg :o:ypOg ug Tomep Pg nrg somohhphg om:ye p: dmptg CpEovg ng osspomKg yn+pTpmcg
MdmevEg yetgspmenMg ypgsomohhphg:nisd evEgprrnm tg+pmpgnrgogint hPgpAspmeipv ohgvo dmpg
ovMgint g:nisd o envohgt:epv:pg+otg:ommepMgnd gnvgTp: nmgsmn:pttnmtOgSe:mn:nisd pmtg
ovMg +nm1t o envtg +pmpg ev mnMd:pMg ovMg to+g +eMpg dtpg otg oh pmvo eTptg ng eipktyompMg
ioevrmoipg:nisd pmtOgg
g
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smnEmoiievE0g ovMg -mnhnEg /smnEmoiievEg evg hnEe:0Og xyptpg hovEdoEptg pvMg ng dtpg og
declarativeg smnEmoiievEg t Phpg otg nssntpMg ng ypgimperativeg t Phpg nrg -ot:ohcg acg
,wLxLubcg p g ohOg Rvg ogdeclarative stylecg og smnEmoiipmg EeTptg og io ypio e:ohg
tsp:ere:o envg nrg +yo g tyndhMg Cpg :nisd pMcg hpoTevEg iovPg Mp oehtg nrg yn+g e g tyndhMg Cpg
:nisd pMg ng ypg:nisehpmgovMDnmgmdv eipgtPt piOgxyptpghovEdoEptgompgvn gPp gevg+eMpg
dtpcg Cd g ompg TpmPg smnietevEg otg vn o envtg rnmg smnEmoitg yo g +ehhg mdvg nvg iotteTphPg
somohhphg :nisd pmtg /tPt pitg +e yg nTpmg :cCCCg smn:pttnmt0Og anisehpmtg rnmg pt oChetypMg
hovEdoEptg t om pMg ng dtpg tnsyet e:o pMg ns eie2o envg p:yveGdptg ng eismnTpg :nMpcg ovMg
:nisehpmtg rnmg Tp: nmg smn:pttnmtg +pmpg oChpg ng Tp: nme2pg teishpg hnnstg / dmvg hnnstg ev ng
tevEhpgevt md: envtg yo g+ndhMgeve eo pgovgnspmo envgnTpmgovgpv empgTp: nm0Ogg
g
x+ngeisnm ov gpTpv tgiom1pMg ypgpomhPgsom gnrg ypg yemMgEpvpmo env9g ypgMpTphnsipv gnrg
ypg ag smnEmoiievEg hovEdoEpg ovMg ypg .bRTg nspmo evEg tPt picg Cn yg o g Nphhg IoCtOg Rvg
:?A;cg /pvvetg Le :yepcg tpp1evEg ng ipp g ypg MpteEvg Enohtg nrg a-Ig ovMg Epvpmohe2pg
xynistnvQtgNcgMpTphnspMg ypgaghovEdoEpOgxynistnvgov MgLe :yepg ypvgdtpMgag ng+me pgog
Tpmtenvg nrg .bRTg rnmg ypg /fag -/-k::Og xyetg akCotpMg .bRTg +otg tnnvg snm pMg ng iovPg
Merrpmpv g:nisd pmtcgmphepTevEgdtpmtgrmnigyoTevEg nghpomvgogvp+gnspmo evEgtPt pigpo:yg
eipg ypPg :yovEpg :nisd pmg yomM+ompOg .bRTg nmg og MpmeTo eTpg nrg .bRTg etg vn+g og Mpg ro: ng
t ovMomMgnvgTem dohhPgpTpmPg:nisd pmgtPt piOgg

1.4.6 Fifth Generation (1984-1990)

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

g
xypgMpTphnsipv gnrg ypgvpA gEpvpmo envgnrg:nisd pmgtPt pitgetg:yomo: pme2pMgioevhPgCPg
ypg o::ps ov:pg nrg somohhphg smn:pttevEOg .v ehg yetg eipg somohhphetig +otg heie pMg ng
sesphevevEgovMgTp: nmgsmn:pttevEcgnmgo gint g ngogrp+gsmn:pttnmtgtyomevEgEnCtOgxypgrer yg
Epvpmo envgto+g ypgev mnMd: envgnrgio:yevptg+e ygydvMmpMtgnrgsmn:pttnmtg yo g:ndhMgohhg
Cpg+nm1evEgnvgMerrpmpv gsom tgnrgogtevEhpgsmnEmoiOg
g
w ypmg vp+g MpTphnsipv tg +pmpg ypg +eMptsmpoMg dtpg nrg :nisd pmg vp +nm1tg ovMg ypg
ev:mpotevEgdtpgnrgtevEhpkdtpmg+nm1t o envtOg-menmg ng:?B@ghomEpgt:ohpgsomohhphgsmn:pttevEg
+otgTep+pMgotgogmptpom:ygEnohcgCd g +ngtPt pitgev mnMd:pMgomndvMg yetg eipgompg Pse:ohg
nrg ypg remt g :niipm:eohg smnMd: tg ng Cpg CotpMg nvg somohhphg smn:pttevEOg xypg DpGdpv g
Nohov:pg BCCCg :nvvp: pMg dsg ng ;Cg smn:pttnmtg ng og tevEhpg tyompMg ipinmPg inMdhpg /Cd g
po:ygsmn:pttnmgyoMge tgn+vghn:ohg:o:yp0Ogxypgio:yevpg+otgMpteEvpMg ng:nisp pg+e yg ypg
/fag luTkABCg otg og Epvpmohg sdmsntpg .veAg tPt picg +e ygpo:yg smn:pttnmg +nm1evEg nvg og
Merrpmpv gdtpmQtgEnCOgg
g
xypg Rv phg e-Dak:cg ve:1voipMg SS ypg yPspm:dCpQQcg nn1g og Merrpmpv g ossmno:yOg Rvt poMg nrg
dtevEgnvpgipinmPginMdhpcgRv phg:nvvp: pMgpo:ygsmn:pttnmg nge tgn+vgipinmPgovMgdtpMg
ogvp +nm1gev pmro:pg ng:nvvp: gsmn:pttnmtOgxyetgdistributed memorygom:ye p: dmpgipov g
ipinmPg+otgvnghnvEpmgogCn hpvp:1govMghomEpgtPt pitg/dtevEginmpgsmn:pttnmt0g:ndhMgCpg
Cdeh Ogxn+omMg ypgpvMgnrg yetgspmenMgog yemMg Pspgnrgsomohhphgsmn:pttnmg+otgev mnMd:pMg ng
ypg iom1p Og Rvg yetg t Phpg nrg io:yevpcg 1vn+vg otg ogdata-parallelg nmg DRS/cg ypmpg ompg
tpTpmohg yndtovMgTpmPgteishpgsmn:pttnmtOguhhg smn:pttnmtg+nm1g dvMpmg ypg Memp: envgnrgog
tevEhpg:nv mnhgdve KgeOpOgerg ypg:nv mnhgdve gtoPtgSSoMMgog ngCQQg ypvgohhgsmn:pttnmtgrevMg ypemg
hn:ohg:nsPgnrgogovMgoMMge g ng ypemghn:ohg:nsPgnrgCOgg
g
D:epv ere:g :nisd evEg evg yetg spmenMg +otg t ehhg Mnievo pMg CPg Tp: nmg smn:pttevEOg Snt g
iovdro: dmpmtgnrgTp: nmgsmn:pttnmtgev mnMd:pMgsomohhphginMphtcgCd g ypmpg+pmpgTpmPgrp+g
/ +ng ngpeEy 0gsmn:pttnmtgevg yetgsomohhphgio:yevptOgRvg ypgompognrg:nisd pmgvp +nm1evEcg
Cn yg+eMpgompogvp +nm1g/.ub0govMghn:ohgompogvp +nm1g/Iub0g p:yvnhnEPgMpTphnspMgo gog
moseMg so:pcg t eidho evEg og movte envg rmnig ypg moMe envohg ioevrmoipg :nisd evEg
pvTemnvipv g n+omMgogMet meCd pMg:nisd evEgpvTemnvipv gevg+ye:ygpo:ygdtpmgyotg ypemg
n+vg +nm1t o envg rnmg mpho eTphPg teishpg ot1tg /pMe evEg ovMg :nisehevEg smnEmoitcg mpoMevEg
ioeh0gCd gtyomevEg homEpcgpAspvteTpgmptndm:ptgtd:ygotgrehpgtpmTpmtgovMgtdspm:nisd pmtOg
LRDag p:yvnhnEPg/ogt Phpgnrgev pmvohgnmEove2o envgnrg ypga-.0govMgshdiip evEg:nt tgrnmg
LuSg CmndEy g mpipvMndtg Eoevtg evg :nisd o envohg sn+pm g nrg mpho eTphPg hn+g :nt g
+nm1t o envtg ovMg tpmTpmtOg xyetg spmenMg ohtng to+gog iom1pMg ev:mpotpg evg Cn yg ypg Gdohe Pg
ovMgGdov e Pgnrgt:epv ere:gTetdohe2o envOg
1.4.7. Sixth Generation (1990 - )
g
xyetg Epvpmo envg etg CpEevvevEg +e yg iovPg Eoevtg evg somohhphg :nisd evEcg Cn yg evg ypg
yomM+ompgompogovMgevgeismnTpMgdvMpmt ovMevEgnrgyn+g ngMpTphnsgohEnme yitg ngpAshne g
MeTpmtpcg iotteTphPg somohhphg om:ye p: dmptOg -omohhphg tPt pitg vn+g :nishp pg +e yg Tp: nmg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

s/tnIaat/ae goe kI/pae tie ktkMye ntpsdkgole stEI/e MoDe ptake IusInke sM/MyyIye a1akIpae kte
DtpgoMkIekUIeidkd/Ibee
e
ctpHgoMkgtoaetiesM/MyyIyD5Inkt/eM/nUgkInkd/IaeM/IeEIyyeIakMHygaUIDOeMoDetoIent/st/Mkgtoe
4FdEgkad6e UMae MootdonIDe syMoae kte HdgyDe Me a1akIpe EgkUe t5I/e ;CCe tie gkae UglUe IoDe 5Inkt/e
s/tnIaat/abe -t/TakMkgtoe kInUotytl1e UMae ntokgodIDe kte gps/t5IOe EgkUe s/tnIaat/e DIagloae
otEedagoleMentpHgoMkgtoetiexhWcOesgsIygogolOeMoDesM/MyyIyes/tnIaagolbePaeMe/Iadykegkegae
otEestaagHyIektesd/nUMaIeMeDIaTktseEt/TakMkgtoeit/eMHtdkeU<COCCCekUMkeUMaekUIeaMpIe
t5I/MyyentpsdkgolestEI/e4:CCepIlMiytsa6eMaeitd/kUelIoI/MkgtoeadsI/ntpsdkI/abee
e
0oIetiekUIeptakeD/MpMkgnenUMolIaegoekUIeagukUelIoI/MkgtoeEgyyeHIekUIeIusytag5Iel/tEkUetie
EgDIeM/IMe oIkEt/TgolbeCIkEt/TeHMoDEgDkUe UMaeIusMoDIDek/IpIoDtday1e goekUIeyMakeiIEe
1IM/aeMoDeEgyyentokgodIektegps/t5Ieit/ekUIeoIukeaI5I/Mye1IM/abeR:ek/Moapgaagtoe/MkIaeM/Ie
otEe akMoDM/De it/e /IlgtoMye oIkEt/TaOe MoDe kUIe oMkgtoMye SSHMnTHtoIQQe kUMke gokI/ntooInkae
/IlgtoMye oIkEt/Tae daIae R<be CIkEt/Tgole kInUotytl1e gae HIntpgole pt/Ie EgDIas/IMDe kUMoe
gkae t/glgoMye ak/tole HMaIe goe dog5I/agkgIae MoDe lt5I/opIoke yMHt/Mkt/gIae Mae gke gae /MsgDy1e
igoDgoleMssygnMkgtoegoe82:;eIDdnMkgtoOentppdogk1eoIkEt/TaeMoDes/g5MkIegoDdak/1be
e
1.5 CLASSIFICATION COMPUTERS

1.5.1 MICRO COMPUTER

Pepgn/tntpsdkI/OaecG3egaepgn/ts/tnIaat/beRUIepgn/tntpsdkI/et/glgoMkIDegoeyMkIe:?ACabe
kUIe ig/ake pgn/tntpsdkI/ae EI/Ie Hdgyke M/tdoDe B2Hgke pgn/ts/tnIaat/e nUgsabe hke pIMoae kUMke
kUIenUgsenMoe/Ik/gI5Iegoak/dnkgtoaDDMkMei/tpeakt/MlIOepMogsdyMkIOeMoDes/tnIaaeMoeB2Hgke
DMkMeMkeMekgpIet/eEIenMoeaM1ekUMkekUIenUgse UMaeMeHdgyk2goeB2Hgke DMkMek/MoaiI/esMkUbePoe
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kUIegokI/oMyeMoDeIukI/oMyeesMkUaeHtkUeM/Ie:>eHgkeEgDIbe tkUekUIaIenUgsaenMoeadsst/keMe
s/gpM/1e akt/MlIe nMsMngk1e tie dskte :e pIlMe H1kIe 4S 6bee RUIaIe ntpsdkI/ae M/Ie dadMyy1e
Dg5gDIDegokteDIaTktseptDIyaeMoDeyMsktseptDIyabeeRUI1eM/IekI//gHy1eygpgkIDegoeEUMkekUI1e
nMoeDteEUIoentpsM/IDektekUIeyM/lI/eptDIyaeDgandaaIDeMHt5IeHInMdaIekUI1enMoetoy1eHIe
daIDe H1e toIe sI/atoe Mke Me kgpIOe kUI1e M/Ie pdnUe aytEI/ekUMoe kUIe yM/lI/e ntpsdkI/aOe MoDe
kUI1e nMootke akt/Ie oIM/y1e Mae pdnUe goit/pMkgtoOe Hdke kUI1e M/Ie IunIyyIoke EUIoe daIDe goe
apMyye HdagoIaaIaOe UtpIaOe MoDe anUttye nyMaa/ttpabe e e RUIaIe ntpsdkI/ae M/Ie goIusIoag5Ie
MoDeIMa1ektedaIbeeRUI1eUM5IeHIntpIeMoegoDgasIoaMHyIesM/ketieptDI/oeygiIbeRUdae
• 3aIDeit/epIpt/1egokIoaIeMoDel/MsUgnegokIoaIeMssygnMkgtoae
• P/IeagolyI2daI/epMnUgoIae

1.5.2 MINI COMPUTER
e

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

SgogntpsdkI/ae M/Ie pdnUe apMyyI/e kUMoe pMgoi/MpIe ntpsdkI/ae MoDe kUI1e M/Ie Myate pdnUe
yIaaeIusIoag5Ibe e RUIe ntake tiekUIaIentpsdkI/ae nMoe 5M/1e i/tpe Me iIEe kUtdaMoDe DtyyM/ae kte
aI5I/Mye UdoD/IDe kUtdaMoDe DtyyM/abe e RUI1e staaIaae ptake tie kUIe iIMkd/Iae itdoDe toe
pMgoi/MpIentpsdkI/aOeHdketoeMept/IeygpgkIDeanMyIbeeRUI1enMoeakgyyeUM5IepMo1ekI/pgoMyaOe
Hdke otke Mae pMo1e Mae kUIe pMgoi/MpIabe e RUI1e nMoe akt/IeMe k/IpIoDtdae Mptdoke tie
goit/pMkgtoOe Hdke MlMgoe dadMyy1e otke Mae pdnUe Mae kUIe pMgoi/MpIbe e SIDgdpe MoDe apMyye
HdagoIaaIaek1sgnMyy1edaIekUIaIentpsdkI/abeRUdaee
• FgkeatpIEUI/IeHIkEIIoepMgoi/MpIeMoDeGcae
• -tdyDetikIoeHIedaIDeit/eigyIeaI/5I/aegoeoIkEt/Tae
e
e
1.5.3. MAINFRAME COMPUTER
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SMgoi/MpIe ntpsdkI/ae M/Ie 5I/1e yM/lIOe tikIoe igyygole Moe Iokg/Ie /ttpbe e RUI1e nMoe akt/Ie
Iot/ptdaetiegoit/pMkgtoOenMoesI/it/pepMo1ekMaTaeMkekUIeaMpIekgpIOenMoentppdognMkIe
EgkUepMo1edaI/aeMkekUIeaMpIekgpIOeMoDeM/Ie5I/1eIusIoag5IbebeRUIes/gnIetieMepMgoi/MpIe
ntpsdkI/e i/IGdIoky1e /doae gokte kUIe pgyygtoae tie DtyyM/abe e SMgoi/MpIe ntpsdkI/ae dadMyy1e
UM5Ie pMo1e kI/pgoMyae ntooInkIDe kte kUIpbe e RUIaIe kI/pgoMyae yttTe ygTIe apMyye ntpsdkI/ae
Hdke kUI1e M/Ie toy1e DI5gnIae daIDe kte aIoDe MoDe /InIg5Iegoit/pMkgtoe i/tpe kUIe MnkdMye
ntpsdkI/edagoleEg/IabeeeRI/pgoMyaenMoeHIeytnMkIDegoekUIeaMpIe/ttpeEgkUekUIepMgoi/MpIe
ntpsdkI/Oe Hdke kUI1e nMoe Myate HIe goe DgiiI/Ioke /ttpaOeHdgyDgolaOe t/e ngkgIabe e fM/lIe
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RUdae
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• cMoeadsst/kepMo1eterminals

• 3aIDegoeyM/lIentpsMo1eygTIeHMoTaeMoDegoad/MonIentpsMogIae
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1.5.4. SUPER COMPUTER
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1.6 INSTRUCTION EXECUTION
e

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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oE(mDtwN%i
bmwNwi)w1DNlw)NiE)w9!i
• Memory Address Register (MAR):- evttw(lwCi lvi lmwi ECC)wNNi ADtwNi vdi lmwi N Nlwoi
&fN%i7liNrw(DdDwNilmwiECC)wNNivdiowov) iAv(ElDvtid)voi+mD(miCElEiv)iDtNl)f(lDvtiDNi
lvi &wi E((wNNwCi /dv)i )wECi vrw)ElDvt0i v)i lvi +mD(mi lmwi CElEi DNi lvi &wi Nlv)wCi /dv)i +)Dlwi
vrw)ElDvt0%i
• Memory Buffer Register (MBR):- evttw(lwCilvilmwiCElEiADtwNivdilmwiN Nlwoi&fN%i7li
Nrw(DdDwNi+mD(miCElEiDNilvi&wiE((wNNwC/dv)i)wECivrw)ElDvt0iv)ilvi+mD(miCElEiDNilvi&wi
Nlv)wCi/dv)i+)Dlwivrw)ElDvt0%i
• Program Counter (PC):- *vACNiECC)wNNivditwjliDtNl)f(lDvtilvi&widwl(mwCQiEdlw)ilmwi
wjw(flDvtivdiEtivt!1vDt1iDtNl)f(lDvt%i
• Instruction Register (IR):- *w)wilmwiDtNl)f(lDvtiE)wiAvECwCi&wdv)wilmwD)iwjw(flDvti
v)imvACNiAENliDtNl)f(lDvtidwl(mwC%i
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Instruction Cycle
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bmwiNDorAwNliovCwAivdiDtNl)f(lDvtir)v(wNNDt1i(Eti&wiEil+viNlwrir)v(wNN%ibmwie-.i)wECNi
/dwl(mwN0iDtNl)f(lDvtNi/(vCwN0id)voilmwiowov) ivtwiEliEilDowQiEtCiwjw(flwN%i7tNl)f(lDvti
dwl(miDt)vA)wNi)wECDt1ivdiEtiDtNl)f(lDvtid)voiEiowov) iAv(ElDvtilvilmwie-.i)w1DNlw)%ibmwi
wjw(flDvtivdilmDNiDtNl)f(lDvtioE iDt)vA)wiNw)w)EAivrw)ElDvtNiCwrwtCDt1ivtilmwitElf)wivdi
lmwiDtNl)f(lDvt%ibmfNilviwjw(flwiEtiDtNl)f(lDvtQiEir)v(wNNv)iofNli1vilm)vf1mil+viNf&!
( (AwN9i
i

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

UNIT-2

REGISTER TRANSFER AND MICRO OPERATIONS

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2.2 Pup azI sOCNg2 .gazpmOgp
2.2.1 b)ww!NlElwi&fNi&fddw)Ni
2.2.2 sOCNg2 tgazpmOg
2.3 sergNRfoOgateNzp
2.3.1 UO1eptOg tgazpmOg sergNRfoOgateNzp
2.3.2 AgetcCOter sergNRfoOgateNzp
2.3.3 MN1er sergNRfoOgateNzp
2.3.4 Tcemt sergNRfoOgateNzp

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2.1 Introduction To Register Transfer

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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poOrem2ez1 a rNztgNS muzrteNz3 A rNztgNS muzrteNz ep a PNNSOaz -agea4SO tcat ep O/uaS tN w
Ng –3 .cO rNztgNS muzrteNz ep ygettOz ap mNSSNypb
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rNCCNz 4up p2ptOC3 A 4up ptgurtugO rNzpeptp Nm a pOt Nm rNCCNz SezOpn NzO mNg Oarc 4et
Nm a gO1eptOgn tcgNu1c ycerc 4ezag2 ezmNgCateNz ep tgazpmOggOI NzO at a teCO3 :NztgNS
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tgazpmOg3
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tcO pNugrO gO1eptOg ycNpO 4ezag2 ezmNgCateNz ep tcOz oSarOI Nz tcO 4up3 A 4up p2ptOC
yeSS CuSteoSOB gO1eptOgp Nm a 4et Oarc tN ogNIurO az zRSezO rNCCNz 4up3 .cO zuC4Og Nm
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SezOp3 A 4up p2ptOC raz 4O rNzptgurtOI yetc PtcgOORptatO 1atOpO ezptOaI Nm CuSteoSOBOgp3
A tcgOORptatO 1atO ep a Ie1etaS regruet tcat pcNyp tcgOO ptatOp3 .yN Nm tcO ptatOp agO
O/ue-aSOzt tN SN1er w azI –3 .cO tcegI ptatO ep a ce1c eCoOIazrO ptatO3 .cO ce1cR
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tcO IOpe1z Nm a 4up p2ptOC ep tcO 4ummOg 1atO3
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rNztgNS ezout IOtOgCezOp tcO Nutout3
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7e1c eCoOIazrO em :I–
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:NztgNS ezout :
∑
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Three state table buffers

Three state table buffers: s )s &Srs r rmius hds &is adrmcS miCs +emMs mMciis rmhmis Ahmirs
edrmihCsabsuS7mef7i3icr%s)smMciisrmhmirsAhmisersCeAemh7s ec SemsmMhmsi3Me&emrsmMciisrmhmir%s
v+asabsmMisrmhmirshcisreAdh7rsiGSe)h7idmsmas7aAe s:shdCsCshrsedshs ad)idmeadh7sAhmi%svMis
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ba77a+edAsbeASci9s
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
2.2 Bus And Memory Transfer
∑
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COCNg2 yNgIn ycOgOap ptNga1O Nm ezmNgCateNz eztN tcO COCNg2 ep IOmezOI ap ygetO
NoOgateNz3 T2C4NSe(ez1 a COCNg2 yNgI 42 tcO SOttOg sn et ep pOSOrtOI 42 tcO COCNg2
aIIgOpp Iugez1 tcO tgazpmOg ycerc ep a poOremerateNz mNg tgazpmOg NoOgateNzp3 .cO aIIgOpp
ep poOremeOI 42 OzrSNpez1 et ez p/uagO 4garFOtp mNSSNyez1 tcO SOttOg s3
∑
8Ng OBaCoSOn tcO gOaI NoOgateNz mNg tcO tgazpmOg Nm a COCNg2 uzet s mgNC az aIIgOpp
gO1eptOg AU tN azNtcOg Iata gO1eptOg 6U raz 4O eSSuptgatOI apb
UOaIb   6U ←sXAUN
∑
∑
.cO ygetO NoOgateNz tgazpmOg tcO rNztOztp Nm a Iata gO1eptOg tN a COCNg2 yNgI s
pOSOrtOI 42 tcO aIIgOpp3 AppuCO tcat tcO ezout Iata agO ez gO1eptOg Uw azI tcO aIIgOpp
ez tcO AU3 .cO ygetO NoOgateNz raz 4O ptatOI p2C4NSer ap mNSSNypb
∑
5getOb  sXAUN ← Uw
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aIIgOpp ez AU3
∑
2.3 Micro-Operations
∑
A CergNRNoOgateNz ep az OSOCOztag2 NoOgateNz ycerc ep oOgmNgCOI Nz tcO Iata ptNgOI ez
gO1eptOgp3 5O raz rSappem2 tcO CergNRNoOgateNzp eztN mNug ratO1NgeOpb
w3 UO1eptOg tgazpmOgb tgazpmOg 4ezag2 ezmNgCateNz mgNC NzO gO1eptOg tN azNtcOg3
G3 AgetcCOterb oOgmNgC agetcCOter NoOgateNzp Nz zuCOger Iata ptNgOI ez gO1eptOgp3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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gO1eptOgp3
“3 Tcemtb  oOgmNgC pcemt NoOgateNzp Nz Iata ptNgOI ez gO1eptOgp3

2.3.1 Arithmetic Micro-operations

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ptNgOI ez tcO gO1eptOgp3 .cOpO 4aper NoOgateNzp Ca2 4O aIIeteNzn pu4tgarteNzn
ezrgOCOztez1 a zuC4Ogn IOrgOCOztez1 a zuC4Og azI agetcCOter pcemt NoOgateNz3 Az
PaIIO CergNRNoOgateNz raz 4O poOremeOI apb
R
3 V U1 ; U2

Yt eCoSeOpb aII tcO rNztOztp Nm gO1eptOgp U
1 azI U2 azI ptNgO tcO puC ez gO1eptOg U33
.cO aII NoOgateNz COzteNzOI a4N-O gO/uegOp tcgOO gO1eptOgp aSNz1 yetc tcO aIIeteNz
regruet ez tcO AMV3

Tu4tgarteNzn ep eCoSOCOztOI tcgNu1c rNCoSOCOzt azI aIIeteNz NoOgateNz apb
U
3 V U1 ) UG  ep eCoSOCOztOI ap
U
3 V U1 ; 9GOp rNCoSOCOzt Nm U2E
U
3 V U1 ; 9wOp rNCoSOCOzt Nm U2 ; wE
U
3 V U1 ; U2 ; w
Az ezrgOCOzt NoOgateNz raz 4O p2C4NSe(OI apb
U
1 V U1 ; w
yceSO a IOrgOCOzt NoOgateNz raz 4O p2C4NSe(OI apb
U
1 V U1 ) w

5O raz eCoSOCOzt ezrgOCOzt azI IOrgOCOzt NoOgateNzp 42 upez1 a rNC4ezateNzaS
regruet Ng 4ezag2 uokINyz rNuztOgp3 Yz CNpt Nm tcO rNCoutOgp CuSteoSerateNz azI
Ie-epeNz agO eCoSOCOztOI upez1 aIIkpu4tgart azI pcemt CergNRNoOgateNzp3 Ym a Ie1etaS
p2ptOC cap eCoSOCOztOI Ie-epeNz azI CuSteoSerateNz 42 COazp Nm rNC4ezateNzaS regruetp
tcOz yO raz raSS tcOpO ap tcO CergNRNoOgateNzp mNg tcat p2ptOC3 Az agetcCOter regruet ep
zNgCaSS2 eCoSOCOztOI upez1 oagaSSOS aIIOg regruetp3 Larc Nm tcO CuSteoSOBOgp 9sVTE Nm
tcO 1e-Oz regruet cap tyN pOSOrt ezoutp3 .cep “R4et regruet taFOp ezout Nm tyN “R4et Iata
-aSuOp azI a ragg2RezR4et azI Nutoutp tcO mNug gOpuStazt Iata 4etp azI a ragg2RNutR4et3
5etc tcO IemmOgOzt ezout -aSuOp yO raz N4taez -ageNup CergNRNoOgateNzp3
L/ue-aSOzt CergNRNoOgateNz sergNRNoOgateNz zaCO
U V U
1 ; U2 AII
U V U
1 ; U2 ;w   AII yetc ragg2
U V U
1 ; U2 Tu4tgart yetc 4NggNy
U V U
1 ; GOp Tu4tgart
U V U
1   .gazpmOg
U VU
1 ; w YzrgOCOzt
U V U
1 ) w 6OrgOCOzt

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

i
2.3.2 Logic Micro-operations

bmwNwi vrw)ElDvtNi E)wi rw)dv)owCi vti lmwi &DtE) i CElEi Nlv)wCi Dti lmwi )w1DNlw)%i ,v)i Ei Av1D(i
oD()v!vrw)ElDvtiwE(mi&DlivdiEi)w1DNlw)iDNil)wElwCiENiEiNwrE)Elwi)E)DE&Aw%i
,v)iwjEorAwQiDdi3
1iEtCi32iE)wiBi&DlNi)w1DNlw)NiEtCi
i i 3
1i(vtlEDtNiii:CC:CC::iEtCi
i i 3
2i(vtlEDtNiiiC:C:C:C:i
i i 3
1isn(i32iiiCCC:CCC:i
i
"vowi vdi lmwi (voovti i Av1D(i oD()v!vrw)ElDvtNi E)wi sn(Qi #3Qi n#bi v)i (vorAwowtlN%i
kj(AfND)wi#3Qin#3Qinsn(%i

'wi(EtimE)widvf)irvNND&Awi(vo&DtElDvtNivdiDtrflivdil+vi)E)DE&AwN%ibmwNwiE)wiCCQiC:Qi:Ci
EtCi ::%i nv+Qi dv)i EAAi lmwNwi =i Dtrfli (vo&DtElDvti +wi (Eti mE)wi ;
4
i Ii :>i vflrfli
(vo&DtElDvtNivdiEidft(lDvt%ibmDNiDorADwNilmElidv)il+vi)E)DE&AwNi+wi(EtimE)wi:>iAv1D(EAi
vrw)ElDvtN%ii

Logic Micro Operations

SELECTIVE SET
bmwiNwAw(lD)w!Nwlivrw)ElDvtiNwlNilvi:ilmwi&DlNiDti)w1DNlw)isi+mw)wilmw)wiE)wi(v))wNrvtCDt1i
:ONi Dti )w1DNlw)i %i Dli CvwNi tvli Eddw(li &Dli rvNDlDvtNi lmEli mE)wi CONi Dti %i lmwi dvAAv+Dt1i
tfow)D(EAiwjEorAwi(AE)DdDwNilmDNivrw)ElDvt9!i
i
1010 si&wdv)wi
::CCi i/Av1D(ivrw)EtC0i
1110 siEdlw)i
i

SELECTIVE COMPLEMENT
bmwi NwAw(lD)w!(vorAwowtli vrw)ElDvti (vorAwowtlNi &DlNi Dti )w1DNlw)i si +mw)wi lmw)wi E)wi
(v))wNrvtCDt1i :ONi Dti )w1DNlw)i %i Dli CvwNi tvli Eddw(li &Dli rvNDlDvtNi lmEli mE)wi CONi Dti %i lmwi
dvAAv+Dt1itfow)D(EAiwjEorAwi(AE)DdDwNilmDNivrw)ElDvt9!i
i
1010 ii si&wdv)wi
::CCi i/Av1D(ivrw)EtC0i
C::Ci siEdlw)i
i

SELECTIVE CLEAR
bmwi NwAw(lD)w!(AwE)i vrw)ElDvti (AwE)Ni lvi Ci lmwi &DlNiDti )w1DNlw)i si vtA i i +mw)wi lmw)wi E)wi
(v))wNrvtCDt1i:ONiDti)w1DNlw)i %i,v)iwjEorAw9!i
i

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

:C:Cii si&wdv)wi
::CCi i/Av1D(ivrw)EtC0i
CC:Ci siEdlw)i
i

MASK OPERATION
bmwi oEN1i vrw)ElDvti DNi NDoDAE)i lvi lmwi NwAw(lD)w!(AwE)i vrw)ElDvti wj(wrli lmEli lmw&DlNi vdi si
E)wi(AwE)wCivtA i+mw)wilmw)wiE)wi(v))wNrvtCDt1iCONiDti %ilmwioEN1ivrw)ElDvtiDNiEtisn(i
oD()vivrw)ElDvtQidv)iwjEorAw9!i
i
1010 si&wdv)wi
1100 i/Av1D(ivrw)EtC0i
1000 siEdlw)ioEN1Dt1i
i

INSERT OPERATION
bmwi DtNw)li vrw)ElDvti DtNw)lNi Ei tw+i )EAfwi Dtlvi Ei 1)vfri vdi &DlN%i bmDNi DNi Cvtwi & i dD)Nli
oEN1Dt1ilmwi&DlNiEtCilmwti#)Dt1ilmwoi+Dlmilmwi)wGfD)wCi)EAfw%i,v)iwjEorAwQiNfrrvNwi
lmEliEtisi)w1DNlw)i(vtlEDtNiwD1mli&DlNQiC::Ci:C:C%ilvi)wrAE(wilmwidvf)iAwdlovNli&DlNi& ilmwi
)EAfwi:CC:i+widD)Nlilmwidvf)ift+EtlwCi&DlN9!i
i
i C::Ci :C:Ci si&wdv)wi
i CCCCi ::::i i/oEN10i
i CCCCi :C:Ci siEdlw)ioEN1Dt1i
EtCilmwtiDtNw)lilmwitw+i)EAfw9!i
i CCCCi :C:Ci si&wdv)wi
i :CC:i CCCCi i/DtNw)l0i
i :CC:i :C:Ci siEdlw)iDtNw)lDvti
i
lmwi oEN1i vrw)ElDvti DNi Eti sn(i oD()vvrw)ElDvti EtCi lmwi DtNw)li vrw)ElDvti DNi Eti #3i
oD()vvrw)ElDvt%i
i

CLEAR OPERATION
bmwi(AwE)ivrw)ElDvti(vorE)wNilmwi+v)CNiDtisiEtCi iEtCir)vCf(wNiEtiEAAiCONi)wNfAliDdilmwi
l+vitfo&w)NiE)wiwGfEA%ibmDNivrw)ElDvtiDNiE(mDw)wCi& iEtiwj(AfND)w!#3ioD()vvrw)ElDvti
ENimENiv+ti& ilmwidvAAv+Dt1iwjEorAw9i
1010 si
1010 i
CCCCi si siiiiii i
i
'mwti si EtCi i E)wi wGfEAQi lmwi l+vi (v))wNrvtCDt1i &DlNiE)wi wDlmw)i &vlmi Ci v)i &vlmi :%i Dti
wDlmw)i(ENwilmwiwj(AfND)w!#3ivrw)ElDvtir)vCf(wNiEiC%ilmwiEAA!CONi)wNfAliDNilmwti(mw(1wCi
lviCwlw)oDtwiDdilmwilv+itfo&w)Ni+w)wiwGfEA%i

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

∑
2.3.4 Shift Microoperations

Dyer g ie:mnnspmo envg :ovg Cpg dtpMg rnmg tpmeohg movtrpmg nrg Mo oOg xypPg ompg dtpMg EpvpmohhPg
+e yg ypg ome yip e:cg hnEe:cg ovMg n ypmg Mo oksmn:pttevEg nspmo envtOg xypg :nv pv tg nrg og
mpEet pmg:ovgCpgtyer pMg ng ypghpr gnmg ypgmeEy Og/dmevEgogtyer kmeEy gnspmo envg ypgtpmeohg
evsd g movtrpmtgogCe gev ng ypghpr int gsnte envOgxypgtpmeohgevsd g movtrpmtgogCe gev ng ypg
meEy int gsnte envgMdmevEgogtyer khpr gnspmo envOgxypmpggompg ymppg Psptgnrgtyer tcghnEe:ohcg
:em:dhomgovMgome yip e:Og
InEe:ohgtyer g
ug hnEe:ohg tyer g nspmo envg movtrpmtg Cg ymndEyg ypg tpmeohg evsd Og .pg dtpg ypg tPiCnhtgshl∑
ovMgshrgrnmghnEe:ohgtyer ghpr govMgtyer gmeEy gie:mnnspmo envtcgpOEOg
L:g←gtyhgL:g
L;g←gtymgL;g
ompg ypg +ngie:mngnspmo envtg yo gtsp:erPgog:kCe gtyer ghpr gnrg ypg:nv pv gnrgmpEet pmgL:g
ovMgog:kgCe gtyer gmeEy gnrg ypg:nv pv gnrgmpEet pmgL;Og
aem:dhomgtyer g
xypg:em:dhomgtyer getgohtng1vn+vgotgmn o pgnspmo envOgR g:em:dho ptg ypgCe tgnrg ypgmpEet pmg
omndvMg ypg +ng pvMtg ovMg ypmpg etg vng hnttg nrg evrnmio envOg xyetg etg o::nishetypMg CPg
:nvvp: evEg ypgtpmeohgnd sd gnrg ypgtyer gmpEet pmg nge tgtpmeohgevsd Og.pgdtpg ypgtPiCnhtg
cilg ovMgcirg rnmg ypg :em:dhomg tyer g hpr g ovMg :em:dhomg tyer g meEy Og fOEOg tdssntpg Y:g mpEet pmg
:nv oevtg C::C::C:g ypvg or pmg :emg nspmo envcg e g V:nv oevtg C::C::Cg ovMg or pmg :ehg
nspmo envge g+ehhg:nv oevg::C::C:COg
∑
∑
ume yip e:gDyer g
uvg ome yip e:g tyer g ie:mng nspmo envg tyer tg og teEvpMg CevomPg vdiCpmg ng ypg hpr gnmg meEy Og
xypg prrp: g nrg ovg ome yip e:g tyer g hpr g nspmo envg etg ng idh eshPg ypg CevomPg vdiCpmg CPg ;Og
DeiehomhPg ovg ome yip e:g tyer g meEy g MeTeMptg ypg vdiCpmg CPg ;Og Np:odtpg ypg teEvg nrg ypg
vdiCpmg idt g mpioevg ypg toipg ome yip e:g tyer kmeEy gidt g hpoTpg ypg teEvg Ce g
dv:yovEpMcg+ypvg e g etgidh eshepMgnmgMeTeMpMg CPg;Ogxypghpr gint gCe gevg ogmpEet pmgynhMtg
ypgteEvgCe cgovMg ypgmpioevevEgCe tgynhMg ypgvdiCpmOgxypgteEvgCe getgCgrnmgsnte eTpgovMg:g
rnmg vpEo eTpOg bpEo eTpg vdiCpmtg ompg evg ;Otg :nishpipv g rnmiOg ,nhhn+evEg reEdmpg tyn+tg og
Pse:ohgmpEet pmgnrgvgCe tOg
∑
Rn!1g L n!2∑ →∑ R 1g L0∑
DeEvgCe gg g ume yip e:gtyer gmeEy g
Ne gL
n!1gevg ypghpr gint gsnte envgynhMtg ypgteEvgCe OgLn!2getg ypgint gteEvere:ov gCe gnrg ypg
vdiCpmgovMgL
0getg ypghpot gteEvere:ov ggCe Ogxypgome yip e:gtyer kmeEy ghpoTptg ypgteEvgCe g
dv:yovEpMg ovMg tyer tg ypg vdiCpmg /ev:hdMevEg ypg teEvg Ce t0g ng ypg meEy Og xydtg L
n!1∑
mpioevtg ypgtoipcgL
n!2gmp:peTptg ypgCe grmnigLn!1cgovMgtngnvgrnmgn ypmgCe tgevg ypgmpEet pmOg
∑

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

UNIT 3

PROGRAMMING ELEMENTS

<%:ii evorflw)is)DlmowlD(i
<%;ii sCCDlDvtiEtCiNf&l)E(lDvti+DlmiND1twC!oE1tDlfCwi
3.3 suSteoSerateNz aS1NgetcC
3.3.1  vvlmiofAlDrAD(ElDvtiEA1v)Dlmoi
3.3.2 s))E iofAlDrADw)i
3.3.3 (D)DNDvtiEA1v)Dlmoi
3.3.3.1 *E)C+E)wiEA1v)Dlmoi
3.3.3.2 (D)DCwi#)w)dAv+i
3.4 ,AvElDt1!rvDtlis)DlmowlD(ivrw)ElDvtNi
3.4.1  END(i(vtNDCw)ElDvti
3.4.1.1 3w1DNlw)i(vtdD1f)ElDvti
3.4.1.2 sCCDlDvtiEtCiNf&l)E(lDvti
3.4.2 (w(DoEAis)DlmowlD(ivrw)ElDvtNi
3.4.2.1  e(iECCw)i
3.4.2.2  e(iNf&l)E(lDvti

3.1 Computer Arithmetic

(ElEiDNioEtDrfAElwCi& ifNDt1ilmwiE)DlmowlD(iDtNl)f(lDvtNiDtiCD1DlEAi(vorflw)N%i(ElEiDNi
oEtDrfAElwCi lvi r)vCf(wi )wNfAlNi tw(wNNE) i lvi 1D)wi NvAflDvti dv)i lmwi (vorflElDvti
r)v&AwoN%i bmwi sCCDlDvtQi Nf&l)E(lDvtQi ofAlDrAD(ElDvti EtCi CD)DNDvti E)wi lmwi dvf)i &END(i
E)DlmowlD(i vrw)ElDvtN%i 7di +wi +Etli lmwti +wi (Eti Cw)D)wi vlmw)i vrw)ElDvtNi & i fNDt1i lmwNwi
dvf)ivrw)ElDvtN%i
i
bviwjw(flwiE)DlmowlD(ivrw)ElDvtNilmw)wiDNiEiNwrE)ElwiNw(lDvti(EAAwCiE)DlmowlD(ir)v(wNNDt1i
ftDliDti(wtl)EAir)v(wNNDt1iftDl%ibmwiE)DlmowlD(iDtNl)f(lDvtNiE)wirw)dv)owCi1wtw)EAA ivti
&DtE) iv)iCw(DoEAiCElE%i,DjwC!rvDtlitfo&w)NiE)wifNwCilvi)wr)wNwtliDtlw1w)Niv)id)E(lDvtN%i
'wi(EtimE)wiND1twCiv)iftND1twCitw1ElD)witfo&w)N%i,DjwC!rvDtliECCDlDvtiDNilmwiNDorAwNli
E)DlmowlD(ivrw)ElDvt%ii
i
7di+wi+EtlilviNvA)wiEir)v&Awoilmwti+wifNwiEiNwGfwt(wivdi+wAA!CwdDtwCiNlwrN%ibmwNwiNlwrNi
E)wi(vAAw(lD)wA i(EAAwCiEA1v)Dlmo%ibviNvA)wi)E)DvfNir)v&AwoNi+wi1D)wiEA1v)DlmoN%i
i
7tiv)Cw)ilviNvA)wilmwi(vorflElDvtEAir)v&AwoNQiE)DlmowlD(iDtNl)f(lDvtNiE)wifNwCiDtiCD1DlEAi
(vorflw)Ni lmEli oEtDrfAElwi CElE%i bmwNwi DtNl)f(lDvtNirw)dv)oi E)DlmowlD(i (EA(fAElDvtN%i

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

AzI tcOpO ezptgurteNzp oOgmNgC a 1gOat arte-et2 ez ogNrOppez1 Iata ez a Ie1etaS rNCoutOg3
Ap yO aSgOaI2 ptatOI tcat yetc tcO mNug 4aper agetcCOter NoOgateNzp aIIeteNzn
pu4tgarteNzn CuSteoSerateNz azI Ie-epeNzn et ep oNppe4SO tN IOge-O NtcOg agetcCOter
NoOgateNzp azI pNS-O preOztemer ogN4SOCp 42 COazp Nm zuCOgeraS azaS2pep COtcNIp3

A ogNrOppNg cap az agetcCOter ogNrOppNg9ap a pu4 oagt Nm etE tcat OBOrutOp agetcCOter
NoOgateNzp3 .cO Iata t2oOn appuCOI tN gOpeIO ez ogNrOppNgn gO1eptOgp Iugez1 tcO
OBOruteNz Nm az agetcCOter ezptgurteNz3 dO1ate-O zuC4Ogp Ca2 4O ez a pe1zOI Ca1zetuIO
Ng pe1zOI rNCoSOCOzt gOogOpOztateNz3 .cOgO agO tcgOO ya2p Nm gOogOpOztez1 zO1ate-O
meBOI oNezt R 4ezag2 zuC4Ogp pe1zOI Ca1zetuIOn pe1zOI wOp rNCoSOCOzt Ng pe1zOI GOp
rNCoSOCOzt3 sNpt rNCoutOgp upO tcO pe1zOI Ca1zetuIO gOogOpOztateNz mNg tcO
Cazteppa3

3.2 Addition and Subtraction with Signed –Magnitude Data

5O IOpe1zatO tcO Ca1zetuIO Nm tcO tyN zuC4Ogp 42 A azI P3 5cOgO tcO pe1zOI zuC4Ogp
agO aIIOI Ng pu4tgartOIn yO mezI tcat tcOgO agO Oe1ct IemmOgOzt rNzIeteNzp tN rNzpeIOgn
IOoOzIez1 Nz tcO pe1z Nm tcO zuC4Ogp azI tcO NoOgateNz oOgmNgCOI3 .cOpO rNzIeteNzp
agO SeptOI ez tcO megpt rNSuCz Nm .a4SO “3w3 .cO NtcOg rNSuCzp ez tcO ta4SO pcNy tcO
artuaS NoOgateNz tN 4O oOgmNgCOI yetc tcO Ca1zetuIO Nm tcO zuC4Ogp3 .cO Sapt rNSuCz
ep zOOIOI tN ogOpOzt a zO1ate-O (OgN3 Yz NtcOg yNgIpn ycOz tyN O/uaS zuC4Ogp agO
pu4tgartOIn tcO gOpuSt pcNuSI 4O ;– zNt  R–3
.cO aS1NgetcCp mNg aIIeteNz azI pu4tgarteNz agO IOge-OI mgNC tcO ta4SO azI raz 4O
ptatOI ap mNSSNyp 9tcO yNgIp oagOztcOpOp pcNuSI 4O upOI mNg tcO pu4tgarteNz aS1NgetcCE3

.a4SO “3wb AIIeteNz azI Tu4tgarteNz Nm Te1zOIRsa1zetuIO duC4Ogp
foOgateNz AII  sa1zetuIOp Tu4tgart sa1zetuIOp
5cOz A J P 5cOz A Z P 5cOz A I P
9;AE ; 9;PE ;9A ; PE
9;AE ; 9) PE ; 9A ) PE ) 9P ) AE ; 9A ) PE
9) AE ; 9; PE ) 9A ) PE ; 9P ) AE ; 9A ) PE
9) AE ; 9) PE ) 9A ; PE
9; AE ) 9; PE ; 9A ; PE ) 9P ) PE ; 9A ) PE
9; AE ) 9) PE ; 9A ; PE
9)AE ) 9;PE ) 9A ; PE
9)AE ) 9)PE ) 9A ) PE ; 9P ) AE   ; 9A ) PE

AS1NgetcC

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

5cOz tcO pe1zp Nm A azI P agO paCOn aII tcO tyN Ca1zetuIOp azI attarc tcO pe1z Nm
gOpuSt ep tcat Nm A3 5cOz tcO pe1zp Nm A azI P agO zNt paCOn rNCoagO tcO Ca1zetuIOp
azI pu4tgart tcO pCaSSOg zuC4Og mgNC tcO Sag1Og3 :cNNpO tcO pe1z Nm tcO gOpuSt tN 4O tcO
paCO ap An em A J P Ng tcO rNCoSOCOzt Nm tcO pe1z Nm A em A Z P3 Ym tcO tyN Ca1zetuIOp
agO O/uaSn pu4tgart P mgNC A azI CaFO tcO pe1z Nm tcO gOpuSt yeSS 4O oNpete-O3

3.3 Multiplication Algorithms

suSteoSerateNz Nm tyN meBOIRoNezt 4ezag2 zuC4Ogp ez pe1zOI Ca1zetuIO gOogOpOztateNz ep
INzO yetc oaoOg azI oOzreS 42 a ogNrOpp Nm purrOppe-O pcemt azI aII NoOgateNzp3 .cep
ogNrOpp ep 4Opt eSSuptgatOI yetc a zuCOgeraS OBaCoSOb
GK w–www  suSteoSerazI
wX   B w––ww  suSteoSeOg
w–www
         w–www
    –––––
–––––
      w–www
“Kv     ww–ww–w–w lgNIurt
.cep ogNrOpp SNNFp at purrOppe-O 4etp Nm tcO CuSteoSeOgn SOapt pe1zemerazt 4et megpt3 Ym tcO
CuSteoSeOg 4et ep wn tcO CuSteoSerazI ep rNoeOI ap et epK NtcOgyepOn yO rNo2 (OgNp3 dNy yO
pcemt zuC4Ogp rNoeOI INyz NzO oNpeteNz tN tcO SOmt mgNC tcO ogO-eNup zuC4Ogp3 8ezaSS2n
tcO zuC4Ogp agO aIIOI azI tcOeg puC ogNIurOp tcO ogNIurt3

Hardware Implementation for signed-magnitude data

5cOz CuSteoSerateNz ep eCoSOCOztOI ez a Ie1etaS rNCoutOgn yO rcaz1O tcO ogNrOpp
pSe1ctS23 7OgOn ezptOaI Nm ogN-eIez1 gO1eptOgp tN ptNgO azI aII peCuStazONupS2 ap Caz2
4ezag2 zuC4Ogp ap tcOgO agO 4etp ez tcO CuSteoSeOgn et ep rNz-OzeOzt tN ogN-eIO az aIIOg
mNg tcO puCCateNz Nm NzS2 tyN 4ezag2 zuC4Ogpn azI purrOppe-OS2 arruCuSatO tcO oagteaS
ogNIurtp ez a gO1eptOg3 TOrNzIn ezptOaI Nm pcemtez1 tcO CuSteoSerazI tN SOmtn tcO oagteaS
ogNIurt ep pcemtOI tN tcO ge1ctn ycerc gOpuStp ez SOa-ez1 tcO oagteaS ogNIurt azI tcO
CuSteoSerazI ez tcO gO/uegOI gOSate-O oNpeteNzp3 dNyn ycOz tcO rNggOpoNzIez1 4et Nm tcO
CuSteoSeOg ep –n tcOgO ep zN zOOI tN aII aSS (OgNp tN tcO oagteaS ogNIurt pezrO et yeSS zNt
aStOg etp -aSuO3

.cO cagIyagO mNg CuSteoSerateNz rNzpeptp Nm tcO O/ueoCOzt 1e-Oz ez 8e1ugO “3'3 .cO
CuSteoSeOg ep ptNgOI ez tcO gO1eptOg azI etp pe1z ez Y
s3 .cO pO/uOzrO rNuztOg T: ep
ezeteaSS2 pOt 4etp ez tcO CuSteoSeOg3 AmtOg mNgCez1 Oarc oagteaS ogNIurt tcO rNuztOg ep
IOrgOCOztOI3 5cOz tcO rNztOzt Nm tcO rNuztOg gOarcOp (OgNn tcO ogNIurt ep rNCoSOtO
azI yO ptNo tcO ogNrOpp3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO “3'b 7agIyagO mNg suSteoS2 foOgateNz

3.3.1 Booth Multiplication Algorithm

Ym tcO zuC4Ogp agO gOogOpOztOI ez pe1zOI GOp rNCoSOCOzt tcOz yO raz CuSteoS2 tcOC 42
upez1 PNNtc aS1NgetcC3 Yz mart tcO ptgez1p Nm –Qp ez tcO CuSteoSeOg zOOI zN aIIeteNz 4ut
Zupt pcemtez1n azI a ptgez1 Nm SQp ez tcO CuSteoSeOg mgNC 4et yOe1ct G
F
tN yOe1ct G
m
raz 4O
tgOatOI ap G
k+1
R G
m
3 8Ng OBaCoSOn tcO 4ezag2 zuC4Og ––wwww 9;w'E cap a ptgez1 Nm wQp
mgNC G
3
tN G
0
9F I Kn C I –E3

.a4SO “3Gb duCOgeraS LBaCoSO mNg Pezag2 suSteoSeOg
suSteoSerazI P I w–www L A Y T:
suSteoSeOg ez Y   – ––––– w––ww w–w
Q
n
I wK aII P   w–www
8egpt oagteaS ogNIurt – w–www
Tcemt ge1ct LAY – –w–ww ww––w w––
Q
n
I wK aII P   w–www
TOrNzI oagteaS ogNIurt w –––w–
Tcemt ge1ct LAY w ––––w –ww–– –ww
Q
n
I –K pcemt ge1ct LAY – –w––– w–ww– –w–
Q
n
I –K pcemt ge1ct LAY – ––w–– –w–ww ––w
Yz I wK aII P   w–www
8emtc oagteaS ogNIurt – ww–ww
Tcemt ge1ct LAY – ww–ww

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8ezaS ogNIurt ez AY I –ww–ww–w–w

.cO zuC4Og raz 4O gOogOpOztOI ap G
k+1
) G
m
I G
4
R G
0
I w” R w I w'3 .cOgOmNgOn tcO
CuSteoSerateNz s B w“n ycOgO s ep tcO CuSteoSerazI azI w“ tcO CuSteoSeOg Ca2 4O
rNCoutOI ap s B G
4
R s B G
1
3 .cat epn tcO ogNIurt raz 4O N4taezOI 42 pcemtez1 tcO 4ezag2
CuSteoSerazI s mNug teCOp tN tcO SOmt azI pu4tgartez1 s pcemtOI SOmt NzrO3

PNNtc aS1NgetcC zOOIp OBaCezateNz Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg 4etp azI pcemtez1 Nm tcO oagteaS
ogNIurt3 lgeNg tN tcO pcemtez1n tcO CuSteoSerazI aIIOI tN tcO oagteaS ogNIurtn pu4tgartOI
mgNC tcO oagteaS ogNIurtn Ng SOmt uzrcaz1OI 42 tcO mNSSNyez1 guSOpb
w3 .cO CuSteoSerazI ep pu4tgartOI mgNC tcO oagteaS ogNIurt ycOz yO 1Ot tcO megpt SOapt
pe1zemerazt w ez a ptgez1 Nm wQp ez tcO CuSteoSeOg3
G3 .cO CuSteoSerazI ep aIIOI tN tcO oagteaS ogNIurt ycOz yO 1Ot tcO megpt Y 9ogN-eIOI
tcat tcOgO yap a ogO-eNup wE ez a ptgez1 Nm –Qp ez tcO CuSteoSeOg3
K3 .cO oagteaS ogNIurt INOp zNt rcaz1O ycOz tcO CuSteoSeOg 4et ep tcO paCO ap tcO
ogO-eNup CuSteoSeOg 4et3

.cO aS1NgetcC aooSeOp tN 4Ntc oNpete-O azI zO1ate-O CuSteoSeOgp ez GQp rNCoSOCOzt
gOogOpOztateNz3 .cep ep 4OraupO a zO1ate-O CuSteoSeOg OzIp yetc a ptgez1 Nm SQp azI tcO
Sapt NoOgateNz yeSS 4O a pu4tgarteNz Nm tcO aoogNogeatO yOe1ct3 8Ng OBaCoSOn a CuSteoSeOg
O/uaS tN Rw“ ep gOogOpOztOI ez GQp rNCoSOCOzt ap ww––w– azI ep tgOatOI ap RG
4
; G
2
R G
1

I Rw“3

.cO cagIyagO eCoSOCOztateNz Nm PNNtc aS1NgetcC gO/uegOp tcO gO1eptOg rNzme1ugateNz
pcNyz ez 8e1ugO “3v9aE3 Y
n gOogOpOztp tcO SOapt pe1zemerazt 4et Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg ez
gO1eptOg YU3 Az OBtga mSeoRmSNo Y
z;w ep aooOzIOI tN YU tN ogN-eIO a INu4SO 4et ezpoOrteNz
Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg3 .cO mSNyrcagt mNg PNNtc aS1NgetcC ep pcNyz ez 8e1ugO “3v94E3 A: azI
tcO aooOzIOI 4et Y
z;w agO ezeteaSS2 pOt tN – azI tcO pO/uOzrO rNuztOg T: ep pOt tN a
zuC4Og z O/uaS tN tcO zuC4Og Nm 4etp ez tcO CuSteoSeOg3 .cO tyN 4etp Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg ez
Q
z azI Yz;w agO ezpoOrtOI3 Ym tcO tyN 4etp agO w–n et COazp tcat tcO megpt w ez a ptgez1 Nm
wQp cap 4OOz OzrNuztOgOI3 .cep zOOIp a pu4tgarteNz Nm tcO CuSteoSerazI mgNC tcO oagteaS
ogNIurt ez A:3 Ym tcO tyN 4etp agO O/uaS tN –w3 Yt COazp tcat tcO megpt – ez a ptgez1 Nm –Qp
cap 4OOz OzrNuztOgOI3 .cep zOOIp tcO aIIeteNz Nm tcO CuSteoSerazI tN tcO oagteaS
ogNIurt ez A:3 5cOz tcO tyN 4etp agO O/uaSn tcO oagteaS ogNIurt INOp zNt rcaz1O3 Az
N-OgmSNy razzNt Nrrug 4OraupO tcO aIIeteNz azI pu4tgarteNz Nm tcO CuSteoSerazI mNSSNy
Oarc NtcOg3 7OzrOn tcO tyN zuC4Ogp tcat agO aIIOI aSya2p ca-O NooNpetO pe1zn a
rNzIeteNz tcat OBrSuIOp az N-OgmSNy3 dOBt ptOo ep tN pcemt ge1ct tcO oagteaS ogNIurt azI
tcO CuSteoSeOg 9ezrSuIez1 4et Y
n+1E3 .cep ep az agetcCOter pcemt ge1ct 9apcgE NoOgateNz
ycerc pcemtp A: azI YU tN tcO ge1ct azI SOa-Op tcO pe1z 4et ez A: paCO .cO pO/uOzrO
rNuztOg IOrgOCOztp azI tcO rNCoutateNzaS SNNo ep gOoOatOI z teCOp3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO “3v9aEb 7agIyagO mNg PNNtc AS1NgetcC

8e1ugO “3v94E
A zuCOgeraS OBaCoSO Nm PNNtc aS1NgetcC ep 1e-Oz ez .a4SO “3K mNg z I '3 Yt 1e-Op tcO
CuSteoSerateNz Nm 9RXE B 9RwKE I ;wwv3 dNtO tcat tcO CuSteoSeOg ez YU ep zO1ate-O azI tcat
tcO CuSteoSerazI ez PU ep aSpN zO1ate-O3 .cO w–R4et ogNIurt aooOagp ez A:3 .cO mezaS
-aSuO Nm Y
z;w ep tcO Nge1ezaS pe1z 4et Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg azI pcNuSI zNt 4O taFOz ap oagt Nm
tcO ogNIurt3

.a4SO “3Kb LBaCoSO Nm suSteoSerateNz yetc PNNtc AS1NgetcC
PU I w–www
Yz Yz;w PU ; w I –w––w A: YU Y n+1
T:
w – YzeteaS ––––– w––ww – w–w
Tu4tgart PU –w––w
–w––w
apcg ––w–– ww––w w w––
w w apcg –––w– –ww–– w –ww
– w AII PU w–www
ww––w
apcg www–– w–ww– – –w–
– – apcg wwww– –w–ww – ––w
w – Tu4tgart PU –w––w
––www

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

apcg ––ww w–w–w w –––

3.3.2 Array Multiplier

.N rcOrF tcO 4etp Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg NzO at a teCO azI mNgCez1 oagteaS ogNIurtp ep a
pO/uOzteaS NoOgateNz gO/uegez1 a pO/uOzrO Nm aII azI pcemt CergNRNoOgateNzp3 .cO
CuSteoSerateNz Nm tyN 4ezag2 zuC4Ogp raz 4O INzO yetc NzO CergNRNoOgateNz 42 upez1
rNC4ezateNzaS regruet tcat mNgCp tcO ogNIurt 4etp aSS at NzrO3

.cep ep a mapt ya2 pezrO aSS et taFOp ep tcO teCO mNg tcO pe1zaSp tN ogNoa1atO tcgNu1c tcO
1atOp tcat mNgC tcO CuSteoSerateNz agga23 7NyO-Ogn az agga2 CuSteoSeOg gO/uegOp a Sag1O
zuC4Og Nm 1atOpn azI pN et ep zNt az OrNzNCeraS uzet mNg tcO IO-OSNoCOzt Nm Y:p3

dNy yO pOO cNy az agga2 CuSteoSeOg ep eCoSOCOztOI yetc a rNC4ezateNzaS regruet3
:NzpeIOg tcO CuSteoSerateNz Nm tyN GR4et zuC4Ogp ap pcNyz ez 8e13 “3x3 .cO CuSteoSerazI
4etp agO 4
1 azI 40n tcO CuSteoSeOg 4etp agO a1 azI a0n azI tcO ogNIurt ep r3 r2 r1 r03 .cO
megpt oagteaS ogNIurt ep N4taezOI 42 CuSteoS2ez1 a
0 42 41b03 .cO CuSteoSerateNz Nm tyN 4etp
1e-Op a w em 4Ntc 4etp agO wK NtcOgyepOn et ogNIurOp a –3 .cep ep eIOzteraS tN az Ad6
NoOgateNz azI raz yO eCoSOCOzt et yetc az Ad6 1atO3 Ap pcNyz ez tcO Iea1gaCn tcO megpt
oagteaS ogNIurt ep mNgCOI 42 COazp Nm tyN Ad6 1atOp3 .cO pOrNzI oagteaS ogNIurt ep
mNgCOI 42 CuSteoS2ez1 a
1 42 41b0 azI ep pcemtOI NzO oNpeteNz tN tcO SOmt3 .cO tyN oagteaS
ogNIurtp agO aIIOI yetc tyN caSmRaIIOg 97AE regruetp3 VpuaSS2n tcOgO agO CNgO 4etp ez tcO
oagteaS ogNIurtp azI et yeSS 4O zOrOppag2 tN upO muSSRaIIOgp tN ogNIurO tcO puC3 dNtO
tcat tcO SOapt pe1zemerazt 4et Nm tcO ogNIurt INOp zNt ca-O tN 1N tcgNu1c az aIIOg pezrO
et ep mNgCOI 42 tcO Nutout Nm tcO megpt Ad6 1atO3

A rNC4ezateNzaS regruet 4ezag2 CuSteoSeOg yetc CNgO 4etp raz 4O rNzptgurtOI ez a peCeSag
mapceNz3 A 4et Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg ep Ad6OI yetc Oarc 4et Nm tcO CuSteoSerazI ez ap Caz2
SO-OSp ap tcOgO agO 4etp ez tcO CuSteoSeOg3 .cO 4ezag2 Nutout ez Oarc SO-OS Ad6 1atOp ep
aIIOI ez oagaSSOS yetc tcO oagteaS ogNIurt Nm tcO ogO-eNup SO-OS tN mNgC a zOy oagteaS
ogNIurt3 .cO Sapt SO-OS ogNIurOp tcO ogNIurt3 8Ng Z CuSteoSeOg 4etp azI F CuSteoSerazI
4etp yO zOOI Z [ F Ad6 1atOp azI 9Z ) wE FR4et aIIOgp tN ogNIurO a ogNIurt Nm Z ; F 4etp3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO “3xb GR4et 42 GR4et agga2 CuSteoSeOg
Ap a pOrNzI OBaCoSOn rNzpeIOg a CuSteoSeOg regruet tcat CuSteoSeOp a 4ezag2 zuC4Og Nm
mNug 4etp yetc a zuC4Og Nm tcgOO 4etp3 MOt tcO CuSteoSerazI 4O gOogOpOztOI 42 4
3b2b1b0
azI tcO CuSteoSeOg 42 a
2a1a03 TezrO FI“ azI ZIKn yO zOOI wG Ad6 1atOp azI tyN “ R4et
aIIOgp tN ogNIurO a ogNIurt Nm pO-Oz 4etp3 .cO SN1er Iea1gaC Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg ep pcNyz
ez 8e1ugO “3X3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO “3Xb “R4et 42 KR4et agga2 CuSteoSeOg

3.3.3 Division Algorithms

6e-epeNz Nm tyN meBOIRoNezt 4ezag2 zuC4Ogp ez pe1zOI Ca1zetuIO gOogOpOztateNz ep
oOgmNgCOI yetc oaoOg azI oOzreS 42 a ogNrOpp Nm purrOppe-O rNCoagOn pcemt azI pu4tgart
NoOgateNzp3 Pezag2 Ie-epeNz ep Curc peCoSOg tcaz IOreCaS Ie-epeNz 4OraupO cOgO tcO
/uNteOzt Ie1etp agO OetcOg – Ng w azI tcOgO ep zN zOOI tN OpteCatO cNy Caz2 teCOp tcO
Ie-eIOzI Ng oagteaS gOCaezIOg metp eztN tcO Ie-epNg3 .cO Ie-epeNz ogNrOpp ep IOprge4OI ez
8e1ugO “3w–3 .cO Ie-epNg P cap me-O 4etp azI tcO Ie-eIOzI A cap tOz3

c6 c5 c4 c3 c2 c1 c0

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

6e-epeNzb
P I w–––w
ww–w–
–www––––––
–www–
–www––
R w–––w

R –w–ww–
R Rw–––w
R R ––w–w–
R R R –w–w––
R R R Rw–––w
R R R R–––ww–
R R R R R––ww–
YuNteOzt I Y
6e-eIOzI I A
' 4etp Nm A Z Pn /uNteOzt cap '
4etp
” 4etp Nm A VVP
Tcemt ge1ct P azI pu4tgartK OztOg
w ez Y
v 4etp Nm gOCaezIOg V P
Tcemt ge1ct P azI pu4tgartK OztOg
w ez Y
UOCaezIOg Z PK OztOg – ez YK
pcemt ge1ct P
UOCaezIOg V P
Tcemt ge1ct P azI pu4tgartK OztOg
w ez Y
UOCaezIOg Z PK OztOg – ez Y
8ezaS gOCaezIOg
8e1ugO “3w–b LBaCoSO Nm Pezag2 6e-epeNz

.cO IO-epNg ep rNCoagOI yetc tcO me-O CNpt pe1zemerazt 4etp Nm tcO Ie-eIOzI3 TezrO tcO 'R
4et zuC4Og ep pCaSSOg tcaz Pn yO a1aez gOoOat tcO paCO ogNrOpp3 dNy tcO ”R4et zuC4Og
ep 1gOatOg tcaz Pn pN yO oSarO a w mNg tcO /uNteOzt 4et ez tcO peBtc oNpeteNz a4N-O tcO
Ie-eIOzI3 dNy yO pcemt tcO Ie-epNg NzrO tN tcO ge1ct azI pu4tgart et mgNC tcO Ie-eIOzI3
.cO IemmOgOzrO ep FzNyz ap a oagteaS gOCaezIOg 4OraupO tcO Ie-epeNz rNuSI ca-O ptNooOI
cOgO tN N4taez a /uNteOzt Nm w azI a gOCaezIOg O/uaS tN tcO oagteaS gOCaezIOg3
:NCoagez1 a oagteaS gOCaezIOg yetc tcO Ie-epNg rNztezuOp tcO ogNrOpp3 Ym tcO oagteaS
gOCaezIOg ep 1gOatOg tcaz Ng O/uaS tN tcO Ie-epNgn tcO /uNteOzt 4et ep O/uaS tN w3 .cO
Ie-epNg ep tcOz pcemtOI ge1ct azI pu4tgartOI mgNC tcO oagteaS gOCaezIOg3 Ym tcO oagteaS
gOCaezIOg ep pCaSSOg tcaz tcO Ie-epNgn tcO /uNteOzt 4et ep – azI zN pu4tgarteNz ep
zOOIOI3 .cO Ie-epNg ep pcemtOI NzrO tN tcO ge1ct ez az2 rapO3 f4-eNupS2 tcO gOpuSt 1e-Op
4Ntc a /uNteOzt azI a gOCaezIOg3
7agIyagO YCoSOCOztateNz mNg Te1zOIRsa1zetuIO 6ata

Yz cagIyagO eCoSOCOztateNz mNg pe1zOIRCa1zetuIO Iata ez a Ie1etaS rNCoutOgn et ep
rNz-OzeOzt tN rcaz1O tcO ogNrOpp pSe1ctS23 YzptOaI Nm pcemtez1 tcO Ie-epNg tN tcO ge1ctn tyN
Ie-eIOzIpn Ng oagteaS gOCaezIOgpn agO pcemtOI tN tcO SOmtn tcup SOa-ez1 tcO tyN zuC4Ogp ez
tcO gO/uegOI gOSate-O oNpeteNz3 Tu4tgarteNz ep arceO-OI 42 aIIez1 A tN tcO GQp
rNCoSOCOzt Nm P3 LzI ragg2 1e-Op tcO ezmNgCateNz a4Nut tcO gOSate-O Ca1zetuIOp3

.cO cagIyagO gO/uegOI ep eIOzteraS tN tcat Nm CuSteoSerateNz3 UO1eptOg LAY ep zNy pcemtOI
tN tcO SOmt yetc – ezpOgtOI eztN Y
n azI tcO ogO-eNup -aSuO Nm L ep SNpt3 .cO OBaCoSO ep
1e-Oz ez 8e1ugO “3w– tN rSOag tcO ogNoNpOI Ie-epeNz ogNrOpp3 .cO Ie-epNg ep ptNgOI ez tcO
P gO1eptOg azI tcO INu4SORSOz1tc Ie-eIOzI ep ptNgOI ez gO1eptOgp A azI Y3 .cO Ie-eIOzI ep
pcemtOI tN tcO SOmt azI tcO Ie-epNg ep pu4tgartOI 42 aIIez1 etp GQp rNCoSOCOzt -aSuO3 L

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

FOOop tcO ezmNgCateNz a4Nut tcO gOSate-O Ca1zetuIO3 A /uNteOzt 4et w ep ezpOgtOI eztN Y n
azI tcO oagteaS gOCaezIOg ep pcemtOI tN tcO SOmt tN gOoOat tcO ogNrOpp ycOz L I w3 Ym L I
–n et pe1zemeOp tcat A Z P pN tcO /uNteOzt ez Y
n gOCaezp a – 9ezpOgtOI Iugez1 tcO pcemtE3 .N
gOptNgO tcO oagteaS gOCaezIOg ez A tcO -aSuO Nm P ep tcOz aIIOI tN etp ogO-eNup -aSuO3 .cO
oagteaS gOCaezIOg ep pcemtOI tN tcO SOmt azI tcO ogNrOpp ep gOoOatOI a1aez uzteS yO 1Ot aSS
me-O /uNteOztR4etp3 dNtO tcat yceSO tcO oagteaS gOCaezIOg ep pcemtOI SOmtn tcO /uNteOzt 4etp
agO pcemtOI aSpN azI amtOg me-O pcemtpn tcO /uNteOzt ep ez Y azI A cap tcO mezaS gOCaezIOg3
POmNgO pcNyez1 tcO aS1NgetcC ez mSNyrcagt mNgCn yO ca-O tN rNzpeIOg tcO pe1z Nm tcO
gOpuSt azI a oNppe4SO N-OgmSNy rNzIeteNz3 .cO pe1z Nm tcO /uNteOzt ep N4taezOI mgNC tcO
pe1zp Nm tcO Ie-eIOzI azI tcO Ie-epNg3 Ym tcO tyN pe1zp agO paCOn tcO pe1z Nm tcO /uNteOzt
ep oSup3 Ym tcO2 agO zNt eIOzteraSn tcO pe1z ep Cezup3 .cO pe1z Nm tcO gOCaezIOg ep tcO
paCO ap tcat Nm tcO Ie-eIOzI3

8e1ugO “3wwb LBaCoSO Nm Pezag2 6e-epeNz yetc 6e1etaS 7agIyagO

3.3.3.1 Hardware Algorithm

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO “3” ep a mSNyrcagt Nm tcO cagIyagO CuSteoSerateNz aS1NgetcC3 Yz tcO 4O1ezzez1n tcO
CuSteoSerazI ep ez P azI tcO CuSteoSeOg ez Y3 .cOeg rNggOpoNzIez1 pe1zp agO ez P
s azI Ys
gOpoOrte-OS23 5O rNCoagO tcO pe1zp Nm 4Ntc A azI Y azI pOt tN rNggOpoNzIez1 pe1z Nm tcO
ogNIurt pezrO a INu4SORSOz1tc ogNIurt yeSS 4O ptNgOI ez gO1eptOgp A azI Y3 UO1eptOgp A
azI L agO rSOagOI azI tcO pO/uOzrO rNuztOg T: ep pOt tN tcO zuC4Og Nm 4etp Nm tcO
CuSteoSeOg3 TezrO az NoOgazI Cupt 4O ptNgOI yetc etp pe1zn NzO 4et Nm tcO yNgI yeSS 4O
NrruoeOI 42 tcO pe1z azI tcO Ca1zetuIO yeSS rNzpept Nm zRw 4etp3

dNyn tcO SNy NgIOg 4et Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg ez Y
n ep tOptOI3 Ym et ep wn tcO CuSteoSerazI 9PE ep
aIIOI tN ogOpOzt oagteaS ogNIurt 9AEn – NtcOgyepO3 UO1eptOg LAY ep tcOz pcemtOI NzrO tN
tcO ge1ct tN mNgC tcO zOy oagteaS ogNIurt3 .cO pO/uOzrO rNuztOg ep IOrgOCOztOI 42 w
azI etp zOy -aSuO rcOrFOI3 Ym et ep zNt O/uaS tN (OgNn tcO ogNrOpp ep gOoOatOI azI a zOy
oagteaS ogNIurt ep mNgCOI3 5cOz T: I – yO ptNop tcO ogNrOpp3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO “3”b 8SNyrcagt mNg suSteoS2 foOgateNz

.cO cagIyagO Ie-eIO aS1NgetcC ep 1e-Oz ez 8e1ugO “3wG3 A azI Y rNztaez tcO Ie-eIOzI
azI P cap tcO Ie-epNg3 .cO pe1z Nm tcO gOpuSt ep tgazpmOggOI eztN Y3 A rNzptazt ep pOt eztN
tcO pO/uOzrO rNuztOg T: tN poOrem2 tcO zuC4Og Nm 4etp ez tcO /uNteOzt3 Ap ez
CuSteoSerateNzn yO appuCO tcat NoOgazIp agO tgazpmOggOI tN gO1eptOgp mgNC a COCNg2
uzet tcat cap yNgIp Nm z 4etp3 TezrO az NoOgazI Cupt 4O ptNgOI yetc etp pe1zn NzO 4et Nm
tcO yNgI yeSS 4O NrruoeOI 42 tcO pe1z azI tcO Ca1zetuIO yeSS ca-O zRw 4etp3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

5O raz rcOrF a Ie-eIORN-OgmSNy rNzIeteNz 42 pu4tgartez1 tcO Ie-epNg 9PE mgNC caSm Nm tcO
4etp Nm tcO Ie-eIOzI ptNgOI 9AE3 Ym AZPn tcO Ie-eIORN-OgmSNy Nrrug azI tcO NoOgateNz ep
tOgCezatOI3 Ym A
≥Pn zN Ie-eIO N-OgmSNy Nrrugp azI pN tcO -aSuO Nm tcO Ie-eIOzI ep
gOptNgOI 42 aIIez1 P tN A3

.cO Ie-epeNz Nm tcO Ca1zetuIOp 4O1ezp 42 pcemtez1 tcO Ie-eIOzI ez AY tN tcO SOmt yetc tcO
ce1cRNgIOg 4et pcemtOI eztN L3 Ym tcO 4et pcemtOI eztN L ep wn yO FzNy tcat LAJP 4OraupO
LA rNzpeptp Nm w mNSSNyOI 42 zRw 4etp yceSO P rNzpeptp Nm NzS2 zRw 4etp3 Yz tcep rapOn P
Cupt 4O pu4tgartOI mgNC LA azI w ezpOgtOI eztN Y
n mNg tcO /uNteOzt 4et3 TezrO ez gO1eptOg
An tcO ce1cRNgIOg 4et Nm tcO Ie-eIOzI 9ycerc ep ez LE ep Ceppez1n etp -aSuO ep LA ) G
n!1
%∑
AIIez1 tN tcep -aSuO tcO GOp rNCoSOCOzt Nm P gOpuStp ezb
9LA ) G
n!1
0∑H∑/;
n!1
)PE I LA ) P
∑
Ym yO yazt L tN gOCaez a wn tcO ragg2 mgNC tcep aIIeteNz ep zNt tgazpmOggOI tN L3 Ym tcO
pcemtRSOmt NoOgateNz ezpOgtp a – eztN Ln yO pu4tgart tcO Ie-epNg 42 aIIez1 etp GOp
rNCoSOCOzt -aSuO azI tcO ragg2 ep tgazpmOggOI eztN L3 Ym LIwn et pcNyp tcat AZ Pn
tcOgOmNgO Y
n ep pOt3 Ym L I –n et pe1zemeOp tcat A Z P azI tcO Nge1ezaS zuC4Og ep gOptNgOI 42
P ; A3 Yz tcO SattOg rapO yO SOa-O a – ez Y
n%∑
5O gOoOat tcep ogNrOpp yetc gO1eptOg A cNSIez1 tcO oagteaS gOCaezIOg3 AmtOg zRw SNNopn
tcO /uNteOzt Ca1zetuIO ep ptNgOI ez gO1eptOg Y azI tcO gOCaezIOg ep mNuzI ez gO1eptOg A3
.cO /uNteOzt pe1z ep ez Yp azI tcO pe1z Nm tcO gOCaezIOg ep ez Ap3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

i
,D1f)wi=%:;9i,Av+(mE)lidv)i(D)DCwi#rw)ElDvtii

3.3.3.2 Divide Overflow

stiv)w)dAv+ioE iv((f)iDtilmwiCD)DNDvtivrw)ElDvtQi+mD(mioE i&wiwEN ilvimEtCAwiDdi+wiE)wi
fNDt1irErw)iEtCi rwt(DAi &fli DNitvliwEN i+mwtiE)wifNDt1i mE)C+E)w%ibmDNiDNi&w(EfNwilmwi
Awt1lmivdi)w1DNlw)NiDNidDtDlwiEtCi+DAAitvlimvACiEitfo&w)ilmEliwj(wwCNilmwiNlEtCE)CiAwt1lm%i
bviNwwilmDNQiAwlifNi(vtNDCw)iEiN NlwoilmElimENi@!&Dli)w1DNlw)N%i'wifNwivtwi)w1DNlw)ilvimvACi
lmwiCD)DNv)iEtCil+vi)w1DNlw)NilvimvACilmwiCD)DCwtC%i,)voilmwiwjEorAwivdi,D1f)wi=%:;Qilmwi
END
(Divide overflow)

END
(Quotient is in Q
remainder is in A)

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

/uNteOzt yeSS rNzpept Nm peB 4etp em tcO me-O CNpt pe1zemerazt 4etp Nm tcO Ie-eIOzI rNzptetutO
a zuC4Og 1gOatOg tcaz tcO Ie-epNg3 .cO /uNteOzt ep tN 4O ptNgOI ez a ptazIagI 'R4et
gO1eptOgn pN tcO N-OgmSNy 4et yeSS gO/uegO NzO CNgO mSeoRmSNo mNg ptNgez1 tcO peBtc 4et3 .cep
Ie-eIORN-OgmSNy rNzIeteNz Cupt 4O a-NeIOI ez zNgCaS rNCoutOg NoOgateNzp 4OraupO tcO
OztegO /uNteOzt yeSS 4O tNN SNz1 mNg tgazpmOg eztN a COCNg2 uzet tcat cap yNgIp Nm
ptazIagI SOz1tcn tcat epn tcO paCO ap tcO SOz1tc Nm gO1eptOgp3 lgN-epeNzp tN OzpugO tcat
tcep rNzIeteNz ep IOtOrtOI Cupt 4O ezrSuIOI ez OetcOg tcO cagIyagO Ng tcO pNmtyagO Nm tcO
rNCoutOgn Ng ez a rNC4ezateNz Nm tcO tyN3

5cOz tcO Ie-eIOzI ep tyerO ap SNz1 ap tcO Ie-epNgn yO raz uzIOgptazI tcO rNzIeteNz mNg
N-OgmSNy ap mNSSNypb

A Ie-eIORN-OgmSNy Nrrugp em tcO ce1cRNgIOg caSm 4etp Nm tcO Ie-eIOzI CaFOp a zuC4Og
1gOatOg tcaz Ng O/uaS tN tcO Ie-epNg3 AzNtcOg ogN4SOC appNreatOI yetc Ie-epeNz ep tcO mart
tcat a Ie-epeNz 42 (OgN Cupt 4O a-NeIOI3 .cO Ie-eIORN-OgmSNy rNzIeteNz taFOp ragO Nm tcep
rNzIeteNz ap yOSS3 .cep Nrrugp 4OraupO az2 Ie-eIOzI yeSS 4O 1gOatOg tcaz Ng O/uaS tN a
Ie-epNgn ycerc ep O/uaS tN (OgN3 f-OgmSNy rNzIeteNz ep upuaSS2 IOtOrtOI ycOz a poOreaS
mSeoRmSNo ep pOt3 5O yeSS raSS et a Ie-eIORN-OgmSNy mSeoRmSNo azI Sa4OS et 6i83

3.4 Floating-point Arithmetic operations

Yz Caz2 ce1cRSO-OS ogN1gaCCez1 Saz1ua1Op yO ca-O a mareSet2 mNg poOrem2ez1 mSNatez1R
oNezt zuC4Ogp3 .cO CNpt rNCCNz ya2 ep 42 a gOaS IOrSagateNz ptatOCOzt3 7e1c SO-OS
ogN1gaCCez1 Saz1ua1Op Cupt ca-O a ogN-epeNz mNg cazISez1 mSNatez1RoNezt agetcCOter
NoOgateNzp3 .cO NoOgateNzp agO 1OzOgaSS2 4ueSt ez tcO eztOgzaS cagIyagO3 Ym zN cagIyagO
ep a-aeSa4SOn tcO rNCoeSOg Cupt 4O IOpe1zOI yetc a oarFa1O Nm mSNatez1RoNezt pNmtyagO
pu4gNutezO3 AStcNu1c tcO cagIyagO COtcNI ep CNgO OBoOzpe-On et ep Curc CNgO OmmereOzt
tcaz tcO pNmtyagO COtcNI3 .cOgOmNgOn mSNatez1R oNezt cagIyagO ep ezrSuIOI ez CNpt
rNCoutOgp azI ep NCettOI NzS2 ez -Og2 pCaSS NzOp3

3.4.1 Basic Considerations

.cOgO agO tyN oagt Nm a mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Og ez a rNCoutOg R a Cazteppa C azI az
OBoNzOzt O3 .cO tyN oagtp gOogOpOzt a zuC4Og 1OzOgatOI mgNC CuSteoS2ez1 C teCOp a
gaIeB g gaepOI tN tcO -aSuO Nm O3 .cup
C B g
e

.cO Cazteppa Ca2 4O a mgarteNz Ng az eztO1Og3 .cO oNpeteNz Nm tcO gaIeB oNezt azI tcO
-aSuO Nm tcO gaIeB g agO zNt ezrSuIOI ez tcO gO1eptOgp3 8Ng OBaCoSOn appuCO a mgarteNz
gOogOpOztateNz azI a gaIeB w–3 .cO IOreCaS zuC4Og 'Kv3G' ep gOogOpOztOI ez a gO1eptOg
yetc C I 'KvG' azI O I K azI ep eztOgogOtOI tN gOogOpOzt tcO mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Og
3'KvG' B w–
3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

A mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Og ep paeI tN 4O zNgCaSe(OI em tcO CNpt pe1zemerazt Ie1et Nm tcO
Cazteppa ez zNz(OgN3 TN tcO Cazteppa rNztaezp tcO CaBeCuC oNppe4SO zuC4Og Nm
pe1zemerazt Ie1etp3 5O razzNt zNgCaSe(O a (OgN 4OraupO et INOp zNt ca-O a zNz(OgN Ie1et3
Yt ep gOogOpOztOI ez mSNatez1RoNezt 42 aSS –Op ez tcO Cazteppa azI OBoNzOzt3

8SNatez1RoNezt gOogOpOztateNz ezrgOapOp tcO gaz1O Nm zuC4Ogp mNg a 1e-Oz gO1eptOg3
:NzpeIOg a rNCoutOg yetc “xR4et yNgIp3 TezrO NzO 4et Cupt 4O gOpOg-OI mNg tcO pe1zn tcO
gaz1O Nm meBOIRoNezt eztO1Og zuC4Ogp yeSS 4O ; 9G“
7
) wEn ycerc ep aoogNBeCatOS2 ; w–w
4
3
.cO “x 4etp raz 4O upOI tN gOogOpOzt a mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Og yetc K” 4etp mNg tcO
Cazteppa azI wG 4etp mNg tcO OBoNzOzt3 AppuCez1 mgarteNz gOogOpOztateNz mNg tcO
Cazteppa azI taFez1 tcO tyN pe1z 4etp eztN rNzpeIOgateNzn tcO gaz1O Nm zuC4Ogp tcat raz
4O gOogOpOztOI ep
; 9w ) G
!35
E B G
2047

.cep zuC4Og ep IOge-OI mgNC a mgarteNz tcat rNztaezp K' wOpn az OBoNzOzt Nm ww 4etp
9OBrSuIez1 etp pe1zEn azI 4OraupO G
11
)w I G–“v3 .cO Sag1Opt zuC4Og tcat raz 4O
arrNCCNIatOI ep aoogNBeCatOS2 w–
615
3 .cO Cazteppa tcat raz arrNCCNIatOI ep K' 4etp
9OBrSuIez1 tcO pe1zE azI em rNzpeIOgOI ap az eztO1Og et raz ptNgO a zuC4Og ap Sag1O ap
(2
35
)wE3 .cep ep aoogNBeCatOS2 O/uaS tN w–
10
n ycerc ep O/ue-aSOzt tN a IOreCaS zuC4Og Nm
w– Ie1etp3

:NCoutOgp yetc pcNgtOg yNgI SOz1tcp upO tyN Ng CNgO yNgIp tN gOogOpOzt a mSNatez1R
oNezt zuC4Og3 Az xR4et CergNrNCoutOg upOp mNug yNgIp tN gOogOpOzt NzO mSNatez1RoNezt
zuC4Og3 fzO yNgI Nm x 4etp agO gOpOg-OI mNg tcO OBoNzOzt azI tcO G“ 4etp Nm tcO NtcOg
tcgOO yNgIp agO upOI ez tcO Cazteppa3

AgetcCOter NoOgateNzp yetc mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Ogp agO CNgO rNCoSeratOI tcaz yetc
meBOIRoNezt zuC4Ogp3 .cOeg OBOruteNz aSpN taFOp SNz1Og teCO azI gO/uegOp CNgO rNCoSOB
cagIyagO3 AIIez1 Ng pu4tgartez1 tyN zuC4Ogp gO/uegOp megpt az aSe1zCOzt Nm tcO gaIeB
oNezt pezrO tcO OBoNzOzt oagtp Cupt 4O CaIO O/uaS 4OmNgO aIIez1 Ng pu4tgartez1 tcO
Cazteppap3 5O IN tcep aSe1zCOzt 42 pcemtez1 NzO Cazteppa yceSO etp OBoNzOzt ep
aIZuptOI uzteS et 4OrNCOp O/uaS tN tcO NtcOg OBoNzOzt3 :NzpeIOg tcO puC Nm tcO
mNSSNyez1 mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Ogpb
3'KvG“–– B w–
2

         ; 3w'x–––– B w–
!1


Yt ep zOrOppag2 tN CaFO tyN OBoNzOztp 4O O/uaS 4OmNgO tcO Cazteppap raz 4O aIIOI3 5O
raz OetcOg pcemt tcO megpt zuC4Og tcgOO oNpeteNzp tN tcO SOmtn Ng pcemt tcO pOrNzI zuC4Og
tcgOO oNpeteNzp tN tcO ge1ct3 5cOz yO ptNgO tcO Cazteppap ez gO1eptOgpn pcemtez1 tN tcO SOmt
raupOp a SNpp Nm CNpt pe1zemerazt Ie1etp3 Tcemtez1 tN tcO ge1ct raupOp a SNpp Nm SOapt
pe1zemerazt Ie1etp3 .cO pOrNzI COtcNI ep ogOmOga4SO 4OraupO et NzS2 gOIurOp tcO
arrugar2n yceSO tcO megpt COtcNI Ca2 raupO az OggNg3 .cO upuaS aSe1zCOzt ogNrOIugO ep
tN pcemt tcO Cazteppa tcat cap tcO pCaSSOg OBoNzOzt tN tcO ge1ct 42 a zuC4Og Nm oSarOp
O/uaS tN tcO IemmOgOzrO 4OtyOOz tcO OBoNzOztp3 dNyn tcO Cazteppap raz 4O aIIOI3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

3 'KvG“–– B w–
2

;3 –––w'x– B w–
2

3 'KvKXx– B w–
2

5cOz tyN zNgCaSe(OI Cazteppap agO aIIOIn tcO puC Ca 2 rNztaez az N-OgmSNy Ie1et3 Az
N-OgmSNy raz 4O rNggOrtOI OapeS2 42 pcemtez1 tcO puC NzrO tN tcO ge1ct azI ezrgOCOztez1
tcO OBoNzOzt3 5cOz tyN zuC4Ogp agO pu4tgartOIn tcO gOpuSt Ca2 rNztaez CNpt
pe1zemerazt (OgNp ap pcNyz ez tcO mNSSNyez1 OBaCoSOb
3'”vx– B w–
5

R 3'”“K– B w–
5

3––K'– B w–
5

Az uzIOgmSNy Nrrugp em a mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Og tcat cap a – ez tcO CNpt pe1zemerazt
oNpeteNz Nm tcO Cazteppa3 .N zNgCaSe(O a zuC4Og tcat rNztaezp az uzIOgmSNyn yO pcemt
tcO Cazteppa tN tcO SOmt azI IOrgOCOzt tcO OBoNzOzt uzteS a zNz(OgN Ie1et aooOagp ez tcO
megpt oNpeteNz3 7OgOn et ep zOrOppag2 tN pcemt SOmt tyerO tN N4taez 3K'––– B w–
3
3 Yz CNpt
rNCoutOgp a zNgCaSe(ateNz ogNrOIugO ep oOgmNgCOI amtOg Oarc NoOgateNz tN OzpugO tcat
aSS gOpuStp agO ez a zNgCaSe(OI mNgC3

8SNatez1RoNezt CuSteoSerateNz azI Ie-epeNz zOOI zNt IN az aSe1zCOzt Nm tcO Cazteppap3
suSteoS2ez1 tcO tyN Cazteppap azI aIIez1 tcO OBoNzOztp raz mNgC tcO ogNIurt3 6e-eIez1
tcO Cazteppap azI pu4tgartez1 tcO OBoNzOztp oOgmNgC Ie-epeNz3

.cO NoOgateNzp INzO yetc tcO Cazteppap agO tcO paCO ap ez meBOIRoNezt zuC4Ogpn pN tcO
tyN raz pcagO tcO paCO gO1eptOgp azI regruetp3 .cO NoOgateNzp oOgmNgCOI yetc tcO
OBoNzOztp agO rNCoagOI azI ezrgOCOztOI 9mNg aSe1zez1 tcO CazteppapEn aIIOI azI
pu4tgartOI 9mNg CuSteoSerateNzE azI Ie-epeNzEn azI IOrgOCOztOI 9tN zNgCaSe(O tcO gOpuStE3
5O raz gOogOpOzt tcO OBoNzOzt ez az2 NzO Nm tcO tcgOO gOogOpOztateNzp R pe1zOIR
Ca1zetuIOn pe1zOI GOp rNCoSOCOzt Ng pe1zOI wOp rNCoSOCOzt3
A ep a mNugtc gOogOpOztateNz aSpNn FzNyz ap a 4eapOI OBoNzOzt3 Yz tcep gOogOpOztateNzn
tcO pe1z 4et ep gOCN-OI mgNC 4O1ezzez1 tN mNgC a pOoagatO Oztet23 .cO 4eap ep a oNpete-O
zuC4Og tcat ep aIIOI tN Oarc OBoNzOzt ap tcO mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Og ep mNgCOIn pN tcat
eztOgzaSS2 aSS OBoNzOztp agO oNpete-O3 .cO mNSSNyez1 OBaCoSO Ca2 rSagem2 tcep t2oO Nm
gOogOpOztateNz3 :NzpeIOg az OBoNzOzt tcat gaz1Op mgNC )'– tN “X3 YztOgzaSS2n et ep
gOogOpOztOI 42 tyN Ie1etp 9yetcNut a pe1zE 42 aIIez1 tN et a 4eap Nm '–3 .cO OBoNzOzt
gO1eptOg rNztaezp tcO zuC4Og O ; '–n ycOgO O ep tcO artuaS OBoNzOzt3 .cep ya2n tcO
OBoNzOztp agO gOogOpOztOI ez gO1eptOgp ap oNpete-O zuC4Ogp ez tcO gaz1O Nm –– tN XX3
lNpete-O OBoNzOztp ez gO1eptOgp ca-O tcO gaz1O Nm zuC4Ogp mgNC XX tN '–3 .cO
pu4tgarteNz om '– 1e-Op tcO oNpete-O -aSuOp mgNC “X tN –3 dO1ate-O OBoNzOztp agO
gOogOpOztOI ez gO1eptOgp ez tcO gaz1O Nm )w tN )'–3

PeapOI OBoNzOztp ca-O tcO aI-azta1O tcat tcO2 rNztaez NzS2 oNpete-O zuC4Ogp3 dNy et
4OrNCOp peCoSOg tN rNCoagO tcOeg gOSate-O Ca1zetuIO yetcNut 4NtcOgez1 a4Nut tcOeg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

pe1zp3 AzNtcOg aI-azta1O ep tcat tcO pCaSSOpt oNppe4SO 4eapOI OBoNzOzt rNztaezp aSS
(OgNp3 .cO mSNatez1RoNezt gOogOpOztateNz Nm (OgN ep tcOz a (OgN Cazteppa azI tcO pCaSSOpt
oNppe4SO OBoNzOzt3

3.1.1.1 Register Configuration

.cO gO1eptOg rNzme1ugateNz mNg mSNatez1RoNezt NoOgateNzp ep pcNyz ez me1ugO “3wK3 Ap a
guSOn tcO paCO gO1eptOgp azI aIIOg upOI mNg meBOIRoNezt agetcCOter agO upOI mNg
ogNrOppez1 tcO Cazteppap3 .cO IemmOgOzrO SeOp ez tcO ya2 tcO OBoNzOztp agO cazISOI3

.cO gO1eptOg Ng1aze(ateNz mNg mSNatez1RoNezt NoOgateNzp ep pcNyz ez 8e13 “3wK3 .cgOO
gO1eptOgp agO tcOgOn PUn A:n azI YU3 Larc gO1eptOg ep pu4Ie-eIOI eztN tyN oagtp3 .cO
Cazteppa oagt cap tcO paCO uooOgrapO SOttOg p2C4NSp ap ez meBOIRoNezt gOogOpOztateNz3
.cO OBoNzOzt oagt Ca2 upO rNggOpoNzIez1 SNyOgRrapO SOttOg p2C4NS3

8e1ugO “3wKb UO1eptOgp mNg 8SNatez1 lNezt agetcCOter NoOgateNzp

AppuCez1 tcat Oarc mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Og cap a Cazteppa ez pe1zOIRCa1zetuIO
gOogOpOztateNz azI a 4eapOI OBoNzOzt3 .cup tcO A: cap a Cazteppa ycNpO pe1z ep ez A
sn
azI a Ca1zetuIO tcat ep ez A3 .cO Iea1gaC pcNyp tcO CNpt pe1zemerazt 4et Nm An Sa4OSOI
42 A
13 .cO 4et ez cep oNpeteNz Cupt 4O a w tN zNgCaSe(O tcO zuC4Og3 dNtO tcat tcO
p2C4NS A: gOogOpOztp tcO OztegO gO1eptOgn tcat epn tcO rNzratOzateNz Nm A
sn A azI a3

Yz tcO peCeSag ya2n gO1eptOg PU ep pu4Ie-eIOI eztN B
sn Pn azI 4 azI YU eztN Ysn Y azI /3
A oagaSSOSRaIIOg aIIp tcO tyN Cazteppap azI SNaIp tcO puC eztN A azI tcO ragg2 eztN L3
A pOoagatO oagaSSOS aIIOg raz 4O upOI mNg tcO OBoNzOztp3 .cO OBoNzOztp IN zNt ca-O a
Ieptgert pe1z 4et 4OraupO tcO2 agO 4eapOI 4ut agO gOogOpOztOI ap a 4eapOI oNpete-O
/uaztet23 Yt ep appuCOI tcat tcO mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Og agO pN Sag1O tcat tcO rcazrO Nm
az OBoNzOzt N-OgmSNy ep -Og2 gOCNtO azI pN tcO OBoNzOzt N-OgmSNy yeSS 4O zO1SOrtOI3 .cO
OBoNzOztp agO aSpN rNzzOrtOI tN a Ca1zetuIO rNCoagatNg tcat ogN-eIOp tcgOO 4ezag2
Nutoutp tN ezIeratO tcOeg gOSate-O Ca1zetuIO3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.cO zuC4Og ez tcO Cazteppa yeSS 4O taFOz ap a mgarteNzn pN tcO2 4ezag2 oNezt ep appuCOI
tN gOpeIO tN tcO SOmt Nm tcO Ca1zetuIO oagt3 YztO1Og gOogOpOztateNz mNg mSNatez1 oNezt
raupOp rOgtaez praSez1 ogN4SOCp Iugez1 CuSteoSerateNz azI Ie-epeNz3 .N a-NeI tcOpO
ogN4SOCpn yO aINot a mgarteNz gOogOpOztateNz3
.cO zuC4Ogp ez tcO gO1eptOgp pcNuSI ezeteaSS2 4O zNgCaSe(OI3 AmtOg Oarc agetcCOter
NoOgateNzn tcO gOpuSt yeSS 4O zNgCaSe(OI3 .cup aSS mSNatez1RoNezt NoOgazIp agO aSya2p
zNgCaSe(OI3

3.4.1.2 Addition and Subtraction of Floating Point Numbers

6ugez1 aIIeteNz Ng pu4tgarteNzn tcO tyN mSNatez1RoNezt NoOgazIp agO FOot ez A: azI PU3
.cO puC Ng IemmOgOzrO ep mNgCOI ez tcO A:3 .cO aS1NgetcC raz 4O Ie-eIOI eztN mNug
rNzpOrute-O oagtpb
w3   :cOrF mNg (OgNp3
G3   ASe1z tcO Cazteppap3
K3   AII Ng pu4tgart tcO Cazteppap
“3   dNgCaSe(O tcO gOpuSt
A mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Og razzNt 4O zNgCaSe(OIn em et ep –3 Ym tcep zuC4Og ep upOI mNg
rNCoutateNzn tcO gOpuSt Ca2 aSpN 4O (OgN3 YzptOaI Nm rcOrFez1 mNg (OgNp Iugez1 tcO
zNgCaSe(ateNz ogNrOpp yO rcOrF mNg (OgNp at tcO 4O1ezzez1 azI tOgCezatO tcO ogNrOpp em
zOrOppag23 .cO aSe1zCOzt Nm tcO Cazteppap Cupt 4O raggeOI Nut ogeNg tN tcOeg NoOgateNz3
AmtOg tcO Cazteppap agO aIIOI Ng pu4tgartOIn tcO gOpuSt Ca2 4O uzRzNgCaSe(OI3 .cO
zNgCaSe(ateNz ogNrOIugO OzpugOp tcat tcO gOpuSt ep zNgCaSe(OI 4OmNgO et ep tgazpmOggOI tN
COCNg23

8Ng aIIez1 Ng pu4tgartez1 tyN mSNatez1RoNezt 4ezag2 zuC4Ogpn em PU ep O/uaS tN (OgNn tcO
NoOgateNz ep ptNooOIn yetc tcO -aSuO ez tcO A: 4Oez1 tcO gOpuSt3 Ym A: I –n yO tgazpmOg
tcO rNztOzt Nm PU eztN A: azI aSpN rNCoSOCOzt etp pe1z yO ca-O tN pu4tgart tcO
zuC4Ogp3 Ym zOetcOg zuC4Og ep O/uaS et tN (OgNn yO ogNrOOI tN aSe1z tcO Cazteppap3

.cO Ca1zetuIO rNCoagatNg attarcOI tN OBoNzOztp a azI 4 1e-Op tcgOO Nutoutpn ycerc
pcNy tcOeg gOSate-O Ca1zetuIOp3 Ym tcO tyN OBoNzOztp agO O/uaSn yO 1N tN oOgmNgC tcO
agetcCOter NoOgateNz3 Ym tcO OBoNzOztp agO zNt O/uaSn tcO Cazteppa ca-ez1 tcO pCaSSOg
OBoNzOzt ep pcemtOI tN tcO ge1ct azI etp OBoNzOzt ezrgOCOztOI3 .cep ogNrOpp ep gOoOatOI
uzteS tyN OBoNzOztp agO O/uaS3

.cO aIIeteNz azI pu4tgarteNz Nm tcO tyN Cazteppap ep peCeSag tN tcO meBOIRoNezt aIIeteNz
azI pu4tgarteNz aS1NgetcC ogOpOztOI ez 8e13 “3w“3 .cO Ca1zetuIO oagt ep aIIOI Ng
pu4tgartOI IOoOzIp Nz tcO NoOgateNz azI tcO pe1zp Nm tcO tyN Cazteppap3 Ym az N-OgmSNy
Nrrugp ycOz tcO Ca1zetuIOp agO aIIOIn et ep tgazpmOggOI eztN mSeoRmSNo L3 Ym L I wn tcO 4et
ep tgazpmOggOI eztN A
1 azI aSS NtcOg 4etp Nm A agO pcemtOI ge1ct3 .cO OBoNzOzt Cupt 4O

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

ezrgOCOztOI pN tcat et raz Caeztaez tcO rNggOrt zuC4Og3 dN uzIOgmSNy Ca2 Nrrug ez
tcep rapO tcep ep 4OraupO tcO Nge1ezaS Cazteppa tcat yap zNt pcemtOI Iugez1 tcO
aSe1zCOzt yap aSgOaI2 ez a zNgCaSe(OI oNpeteNz3

Ym tcO Ca1zetuIOp yOgO pu4tgartOIn tcOgO Ca2 4O (OgN Ng Ca2 ca-O az uzIOgmSNy ez tcO
gOpuSt3 Ym tcO Cazteppa ep O/uaS tN (OgN tcO OztegO mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Og ez tcO A: ep
rSOagOI tN (OgN3 ftcOgyepOn tcO Cazteppa Cupt ca-O at SOapt NzO 4et tcat ep O/uaS tN w3
.cO Cazteppa cap az uzIOgmSNy em tcO CNpt pe1zemerazt 4et ez oNpeteNz A
1n ep –3 Yz tcat
rapOn tcO Cazteppa ep pcemtOI SOmt azI tcO OBoNzOzt IOrgOCOztOI3 .cO 4et ez A
1 ep
rcOrFOI a1aez azI tcO ogNrOpp ep gOoOatOI uzteS A
1 I w3 5cOz A1 I wn tcO Cazteppa ep
zNgCaSe(OI azI tcO NoOgateNz ep rNCoSOtOI3

8e1ugO AIIeteNz azI Tu4tgarteNz Nm mSNatez1 )oNezt zuC4Ogp

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

3.4.2 Decimal Arithmetic operations

Decimal Arithmetic Unit

.cO upOg Nm a rNCoutOg ezout Iata ez IOreCaS zuC4Ogp azI gOrOe-Op Nutout ez IOreCaS
mNgC3 Put a :lV yetc az AMV raz oOgmNgC agetcCOter CergNRNoOgateNzp NzS2 Nz 4ezag2
Iata3 .N oOgmNgC agetcCOter NoOgateNzp yetc IOreCaS Iatan et ep zOrOppag2 tN rNz-Ogt tcO
ezout IOreCaS zuC4Ogp tN 4ezag2n tN oOgmNgC aSS raSruSateNzp yetc 4ezag2 zuC4Ogpn azI
tN rNz-Ogt tcO gOpuStp eztN IOreCaS3 .cep Ca2 4O az OmmereOzt COtcNI ez aooSerateNzp
gO/uegez1 a Sag1O zuC4Og Nm raSruSateNzp azI a gOSate-OS2 pCaSSOg aCNuzt Nm ezout azI
Nutout Iata3 5cOz tcO aooSerateNz raSSp mNg a Sag1O aCNuzt Nm ezoutRNutout azI a
gOSate-OS2 pCaSSOg zuC4Og Nm agetcCOter raSruSateNzpn et 4OrNCOp rNz-OzeOzt tN IN tcO
eztOgzaS agetcCOter IegOrtS2 yetc tcO IOreCaS zuC4Ogp3 :NCoutOgp tcat raz IN IOreCaS
agetcCOter Cupt ptNgO tcO IOreCaS Iata ez 4ezag2 rNIOI mNgC3 .cO IOreCaS zuC4Ogp agO
tcOz aooSeOI tN a IOreCaS agetcCOter uzetn ycerc raz OBOrutO IOreCaS agetcCOter CergNR
NoOgateNzp3
LSOrtgNzer raSruSatNgp ez-agea4S2 upO az eztOgzaS IOreCaS agetcCOter uzet pezrO ezoutp
azI Nutoutp agO mgO/uOzt3 .cOgO INOp zNt pOOC tN 4O a gOapNz mNg rNz-Ogtez1 tcO
FO24NagI ezout zuC4Ogp tN 4ezag2 azI a1aez rNz-Ogtez1 tcO IepoSa2OI gOpuStp tN
IOreCaSn tcep ep 4OraupO tcep ogNrOpp zOOIp poOreaS regruetp azI aSpN taFOp a SNz1Og teCO
tN OBOrutO3 saz2 rNCoutOgp ca-O cagIyagO mNg agetcCOter raSruSateNzp yetc 4Ntc 4ezag2
azI IOreCaS Iata3

VpOgp raz poOrem2 42 ogN1gaCCOI ezptgurteNzp ycOtcOg tcO2 yazt tcO rNCoutOg tN INOp
raSruSateNzp yetc 4ezag2 Ng IOreCaS Iata3

A IOreCaS agetcCOter uzet ep a Ie1etaS muzrteNz tcat INOp IOreCaS CergNRNoOgateNzp3 Yt
raz aII Ng pu4tgart IOreCaS zuC4Ogp3 .cO uzet zOOIp rNIOI IOreCaS zuC4Ogp azI
ogNIurOp gOpuStp ez tcO paCO aINotOI 4ezag2 rNIO3 A pez1SORpta1O IOreCaS agetcCOter
uzet cap Nm zezO 4ezag2 ezout -agea4SOp azI me-O 4ezag2 Nutout -agea4SOpn pezrO a
CezeCuC Nm mNug 4etp ep gO/uegOI tN gOogOpOzt Oarc rNIOI IOreCaS Ie1et3 Larc pta1O
Cupt ca-O mNug ezoutp mNg tcO aIIOzI Ie1etn mNug ezoutp mNg tcO aIIOzI Ie1etn azI az
ezoutRragg23 .cO Nutoutp zOOI mNug tOgCezaSp mNg tcO puC Ie1et azI NzO mNg tcO NutoutR
ragg23 fm rNugpOn tcOgO ep a yeIO gaz1O Nm oNppe4SO regruet rNzme1ugateNzp IOoOzIOzt Nz
tcO rNIO upOI tN gOogOpOzt tcO IOreCaS Ie1etp3

3.4.2.1 BCD Adder

dNy SOt up pOO tcO agetcCOter aIIeteNz Nm tyN IOreCaS Ie1etp ez P:6n yetc a oNppe4SO
ragg2 mgNC a ogO-eNup pta1O3 TezrO Oarc ezout Ie1et INOp zNt OBrOOI Xn tcO Nutout puC

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

razzNt 4O 1gOatOg tcaz X ; X ; w I wXn tcO w ez tcO puC 4Oez1 az ezoutRragg23 AppuCO
tcat yO aooS2 tyN P:6 Ie1etp tN a “R4et 4ezag2 aIIOg3 .cO aIIOg yeSS mNgC tcO puC ez
4ezag2 azI ogNIurO a gOpuSt tcat Ca2 gaz1O mgNC – tN wX3 .cOpO 4ezag2 zuC4Ogp agO
SeptOI ez .a4SO “3“ azI agO Sa4OSOI 42 p2C4NSp ?n 0
8n 04n 02n azI 013 ? ep tcO ragg2 azI
tcO pu4prgeotp uzIOg tcO SOttOg 0 gOogOpOzt tcO yOe1ctp xn “n Gn azI w tcat raz 4O
appe1zOI tN tcO mNug etp ez tcO P:6 rNIO3 .cO megpt rNSuCz ez tcO ta4SO Septp tcO 4ezag2
puCp ap tcO2 aooOag ez tcO Nutoutp Nm a “R4et 4ezag2 aIIOg3

.cO Nutout puC Nm tyN IOreCaS zuC4Ogp Cupt 4O gOogOpOztOI ez P:6 azI pcNuSI
aooOag ez tcO mNgC SeptOI ez tcO pOrNzI rNSuCz Nm tcO ta4SO3 .cO ogN4SOC ep tN mezI a
peCoSO guSO 42 ycerc tcO 4ezag2 rNSuCz Nm tcO ta4SO3 .cO ogN4SOC ep tN mezI a peCoSO
guSO pN tcat tcO 4ezag2 zuC4Og ez tcO megpt rNSuCz raz 4O rNz-OgtOI tN tcO rNggOrt P:6
Ie1et gOogOpOztateNz Nm tcO zuC4Og ez tcO pOrNzI rNSuCz3

Yt ep aooagOzt tcat ycOz tcO 4ezag2 puC ep O/uaS tN Ng SOpp tcaz w––wn zN rNz-OgpeNz ep
zOOIOI3 5cOz tcO 4ezag2 puC ep 1gOatOg tcaz w––wn yO zOOI tN aII Nm 4ezag2 ” 9–ww–E
tN tcO 4ezag2 puC tN mezI tcO rNggOrt P:6 gOogOpOztateNz azI tN ogNIurOp NutoutRragg2
ap gO/uegOI3
.a4SO “3“b 6Oge-ateNz Nm P:6 AIIOg

fzO ya2 Nm aIIez1 IOreCaS zuC4Ogp ez P:6 ep tN upO NzO “R4et 4ezag2 aIIOg azI
oOgmNgC tcO agetcCOter NoOgateNz NzO Ie1et at a teCO3 .cO SNyRNgIOg oaeg Nm P:6 Ie1etp ep
megpt aIIOI tN ogNIurO a 4ezag2 puC em tcO gOpuSt ep O/uaS Ng 1gOatOg tcaz w–w–n et ep
rNggOrtOI 42 aIIez1 –ww– tN tcO 4ezag2 puC3 .cO pOrNzI NoOgateNz ogNIurOp az NutoutR
ragg2 mNg tcO zOBt oaeg Nm pe1zemerazt Ie1etp3 .cO zOBt ce1cOgRNgIOg oaeg Nm Ie1etpn tN1OtcOg
yetc tcO ezoutRragg2n ep tcOz aIIOI tN ogNIurO tcOeg 4ezag2 puC3 Ym tcep gOpuSt ep O/uaS

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

tN Ng 1gOatOg tcaz w–w–n et ep rNggOrtOI 42 aIIez1 –ww–3 .cO ogNrOIugO ep gOoOatOI uzteS
aSS IOreCaS Ie1etp agO aIIOI3

.cO SN1er regruet tcat IOtOrtp tcO zOrOppag2 rNggOrteNz raz 4O IOge-OI mgNC tcO ta4SO
OztgeOp3 Yt ep N4-eNup tcat a rNggOrteNz ep zOOIOI ycOz tcO 4ezag2 puC cap az Nutout
ragg2 ? I w3 .cO NtcOg peB rNC4ezateNzp mgNC w–w– tN wwww tcat zOOI a rNggOrteNz ca-O
a w ez oNpeteNz 0
83 .N IemmOgOzteatO tcOC mgNC 4ezag2 w––– azI w––wn ycerc aSpN ca-O a
w ez oNpeteNz 0
8n yO poOrem2 mugtcOg tcat OetcOg 04 Ng 02 Cupt ca-O a w3 .cO rNzIeteNz mNg
a rNggOrteNz azI az NutoutRragg2 raz 4O OBogOppOI 42 tcO PNNSOaz muzrteNz
: I ? ; 0
8 04 ; 08 02
5cOz : I wn yO zOOI tN aII –ww– tN tcO 4ezag2 puC a zI ogN-eIO az NutoutRragg2 mNg
tcO zOBt pta1O3

A P:6 aIIOg ep regruet tcat aIIp tyN P:6 Ie1etp ez oagaSSOS azI 1OzOgatOp a puC Ie1et
aSpN ez P:63 AP:6 aIIOg Cupt ezrSuIO tcO rNggOrteNz SN1er ez etp eztOgzaS rNzptgurteNz3
.N aII –ww– tN tcO 4ezag2 puCn yO upO a pOrNzI “R4et 4ezag2 aIIOg3 .cO tyN IOreCaS
Ie1etpn tN1OtcOg yetc tcO ezoutRragg2n agO megpt aIIOI ez tcO tNo “R4et 4ezag2 aIIOg tN
ogNIurO tcO 4ezag2 puC3 5cOz tcO NutoutRragg2 ep O/uaS tN –n zNtcez1 ep aIIOI tN tcO
4ezag2 puC tcgNu1c tcO 4NttNC “R4et 4ezag2 aIIOg3 .cO NutoutRragg2 1OzOgatOI mgNC
tcO 4NttNC 4ezag2 aIIOg Ca2 4O e1zNgOIn pezrO et puooSeOp ezmNgCateNz aSgOaI2 a-aeSa4SO
ez tcO NutoutRragg2 tOgCezaS3

8e1ugO “3wvb PSNrF 6ea1gaC Nm P:6 AIIOg

3.4.2.2 BCD Subtraction

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Tu4tgarteNz Nm tyN IOreCaS zuC4Ogp zOOIp a pu4tgartNg regruet tcat ep IemmOgOzt mgNC a
P:6 aIIOg3 5O oOgmNgC tcO pu4tgarteNz 42 taFez1 tcO XOp Ng w–Op rNCoSOCOzt Nm tcO
pu4tgacOzI azI aIIez1 et tN tcO CezuOzI3 TezrO tcO P:6 ep zNt a pOSmRrNCoSOCOztez1
rNIOn yO razzNt N4taez tcO XOp rNCoSOCOzt 42 rNCoSOCOztez1 Oarc 4et ez tcO rNIO3 Yt
Cupt 4O mNgCOI upez1 a regruet tcat pu4tgartp Oarc P:6 Ie1et mgNC X3

.cO XOp rNCoSOCOzt Nm a IOreCaS Ie1et gOogOpOztOI ez P:6 Ca2 4O N4taezOI 42
rNCoSOCOztez1 tcO 4etp ez tcO rNIOI gOogOpOztateNz Nm tcO Ie1et 4ut yO ca-O tN ezrSuIO3
.cOgO agO tyN oNppe4SO rNggOrteNz COtcNIp3 Yz tcO megpt COtcNIn 4ezag2 w–w– 9IOreCaS
w–E ep aIIOI tN Oarc rNCoSOCOztOI Ie1et tcOz yO IepragI tcO ragg2 amtOg Oarc aIIeteNz3
Yz tcO pOrNzI COtcNIn 4ezag2 –ww– 9IOreCaS ”E ep aIIOI 4OmNgO tcO Ie1et ep
rNCoSOCOztOI3 Ap a zuCOgeraS eSSuptgateNzn tcO XOp rNCoSOCOzt Nm P:6 –www9IOreCaS vE
ep rNCoutOI 42 megpt rNCoSOCOztez1 Oarc 4et tN N4taez w–––3 AIIez1 4ezag2 w–w– azI
IepragIez1 tcO ragg2n yO N4taez ––w– 9IOreCaS GE3 P2 tcO pOrNzI COtcNIn yO aII –ww–
tN –www tN N4taez ww–w3 :NCoSOCOztez1 Oarc 4etn yO N4taez tcO gO/uegOI gOpuSt Nm ––w–3
:NCoSOCOztez1 Oarc 4et Nm “R4et 4ezag2 zuC4Og d ep eIOzteraS tN tcO pu4tgarteNz Nm tcO
zuC4Og mgNC wwww 9IOreCaS w'E3 AIIez1 tcO 4ezag2 O/ue-aSOzt Nm IOreCaS w– 1e-Op w' )
d ; w– I X ; w”3 Put w” pe1zemeOp tcO ragg2 tcat ep IepragIOIn pN tcO gOpuSt ep X ) d ap
gO/uegOI3 AIIez1 tcO 4ezag2 O/ue-aSOzt Nm IOreCaS ” azI tcOz rNCoSOCOztez1 1e-Op w' )
9d ; ”E I X ) d ap gO/uegOI3

5O raz aSpN N4taez tcO XOp rNCoSOCOzt Nm a P:6 Ie1et tcgNu1c a rNC4ezateNzaS regruet3
5cOz tcep regruet ep rNC4ezOI tN a P:6 aIIOgn yO 1Ot a P:6 aIIOgkpu4tgartNg3 MOt tcO
pu4tgacOzI 9Ng aIIOzIE Ie1et 4O IOzNtOI 42 tcO mNug 4ezag2 -agea4SOp P
8n P4n P2n azI P13
MOt s 4O a CNIO 4et tcat rNztgNSp tcO aIIkpu4tgart NoOgateNz3 5cOz s I –n tcO tyN
Ie1etp agO aIIOIK ycOz s I wn tcO Ie1etp agO pu4tgartOI3 MOt tcO 4ezag2 -agea4SOp B
8n B4n
x
2n azI B1 4O tcO Nutoutp Nm tcO XOp rNCoSOCOzt regruet3 P2 az OBaCezateNz Nm tcO tgutc
ta4SO mNg tcO regruetn et Ca2 4O N4pOg-OI tcat P
1 pcNuSI aSya2p 4O rNCoSOCOztOIK P 2 ep
aSya2p tcO paCO ez tcO XOp rNCoSOCOzt ap ez tcO Nge1ezaS Ie1etK B“ ep w ycOz tcO
OBrSupe-O fU Nm P
2 azI P4 ep wK azI B8 ep w ycOz P8B4B2 I –––3 .cO PNNSOaz muzrteNzp
mNg tcO XOp rNCoSOCOzt regruet agO
B
1 I P1 sO ; PO1 s
B
2 I P2
B
4 I P4sO ; 9PO4B2 ; P4B’2Es
B
8 I P8sO ; PO8B4’B’2s
8gNC tcOpO O/uateNzp yO pOO tcat B I P ycOz s I –3 5cOz s I wn tcO B O/uaSp tN tcO
XOp rNCoSOCOzt Nm P3

fzO pta1O Nm a IOreCaS agetcCOter uzet tcat raz 4O upOI tN aII Ng pu4tgart tyN P:6
Ie1etp ep 1e-Oz ez 8e13 “3wx3 Yt cap Nm a P:6 aIIOg azI a XOp rNCoSOCOztOg3 .cO CNIO s
rNztgNSp tcO NoOgateNz Nm tcO uzet3 5etc s I –n tcO T Nutoutp mNgC tcO puC Nm A azI P3
5etc s I wn tcO T Nutoutp mNgC tcO puC Nm A oSup tcO XOp rNCoSOCOzt Nm P3 8Ng
zuC4Ogp yetc z IOreCaS Ie1etp yO zOOI z purc pta1Op3 .cO Nutout raggeOp :
i;w mgNC NzO
pta1O3 tN pu4tgart tcO tyN IOreCaS zuC4Ogp SOt s I w azI aooS2 a w tN tcO ezout ragg2

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

C1 Nm tcO megpt pta1O3 .cO Nutoutp yeSS mNgC tcO puC Nm A oSup tcO w–Op rNCoSOCOzt Nm Pn
ycerc ep O/ue-aSOzt tN a pu4tgarteNz NoOgateNz em tcO ragg2RNut Nm tcO Sapt pta1O ep
IepragIOI3

fzO Tta1O Nm a IOreCaS agetcCOter uzet

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

UNIT 4
PROGRAMMING THE BASIC COMPUTER

4.1 sarcezO Saz1ua1O
4.2 sNNwo&A iAEt1fE1wi
4.3 sNNwo&Aw)i
4.3.1 ,D)NlirENNi
4.3.2 "w(vtCirENNi
4.4 -)v1)EooDt1is)DlmowlD(iEtCi$v1D(ivrw)ElDvtNi
4.5 suSteoSerateNz lgN1gaC
4.5.1 (vf&Aw!-)w(DNDvtisCCDlDvti
4.5.2 $v1D(ivrw)ElDvtNi
4.5.3 "mDdlivrw)ElDvtNi
i
i
4.1 Machine Language
i
bvi+)DlwiEir)v1)Eoidv)iEi(vorflw)i+witwwCilviNrw(Dd QiCD)w(lA iv)iDtCD)w(lA QiEiNwGfwt(wi
Nm CarcezO ezptgurteNzp3 sarcezO ezptgurteNzp ezpeIwi lmwi (vorflw)i dv)oi Ei &DtE) i
rEllw)tQi +mD(mi DNi CDddD(fAli lvi ftCw)NlEtCi EtCi oEtDrfAElw%i bmwi DtNl)f(lDvti Nwli vdi lmwi
&END(i (vorflw)Qi +mvNwimE)C+E)wi v)1EtD2ElDvti +ENi wjrAv)wCi wE)ADw)i fNwCi lvi r)v1)Eoi Ei
(vorflw)%ibmwi;@iDtNl)f(lDvtNivdilmwi&END(i(vorflw)iE)wiDtibE&Awi;%@ilvir)v)DCwiEtiwEN i
)wdw)wt(widv)ilmwir)v1)EooDt1iwjEorAwNilmElidvAAv+%i
i
bE&Awi;%@9ievorflw)i7tNl)f(lDvtNi
" o&vAi *wjECw(DoEAi(vCwi (wN()DrlDvti
Ad6 – Ng x Ad6 s tN A:
A66 w Ng X AII s tN A:n ragg2 tN L
M6A G Ng A MNaI A: mgNC s
T.A K Ng P TtNgO A: ez s
.ni =iv)iei )Et(mift(vtCDlDvtEAA ilvioi
"si @iv)i(i "E)wi)wlf)tiECC)wNNiDtioiEtCi&)Et(milvio +1i
YT0 ” Ng L YzrgOCOzt s azI pFeo em (OgN
e$si ABCCi eAwE)isei
e$ki A=CCi eAwE)iki
:sA vG–– :NCoSOCOzt A:
:sL vw–– :NCoSOCOzt L
e73i ACBCi eD)(fAElwi)D1mlikiEtCisei
e7$i AC=Ci eD)(fAElwiAwdlikiEtCisei
7nei AC;Ci 7t()wowtlisei

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

TlA v–w– TFeo em A: ep oNpete-O
TdA v––x TFeo em A: ep zO1ate-O
T0A v––“ TFeo em A: ep (OgN
T0L v––G TFeo em L ep (OgN
7M. v––w 7aSt rNCoutOg
Ydl 8x–– Yzout ezmNgCateNz azI rSOag mSa1
fV. 8“–– futout ezmNgCateNz azI rSOag mSa1
T?Y 8G–– TFeo em ezout mSa1 ep Nz
T?f 8w–– TFeo em Nutout mSa1 ep Nz
Yfd 8–x– .ugz eztOgguot Nz
Yf8 8–“– .ugz eztOgguot Nmm

A ogN1gaC ep a Sept Nm ezptgurteNzp tN tOSS tcO rNCoutOg tN IN zOOIOI ogNrOppez1 Nz tcO
Iata3 5O raz ygetO a ogN1gaC mNg a rNCoutOg ez -ageNup t2oOp Nm ogN1gaCCez1
Saz1ua1Opn 4ut tcep ogN1gaC raz 4O OBOrutOI 42 tcO rNCoutOg NzS2 ycOz et ep ez 4ezag2
mNgC3 Ym et ep ygettOz ez pNCO NtcOg Saz1ua1O et cap tN 4O tgazpSatOI tN tcO 4ezag2 mNgC pN
tcat et raz 4O OBOrutOI 42 tcO rNCoutOg3

A p2C4NSer ezptgurteNz azI etp 4ezag2 O/ue-aSOzt cap a NzORtNRNzO gOSateNzpceo 4OtyOOz
tcOC3 Az appOC4S2 Saz1ua1O raz 4O tcNu1ct Nm a CarcezO SO-OS Saz1ua1O ygetez1 w” 4etp
mNg Oarc ezptgurteNz3 POraupO tcOgO agO pO-OgaS Ie1etpn et 4OrNCOp tOIeNup3 P2 ygetez1 tcO
O/ue-aSOzt cOBaIOreCaS rNIOn yO raz gOIurO tN mNug Ie1etp3 5O raz 1N NzO ptOo mugtcOg
azI gOoSarO Oarc cOBaIOreCaS aIIgOpp 42 a p2C4NSer aIIgOpp azI Oarc cOBaIOreCaS
NoOzOI 42 a IOreCaS NoOgazI3 5O mezI et rNz-OzeOzt 4OraupOn yO 1OzOgaSS2 IN zNt FzNy
OBartS2 tcO zuCOger COCNg2 SNrateNz Nm NoOgazIp at tcO teCO Nm ygetez1 a ogN1gaC3 Ap
yO FzNy tcat tcOgO ep a pOt Nm guSOp mNg a ogN1gaCCez1 Saz1ua1On yO Cupt rNzmNgC yetc
aSS mNgCat azI guSOp Nm tcO Saz1ua1O em yO yazt Nug ogN1gaCp tN 4O tgazpSatOI rNggOrtS23
A SezO Nm rNIO ep tcO muzIaCOztaS uzet Nm az appOC4S2 Saz1ua1O ogN1gaC3

.a4SO G3”b Pezag2 lgN1gaC tN AII .yN duC4Ogp
MNrateNz YzptgurteNz :NIO
– ––w– –––– –––– –w––
w –––w –––– –––– –w–w
w– ––ww –––– –––– –ww–
ww –www –––– –––– –––w
w–– –––– –––– –w–w ––ww
w–w wwww wwww www– w––w
ww– –––– –––– –––– ––––

4.2 Assembly Language

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

utg +pg 1vn+g yo g og smnEmoiievEg hovEdoEpg etg MprevpMg CPg og tp g nrg mdhptOg Rrg dtpmtg +ov g
ypemgsmnEmoitg ngCpg movtho pMg:nmmp: hPg ypPgidt g:nvrnmig ngohhgrnmio tgovMgmdhptgnrg
ypghovEdoEpOgfTpmPgMeEe ohg:nisd pmgyotge tgn+vgtpsomo pgottpiChPghovEdoEpOgxypgmdhptg
rnmg+me evEgottpiChPghovEdoEpgsmnEmoitgompgoToehoChpgrmnig ypg:nisd pmgiovdro: dmpmg
evg ypgrnmignrgMn:dipv tgovMgiovdohtOg
g
ug hevpgnrg:nMpgetg ypgrdvMoipv ohg dve gnrgovg ottpiChPg hovEdoEpgsmnEmoiOgxypgtsp:ere:g
hovEdoEpgetgMprevpMgCPgogEmndsgnrgmdhptOgxyetgEmndsgMpt:meCptg ypgtPiCnhtg yo g:ovgCpg
dtpMOgR gohtng phhtgyn+goghevpgnrg:nMpg:ovgCpgioMpgrmnig ypiOg.pg+ehhgvn+gEeTpg ypgmdhptg
ng+me pgottpiChPghovEdoEpgsmnEmoitgrnmg ypgCote:g:nisd pmOg
Rules for the Assembly Language
ug hevpg nrg :nMpg nrg ovg ottpiChPg hovEdoEpg smnEmoig etg MeTeMpMg evg ymppg :nhdivtg :ohhpMg
rephMtOgxypgrephMtgMpt:meCpg ypgrnhhn+evEgevrnmio envOg
:Ogg xypghoCph9gioPgCpgpis Pgnmge gioPgtsp:erPgogtPiCnhe:goMMmpttOg
;Ogg xypgevt md: env9gtsp:ereptgogio:yevpgevt md: envgnmgogstpdMnkevt md: envOg
<Ogg xypg:niipv 9gioPgCpgpis Pgnmge gioPgev:hdMpgog:niipv Og
g
ugtPiCnhe:goMMmpttgyotgnvpcg +ncgnmg ymppgohsyovdipme:g:yomo: pmtOgNd ge g:ovvn gyoTpg
inmpg yovg ymppgohsyovdipme:g:yomo: pmtOgxypgremt g:yomo: pmgetgovgohsyoCp Kg ypgvpA g
+ng ioPg Cpg ohsyoCp tg nmg vdipme:g MeEe tOg .pg :ovg :ynntpg ypg tPiCnhtg omCe momehPOg ug
tPiCnhe:g oMMmpttg evg ypg hoCphg rephMg etg pmievo pMg CPg og :niiog ng io1pg e g og hoCphOg xypg
evt md: envgrephMgtsp:ereptgnvpgnrg ypgrnhhn+evEge pit9g
:Oggg ugipinmPkmprpmpv:pgevt md: envg/SLR0g
;Oggg ugmpEet pmkmprpmpv:pg/eOpOgevsd knd sd gevt md: env0g/vnvkSLR0g
<Oggg ugstpdMnkevt md: envg+e ygnmg+e ynd govgnspmovMg
g
ug ipinmPkmprpmpv:pg evt md: envg n::dseptg +ng nmg ymppg tPiCnhtOg xyptpg tPiCnhtg ompg
tpsomo pMgCPgtso:ptOgxypgremt gidt gCpgog ymppkhp  pmgtPiCnhgMprevevEgovgSLRgnspmo envg
:nMpOgxypgtp:nvMgnvpgetgogtPiCnhe:goMMmpttOgxypg yemMgtPiCnhcg+ye:ygetgns envohcgetg ypg
hp  pmg ROg R g etg og Memp: g oMMmpttg evt md: envcg erg Rgetg iettevEg n ypm+etpg e g etg ovg evMemp: g
oMMmpttgevt md: envOg
g
ugvnvkSLRgetgovgevt md: envg yo gMnptgvn gyoTpgovgoMMmpttgsom OgugvnvkSLRgetgrndvMgevg
ypgevt md: envgrephMgnrgogsmnEmoigCPgovPgnvpgnrg ypg ymppkhp  pmgtPiCnhtgrnmg ypgmpEet pmk
mprpmpv:pgovMgevsd knd sd gevt md: envtOg
xypgrnhhn+evEgetgovgehhdt mo envgnrg ypgtPiCnhtg yo gioPgCpgsho:pMgevg ypgevt md: envgrephMg
nrgogsmnEmoiOg
g
aIugggggggggg vnvkSLRg
u//gw-Lgg Memp: goMMmpttgSLRg
u//g-xLgRg evMemp: goMMmpttgSLRg
g

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

xypgremt g ymppkhp  pmgtPiCnhgevgpo:yghevpgidt gCpgnvpgnrg ypgevt md: envgtPiCnhtgnrg ypg
:nisd pmOg g ug ipinmPkmprpmpv:pg evt md: envcg td:yg otgS.Icg idt g Cpg rnhhn+pMg CPg og
tPiCnhe:goMMmpttOgxypghp  pmgRgioPgnmgioPgvn gCpgsmptpv Og
g
xypg ipinmPg hn:o envg nrg ovg nspmovMg etg Mp pmievpMg CPgog tPiCnhe:g oMMmpttg evg ypg
evt md: envg rephMOg xyetg hn:o envg etg ipv envpMg tnip+ypmpg evg ypg smnEmoig CPg osspomevEg
oEoevg otg og hoCphg evg ypg remt g :nhdivOg Rrg +pg +ov g ng movtho pg smnEmoig rmnig ottpiChPg
hovEdoEpg ng og io:yevpg hovEdoEpcg po:yg tPiCnhe:g oMMmpttg yo g etg ipv envpMg evg ypg
evt md: envgrephMgidt gn::dmgoEoevgevg ypghoCphgrephMOg
g
ugstpdMnkevt md: envgetgovgevt md: envg ng ypgottpiChpmgEeTevEgevrnmio envgoCnd gtnipg
syotpgnrg ypg movtho envg/e getgvn gogio:yevpgevt md: env0Og,ndmgstpdMnkevt md: envtg yo g
ompgmp:nEve2pMgCPg ypgottpiChpmgompghet pMgevg xoChpg;OAOgxypgottpiChpmg etgevrnmipMg CPg
ypgnmeEevg/wL-0gstpdMnkevt md: envg yo g ypgevt md: envgnmgnspmovMgevg ypgrnhhn+evEghevpg
etg ngCpgsho:pMgevgogipinmPghn:o envgtsp:erepMgCPg ypgvdiCpmgvpA g ngwL-Ogg
g
xoChpg;OA9g/preve envgnrg-tpdMnkevt md: envtg
DPiCnhg Rvrnmio envgrnmg ypguttpiChpmg
wL-gbg zpAoMp:eiohg vdiCpmg bg etg ypg ipinmPg hn:o envg r nmg ypg evt md: envg
nmgnspmovMghet pMgevg ypgrnhhn+evEghevpg
fb/g /pvn ptg ypgpvMgnrgtPiCnhe:gsmnEmoig
/fagbg DeEvpMgMp:eiohgvdiCpmgbg ngCpg:nvTpm pMg ngCe vomPg
zfTgbg zpAoMp:eiohgvdiCpmgbg ngCpg:nvTpm pMg ngCevom Pg
g
xng evrnmig ypg ottpiChpmg yo g ypg smnEmoig etg pmievo pMg ypg fb/g tPiCnhg etg sho:pMg o g
ypgpvMgnrg ypgsmnEmoiOgxypgmoMeAgetgEeTpvgCPg ypgn ypmg +ngstpdMnkevt md: envtOgxypPg
ohtngMpt:meCpg ypgnspmovMgovMg phhg ypgottpiChpmgyn+g ng:nvTpm g ypghet pMgvdiCpmg ngog
CevomPgnvpOg
g
.pg mptpmTpg ypg yemMg rephMg evg og smnEmoig rnmg :niipv tOg ug hevpg nrg :nMpg ioPg nmg ioPg vn g
yoTpg og :niipv Og Nd g erg ypmpg etg og :niipv cg e g idt gCpg smp:pMpMg CPg og thotyg rnmg ypg
ottpiChpmg ng mp:nEve2pg ypg CpEevvevEg nrg og :niipv g rephMOg aniipv tg ompg dtprdhg rnmg
pAshoevevEg ypg smnEmoig ovMg ompg yphsrdhg evg dvMpmt ovMevEg ypg t pskCPkt psg smn:pMdmpg
o1pvg CPg ypg smnEmoiOg aniipv tg ompg dtpMg rnmg pAshovo envg ovMg ompg vn g ompg vpEhp: pMg
MdmevEg ypgCevomPg movtho envgsmn:pttOg

An Example
g
xypgsmnEmoignrgxoChpg;OBgetgovgpAoishpgnrgovgottpiChPghovEdoEpgsmnEmoiOgxypgremt ghevpg
yotg ypgstpdMngevt md: envgwL-g ngMprevpg ypgnmeEevgnrg ypgsmnEmoigo gipinmPghn:o envg
(100)
16Og
xypg vpA g teAg hevptg Mprevpg io:yevpg evt md: envtcg ovMg ypg hot g rndmg yoTpg stpdMnk
evt md: envtOgxymppgtPiCnhe:goMMmpttptgyoTpgCppvgdtpMgovMgpo:ygetghet pMgevg:nhdivg:g
otgoghoCphgovMgevg:nhdivg;gotgovgoMMmpttgnrgogipinmPkmprpmpv:pgevt md: envOgxymppgnrg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

ypg stpdMnkevt md: envtg tsp:erPg nspmovMtcg ovMg ypg hot g nvpg teEvereptg ypg fb/g nrg ypg
smnEmoiOg
g
.ypvg ypg smnEmoig etg:nvTpm pMgev ng ypgCevomPg :nMpgovMgpAp:d pMgCPg ypg:nisd pmg e g
spmrnmigogtdC mo: envgCp +ppvg +ngvdiCpmtOg.pg:ovgs pmrnmigtdC mo: envgnspmo envgCPg
oMMevEg ypg ievdpvMg ng ypg ;Otg :nishpipv g nrg ypg tdC moypvMOg .pg 1vn+g yo g
tdC moypvMg etg og vpEo eTpg vdiCpmcg +pg :nvTpm g e g ev ng og CevomPg vdiCpmg otg teEvpMg ;Otg
:nishpipv g mpsmptpv o envg Cp:odtpg +pg Me: o pg yo g ohhg vpEo eTptg vdiCpmtg Cpg evg ypemg
;Otg :nishpipv g rnmiOg xydtcg 3g ;<g :nvTpm tg ng H;<g ovMg ypg Merrpmpv:pg etg B<Hg /;Otg
:nishpipv gnrg3;<0gIgB<H;<I:C>Og
xoChpg;OB9gIovEdoEpg-mnEmoig ngDdC mo: gx+ngbdiCpmtg
g

4.3 Assembler

uvg ottpiChpmg etg og smnEmoig yo g o1ptg otg evsd g og tPiCnhe:g hovEdoEpg smnEmoig ovMg
smnMd:ptg otg nd sd g e tg CevomPg io:yevpg hovEdoEpg pGdeTohpv Og xypg evsd g etg :ohhpMg ypg
tndm:pg smnEmoig ovMg ypg mptdh evEg CevomPg smnEmoig etg:ohhpMg ypg nCEp: g smnEmoiOg xypg
ottpiChpmgetgogsmnEmoig yo gnspmo ptgnvg:yomo: pmgt mevEtgovMgsmnMd:ptgovgpGdeTohpv g
CevomPgev pmsmp o envOg

Memory Representation of Symbolic Program
xypgtPiCnhe:gsmnEmoigidt gCpgt nmpMgevgipinmPcgCprnmpgt om evEg ypgottpiChPgsmn:pttOg
xypgdtpmg+me ptg ypgtPiCnhe:gsmnEmoignvgog:nisd pmOgxyetgtPiCnhe:gsmnEmoigetg o1pvg
ev ngipinmPg+e yg ypgyphsgnrgoghnoMpmgsmnEmoiOgDev:pg ypgsmnEmoig:nvtet tgnrgtPiCnhtcg
e tgmpsmptpv o envgevgipinmPgidt gdtpgovgohsyovdipm e:g:yomo: pmg:nMpOg.tdohhPgpo:yg
:yomo: pmgetgmpsmptpv pMgCPgovgBkCe g:nMpcgevg ypgCote:g:nisd pmOgxypgyeEyknmMpmgCe getg
oh+oPtgCgovMg ypgn ypmgtpTpvgCe tgompgotgMpt:meCpMgCPguDaRRg:nMpOgxoChpg;O:CgEeTptg ypg
ypAoMp:eiohg pGdeTohpv g nrg ypg :yomo: pmg tp Og fo:yg :yomo: pmg etg EeTpvg +ng ypAoMp:eiohg
MeEe tOgDngpo:yg:yomo: pmg:ovgCpgpotehPg:nvTpm pMg ng ypemgpGdeTohpv gBkCe g:nMpOgxypghot g
pv mPgevg ypg oChpgMnptgvn gsmev gog:yomo: pmcge ghnn1tgor pmg ypgsyPte:ohginTpipv gnrg ypg
:dmtnmgevg ypg pmievohOg.ypvg ypgmp dmvg1pPgetgMpsmpttpMcg ypg:nMpgrnmgaLgetgsmnMd:pMOg
xypmprnmpgR:ommeoEpRgetgEnptg nge tgeve eohgsnte envgovMg+pg:ovgt om g PsevEgogvp+ghevpOgg
g
.pg t nmpg og hevpg nrg :nMpg evg :nvtp:d eTpg ipinmPg hn:o envtOg x+ng :yomo: pmtg evg po:yg
hn:o envOg Dev:pg og ipinmPg +nmMg yotg og :oso:e Pg nrg :>gCe tg +pg :ovg t nmpg +ng :yomo: pmtg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

ptNgOI ez Oarc yNgI3 A rNCCa IOSeCetp a Sa4OS p2C4NS3 dNy yO pOO cNy tcO NoOgateNz
rNIO azI aIIgOppOp agO tOgCezatOI3 .cO2 agO tOgCezatOI yetc a poarO azI tcO OzI Nm
tcO SezO ep gOrN1ze(OI 42 tcO :U rNIO3 8Ng OBaCoSOn tcO mNSSNyez1 SezO Ng rNIOb lMKn M6A
TVP Y ep ptNgOI ez pO-Oz rNzpOrute-O COCNg2 SNrateNzpn ap pcNyz ez .a4SO G3ww3 .cO
Sa4OS lMK NrruoeOp tyN yNgIp azI ep tOgCezatOI 42 tcO rNIO mNg rNCCa 9G:E3 .cO
ezptgurteNz meOSI ez tcO SezO Nm rNIO Ca2 ca-O NzO Ng CNgO p2C4NSp3 Larc p2C4NS ep
tOgCezatOI 42 tcO rNIO mNg poarO 9G–E OBrOot mNg tcO Sapt p2C4NSn ycerc ep tOgCezatOI 42
tcO rNIO Nm raggea1O gOtugz 9–6E3 Ym tcO SezO Nm rNIO cap a rNCCOztn tcO appOC4SOg
gOrN1ze(Op et 42 tcO rNIO mNg a pSapc 9G8E3 .cO appOC4SOg zO1SOrtp aSS rcagartOgp ez tcO
rNCCOzt meOSI azI FOOop rcOrFez1 mNg a :U rNIO3 5cOz tcep rNIO ep OzrNuztOgOIn et
gOoSarOp tcO poarO rNIO amtOg tcO Sapt p2C4NS ez tcO SezO Nm rNIO3

.a4SO G3w–b 7OBaIOreCaS :cagartOg :NIO

.a4SO G3wwb :NCoutOg UOogOpOztateNz Nm tcO SezO Nm rNIOb lMKn M6A TVP Y

.cO upOgOp p2C4NSer Saz1ua1O ogN1gaC ez AT:YY ep ezout mNg tcO appOC4SOg ogN1gaC3 .cO
appOC4SOg prazp tcep ezout tyerO tN ogNIurO tcO O/ue-aSOzt 4ezag2 ogN1gaC3 .cO 4ezag2
ogN1gaC rNzptetutOp tcO Nutout 1OzOgatOI 42 tcO appOC4SOg3 5O yeSS zNy IOprge4O

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

CmeprhPg ypgioEnmg ot1tg yo gidt gCpgspmrnmipMgCPg ypgottpiChpmgMdmevEg ypg movtho envg
smn:pttOg

4.3.1 First Pass

fv empgtPiCnhe:gsmnEmoigetgt:ovvpMgCPgog +nksottgottpiChpmg +e:pOgur pmg ypgremt gsottcg
e gEpvpmo ptgog oChpg yo g:nmmpho ptgohhgdtpmkMprevpMgtPiCnhtg+e yg ypemgpGdeTohpv gTohdpg
evgCevomPOgxypgCevomPg movtho envgetgMnvpgMdmevEg ypgtp:nvMgsottOgxng1ppsg mo:1gnrg ypg
hn:o envg nrg evt md: envtcg ypg ottpiChpmg dtptg og ipinmPg +nmMg :ohhpMg og hn:o envg :ndv pmg
/oCCmpTeo pMgIa0Ogxypg:nv pv gnrgIagt nmptg ypgTohdpgnrg ypgipinmPghn:o envgotteEvpMg ng
ypg evt md: envg nmg nspmovMg smptpv hPg CpevEg smn:pttpMOg xypg wL-g stpdMnkevt md: envg
eve eohe2ptg ypghn:o envg:ndv pmg ng ypgTohdpgnrg ypgremt ghn:o envOgDev:pgevt md: envtgompg
t nmpMg evg tpGdpv eohg hn:o envtcg ypg :nv pv g nrg Iag etg ev:mpipv pMg CPg :g or pmg smn:pttevEg
po:yg hevpg nrg :nMpOg xng oTneMg oiCeEde Pg evg :otpg wL-g etg iettevEcg ypg ottpiChpmg tp tg ypg
hn:o envg:ndv pmg ngCgeve eohhPOg
g
,eEdmpg;O?9g,hn+:yom grnmgremt gsottgnrgottpiChpmg
g
xypg rhn+:yom g nrg ,eEOg ;O?g Mpt:meCptg ypg ot1tg spmrnmipMg CPg ypg ottpiChpmg MdmevEg ypg
remt gsottOgIagetgeve eohhPgtp g ngCOgughevpgnrgtPiCnhe:g:nMpgetgovohP2pMg ngMp pmievpgerge g
yotgoghoCphg/CPg ypgsmptpv:pgnrgog:niio0OgRrg ypghevpgnrg:nMpgyotgvnghoCphcg ypgottpiChpmg
:yp:1tg ypgtPiCnhgevg ypgevt md: envgrephMOgRrge g:nv oevtgovgwL-gstpdMnkevt md: envcg ypg
ottpiChpmgtp tgIag ng ypgvdiCpmg yo grnhhn+tgwL-govMgEnptgCo:1g ngsmn:pttg ypgvpA g

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

hevpOgRrg ypghevpgyotgovgfb/gstpdMnkevt md: envcg ypgottpiChpmg pmievo ptg ypgremt gsottg
ovMg Enptg ng ypg tp:nvMg sottOg /bn pg yo g og hevpg +e yg wL-g nmg fb/g tyndhMg vn g yoTpg og
hoCphO0g Rrg ypg hevpg nrg :nMpg :nv oevtg og hoCphcg e g etg t nmpMg evg ypg oMMmpttg tPiCnhg oChpg
nEp ypmg +e yg e tg CevomPg pGdeTohpv g vdiCpmg tsp:erepMg CPg ypg :nv pv g nrg IaOg bn yevEg
t nmpMgevg ypg oChpgergvnghoCphgetgpv:ndv pmpMOgIagetg ypvgev:mpipv pMgCPg:govMgogvp+g
hevpgnrg:nMpgetgsmn:pttpMOg
g
xypgottpiChpmgEpvpmo ptg ypgoMMmpttgtPiCnhg oChpghet pMgevgxoChpg;O:;cgrnmg ypgsmnEmoig
ngxoChpg;OBOg.pgt nmpgpo:yghoCphgtPiCnhgevg +ngipinmPghn:o envtgovMg pmievo pge gCPgog
:niioOgRrg ypghoCphg:nv oevtghpttg yovg ymppg:yomo: pmtcg ypgipinmPghn:o envtgompgrehhpMg
+e yg ypg:nMpgrnmgtso:pOgxypgTohdpgrndvMgevgIag+yehpg ypghevpg+otgsmn:pttpMgetgt nmpMgevg
ypgvpA gtpGdpv eohgipinmPghn:o envOgxypgsmnEmoigyotg ymppgtPiCnhe:goMMmpttpt9gSRbcg
D.NcgovMg/R,OgxyptpgtPiCnhtgmpsmptpv g:;kCe goMMmpttptgpGdeTohpv g ngypAoMp:eiohg:C>g
:CAgovMg:CBcgmptsp: eTphPOgxypgoMMmpttgtPiCnhg oChpgn::dseptg ymppg+nmMtgrnmgpo:yghoCphg
tPiCnhg pv:ndv pmpMg ovMg :nvt e d ptg ypg nd sd g Mo og yo g ypg ottpiChpmg Epvpmo ptg
MdmevEg ypgremt gsottOg
g
g
xoChpg;O:;g
g
gggggggggggggggggggggggggg[g/Ia0gMpteEvo ptg:nv pv gnrghn:o envg:ndv pmOg

4.3.2 Second Pass
g
.e yg ypg yphsg nrg oChpkhnn1dsg smn:pMdmptcg io:yevpg evt md: envtg ompg movtho pMg MdmevEg
ypgtp:nvMgsottOgug o1pkhnn1dsgsmn:pMdmpgetgogtpom:ygnrg oChpgpv meptg ngrevMg+yp ypmgog
tsp:ere:g e pig io :yptg nvpg nrg ypg e pitg t nmpMg evg ypg oChpOg xypg ottpiChpmg dtptg rndmg
oChptOguvPgtPiCnhg yo getgpv:ndv pmpMgevg ypgsmnEmoigidt gCpgoToehoChpgotgovgpv mPgevg
nvpg nrg yptpg oChptKg n ypm+etpcg ypg tPiCnhg :ovvn g Cpg ev pmsmp pMOg .pg otteEvg ypg
rnhhn+evEgvoiptg ng ypgrndmg oChpt9g
:Oggg -tpdMnkevt md: envg oChpOg
;Oggg SLRg oChpOg
<Ogg bnvkSLRg oChpOg
=Ogg uMMmpttgtPiCnhg oChpOg
g

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.cO opOuINRezptgurteNz ta4SO cap tcO mNug p2C4NSp fUhn Ld6n 6L:n azI 7LT3 Larc
p2C4NS gOmOgp tcO appOC4SOg tN a pu4gNutezO tcat ogNrOppOp tcO opOuINRezptgurteNz
ycOz OzrNuztOgOI ez tcO ogN1gaC3 .cO sUY ta4SO cap tcO pO-Oz p2C4NSp Nm tcO COCNg2R
gOmOgOzrO ezptgurteNzp azI tcOeg KR4et NoOgateNz rNIO O/ue-aSOzt3 .cO zNzRsUY ta4SO cap
tcO p2C4NSp mNg tcO wx gO1eptOgRgOmOgOzrO azI ezoutRNutout ezptgurteNzp azI tcOeg w”R4et
4ezag2 rNIO O/ue-aSOzt3 Yz tcO megpt oapp tcO aIIgOpp p2C4NS ta4SO ep rgOatOI3 Yz NgIOg tN
IOtOgCezO etp 4ezag2 -aSuOn tcO appOC4SOg pOagrcOp tcOpO ta4SOp tN mezI tcO p2C4NS tcat
et ep ruggOztS2 ogNrOppez13 .cO tapFp oOgmNgCOI 42 tcO appOC4SOg Iugez1 tcO pOrNzI oapp
agO IOprge4OI ez tcO mSNyrcagt Nm 8e13 G3w–3 M: ep ezeteaSS2 pOt tN –3 MezOp Nm rNIO agO tcOz
azaS2(OI NzO at a teCO3 Ma4OSp agO zO1SOrtOI Iugez1 tcO pOrNzI oappn pN tcO appOC4SOg
1NOp eCCOIeatOS2 tN tcO ezptgurteNz meOSI azI ogNrOOIp tN rcOrF tcO megpt p2C4NS
OzrNuztOgOI3 Yt megpt rcOrFp tcO opOuINRezptgurteNz ta4SO3 A Catrc yetc fUh pOzIp tcO
appOC4SOg tN a pu4gNutezO tcat pOtp M: tN az ezeteaS -aSuO3 A Catrc yetc Ld6
tOgCezatOp tcO tgazpSateNz ogNrOpp3 Az NoOgazI ep oSarOI ez tcO COCNg2 SNrateNz
poOremeOI 42 tcO rNztOzt Nm M:3 .cO SNrateNz rNuztOg ep tcOz ezrgOCOztOI 42 w azI tcO
appOC4SOg rNztezuOp tN azaS2(O tcO zOBt SezO Nm rNIO3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO G3w–b 8SNrcagt mNg pOrNzI oapp Nm appOC4SOg

Ym tcO p2C4NS N4taezOI ep zNt a opOuINRezptgurteNzn tcO appOC4SOg 1NOp tN tcO sUY ta4SO3
.cO appOC4SOg gOmOgp tN tcO zNzRsUY ta4SO em tcO p2C4NS ep zNt mNuzI ez sLY ta4SO3 A
p2C4NS mNuzI ez tcO zNzRsUY ta4SO rNggOpoNzIp tN a gO1eptOg gOmOgOzrO Ng ezoutRNutout
ezptgurteNz3 .cO appOC4SOg ptNgOp tcO w”R4et ezptgurteNz rNIO eztN tcO COCNg2 yNgI
IOpe1zatOI 42 M:3 .cO SNrateNz rNuztOg ep ezrgOCOztOI azI a zOy SezO azaS2(OI3
5cOz yO 1Ot a p2C4NS ez tcO sUY ta4SOn tcO appOC4SOg OBtgartp etp O/ue-aSOzt KR4et rNIO
azI ezpOgtp et ez 4etp G tcgNu1c “ Nm a yNgI3 A COCNg2 gOmOgOzrO ezptgurteNz ep
IOpe1zatOI 42 tyN Ng tcgOO p2C4NSp3 .cO pOrNzI p2C4NS ep a p2C4NSer aIIgOpp azI tcO
tcegIn ycerc Ca2 Ng Ca2 zNt 4O ogOpOztn ep tcO SOttOg Y3 P2 pOagrcez1 tcO aIIgOpp p2C4NS

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

kMHyIekUIea1pHtygneMDD/Iaaegaento5I/kIDekteHgoM/1beRUIeig/akeHgketiekUIegoak/dnkgtoegaeaIke
kteCet/e:OeDIsIoDgoletoeEUIkUI/ekUIeyIkkI/ehegaeMHaIoket/es/IaIokbeRUIekU/IIesM/kaetiekUIe
HgoM/1egoak/dnkgtoentDIeM/IeMaaIpHyIDeMoDekUIoeakt/IDegoekUIepIpt/1eytnMkgtoeasIngigIDe
H1ekUIentokIoketiefcbeRUIeytnMkgtoentdokI/egaegon/IpIokIDeMoDekUIeMaaIpHyI/entokgodIae
ktes/tnIaaekUIeoIukeygoIbe
e
Poegpst/kMokeEtHetiekUIeMaaIpHyI/egaektenUInTeit/estaagHyIeI//t/abe-IenMoenMyyegkevI//t/e
DgMlotakgnawbe 0oIe IuMpsyIe tie adnUe Moe I//t/e pM1e HIe Moe go5MygDe pMnUgoIe ntDIe a1pHtye
EUgnUegaeDIkInkIDeH1egkaeHIgoleMHaIokegoekUIeSxheMoDeoto2SxhekMHyIabeRUIeMaaIpHyI/egae
doMHyIektek/MoayMkIeadnUeMea1pHtyeHInMdaIegkeDtIaeotkeTotEegkaeHgoM/1eIGdg5MyIoke5MydIbe
hoeadnUeMenMaIOekUIeMaaIpHyI/es/gokaeMoeI//t/epIaaMlIektegoit/pekUIes/tl/MppI/ekUMke
Ugaea1pHtygnes/tl/MpeUMaeMoeI//t/eMkeMeasIngigneygoIetientDIbePotkUI/estaagHyIeI//t/epM1e
tnnd/e gie kUIe s/tl/Mpe UMae Me a1pHtygne MDD/Iaae kUMke DgDe otke MssIM/e Myate Mae Me yMHIybe RUIe
MaaIpHyI/e nMootke k/MoayMkIe kUIe ygoIe tie ntDIe s/tsI/y1e HInMdaIe kUIe HgoM/1e IGdg5MyIoke tie
kUIe a1pHtye Egyye otke HIe itdoDe goe kUIe MDD/Iaae a1pHtyekMHyIe lIoI/MkIDe Dd/gole kUIe ig/ake
sMaabe 0kUI/e I//t/ae pM1e tnnd/e MoDe Me s/MnkgnMye MaaIpHyI/e aUtdyDe DIkInke Myye adnUe I//t/ae
MoDes/gokeMoeI//t/epIaaMlIeit/eIMnUbe

4.4 Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

hoe Me yM/lIe a1akIpe kUIe odpHI/e tie goak/dnkgtoae M5MgyMHyIe goe Me ntpsdkI/e pM1e HIe Me iIEe
UdoD/IDet/eMeiIEeDt(IoegoeMeapMyyetoIbeWtpIentpsdkI/aeIuIndkIeMelg5IoetsI/MkgtoeEgkUe
toIepMnUgoIegoak/dnkgtoKeatpIepM1e/IGdg/IepMo1epMnU goIegoak/dnkgtoaektesI/it/pekUIe
aMpIe tsI/Mkgtobe Ft/e IuMpsyIOe ntoagDI/e kUIe itd/e HMagne M/gkUpIkgne tsI/Mkgtoabe WtpIe
ntpsdkI/ae UM5Ie pMnUgoIe goak/dnkgtoae kte MDDOe adHk/MnkOe pdykgsy1Oe MoDe Dg5gDIbe 0kUI/aOe
adnUe Mae kUIe HMagne ntpsdkI/Oe UM5Ie toy1e toIe M/gkUpIkgne goak/dnkgtoOe adnUe Mae P99be Pe
s/tl/MpepdakegpsyIpIoketsI/MkgtoaeotkegonydDIDegoekUIeaIketiepMnUgoIegoak/dnkgtoabe
e
-IeUM5IeaUtEoegoeRMHyIe;bBeMes/tl/Mpeit/eadHk/MnkgolekEteodpHI/abeG/tl/Mpaeit/ekUIe
tkUI/eM/gkUpIkgnetsI/MkgtoaenMoeHIeDI5IytsIDegoeMeagpgyM/eiMaUgtobe
e
hie tsI/Mkgtoae M/Ie gpsyIpIokIDe goe Me ntpsdkI/e EgkUe toIe pMnUgoIe goak/dnkgtoOe kUIoe gke gae
aMgDekteHIegpsyIpIokIDeH1eUM/DEM/Ibe0sI/MkgtoaegpsyIpIokIDeH1eMeaIketiegoak/dnkgtoae
kUMkeit/peMes/tl/MpeM/IeaMgDekteHIegpsyIpIokIDeH1eatikEM/IbeWtpIentpsdkI/aes/t5gDIe
Moe IukIoag5Ie aIke tie UM/DEM/Ie goak/dnkgtoae DIagloIDeate kUMke ntpptoe kMaTae nMoe HIe
sI/it/pIDeIiigngIoky1be0kUI/aentokMgoeMeapMyyI/eaIketieUM/DEM/Iegoak/dnkgtoaeMoDeDIsIoDe
pt/Ie UIM5gy1e toe kUIe atikEM/Ie gpsyIpIokMkgtoe tie pMo1 e tsI/Mkgtoabe 8M/DEM/Ie
gpsyIpIokMkgtoe gae pt/Ie ntaky1e HInMdaIe tiekUIe MDDgkgtoMye ng/ndgkae oIIDIDe kte gpsyIpIoke
kUIe tsI/Mkgtobe WtikEM/Ie gpsyIpIokMkgtoe /Iadykae goe ytole s/tl/Mpae HtkUe goe odpHI/e tie
goak/dnkgtoaeMoDegoeIuIndkgtoekgpIbe

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

4.5 Multiplication Program

5O upO tcO rNz-OzteNzaS COtcNI Nm CuSteoS2ez1 tyN zuC4Ogp tN ygetO tcO ogN1gaC mNg
CuSteoS2ez1 tyN zuC4Ogp3 Ap pcNyz ez tcO OBaCoSO Nm 8e13 G3wwn tcO CuSteoSerateNz
ogNrOpp rNzpeptp Nm rcOrFez1 tcO 4etp Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg W azI aIIez1 tcO CuSteoSerazI T
ap Caz2 teCOp ap tcOgO agO wQp ez Wn ogN-eIOI tcat tcO -aSuO Nm T ep pcemtOI SOmt mgNC NzO
SezO tN tcO zOBt3 TezrO tcO rNCoutOg raz aII NzS2 tyN zuC4Ogp at a teCOn yO gOpOg-O a
COCNg2 SNrateNzn IOzNtOI 42 ln tN ptNgO eztOgCOIeatO puCp3 .cO eztOgCOIeatO puCp agO
raSSOI oagteaS ogNIurtp pezrO tcO2 cNSI a oagteaS ogNIurt uzteS aSS zuC4Ogp agO aIIOI3 Ap
pcNyz ez tcO zuCOgeraS OBaCoSO uzIOg ln tcO oagteaS ogNIurt ptagtp yetc (OgN3 .cO
CuSteoSerazI T ep aIIOI tN tcO rNztOzt Nm l mNg Oarc 4et Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg W tcat ep w3 .cO
-aSuO Nm T ep pcemtOI SOmt amtOg rcOrFez1 Oarc 4et Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg3 .cO mezaS -aSuO ez l
mNgCp tcO ogNIurt3 .cO OBaCoSO cap zuC4Ogp yetc mNug pe1zemerazt 4etp3 5cOz
CuSteoSeOIn tcO ogNIurt rNztaezp Oe1ct pe1zemerazt 4etp3 .cO rNCoutOg raz upO zuC4Ogp
yetc Oe1ct pe1zemerazt 4etp tN ogNIurO a ogNIurt Nm uo tN w” 4etp3 .cO mSNyrcagt Nm 8e13
G3ww pcNyp tcO ptOoR42RptOo ogNrOIugO mNg ogN1gaCCez1 tcO CuSteoSerateNz NoOgateNz3
.cO ogN1gaC cap a SNNo tcat ep tga-OgpOI Oe1ct teCOpn NzrO mNg Oarc pe1zemerazt 4et Nm tcO
CuSteoSeOg3 YzeteaSS2n SNrateNz T cNSIp tcO CuSteoSerazI azI SNrateNz W cNSIp tcO
CuSteoSeOg3 A rNuztOg :.U ep pOt tN Rx azI SNrateNz l ep rSOagOI tN (OgN3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO G3wwb 8SNyrcagt mNg CuSteoSerateNz ogN1gaC

5O raz rcOrF CuSteoSeOg 4et em et ep tgazpmOggOI tN tcO L gO1eptOg3 5O IN tcep 42 rSOagez1
Ln SNaIez1 tcO -aSuO Nm W eztN tcO A:n regruSatez1 ge1ct L azI A: azI ptNgez1 tcO pcemtOI
zuC4Og 4arF eztN SNrateNz W3 .cep 4et ptNgOI ez L ep tcO SNyRNgIOg 4et Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg3
5O zNy rcOrF tcO -aSuO Nm L3 Ym et ep wn tcO CuSteoSerazI T ep aIIOI tN tcO oagteaS
ogNIurt l3 Ym et ep –n tcO oagteaS ogNIurt INOp zNt rcaz1O3 5O tcOz pcemt tcO -aSuO Nm T
NzrO tN tcO SOmt 42 SNaIez1 et eztN tcO A: azI regruSatez1 SOmt L azI A:3 .cO SNNo ep
OBOrutOI Oe1ct teCOp 42 ezrgOCOztez1 SNrateNz :.U azI rcOrFez1 ycOz et gOarcOp (OgN3
5cOz tcO rNuztOg gOarcOp (OgNn tcO ogN1gaC OBetp mgNC tcO SNNo yetc tcO ogNIurt ptNgOI
ez SNrateNz l3

.cO ogN1gaC ez .a4SO G3w“ 1e-Op tcO ezptgurteNzp mNg CuSteoSerateNz Nm tyN uzpe1zOI
zuC4Ogp3 .cO ezeteaSe(ateNz ep zNt SeptOI 4ut pcNuSI 4O ezrSuIOI ycOz tcO ogN1gaC ep

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

hnoMpMg ev ng ypg :nisd pmOg xypg eve eohe2o envg :nvtet tg nrg CmevEevEg ypg idh eshe:ovMg ovMg
idh eshepmg ev ng hn:o envtg Tg ovMg Wcg mptsp: eTphPKg eve eohe2evEg ypg :ndv pmg ng kBKg ovMg
eve eohe2evEghn:o envg-g ng2pmnOgg
xoChpg;O:=9g-mnEmoig ngSdh eshPgx+ng-nte eTpgbdiCpmtg
g

4.5.1 Double-Precision Addition

.ypvg+pgidh eshPg +ng:>kCe gdvteEvpMg vdiCpmtcg ypgmptdh g etgog <;kCe g smnMd: govMg e g
idt gCpgt nmpMgevg +ngipinmPg+nmMtOgugvdiCpmgetgtoeMg ngyoTpgMndChpgsmp:etenvgerge getg
t nmpMgevg +ngipinmPg+nmMtOg.ypvgogsom eohgsmnMd: getg:nisd pMcge getgvp:pttomPg yo gog
MndChpksmp:etenvgvdiCpmgCpgoMMpMg ng ypgtyer pMgidh eshe:ovMcg+ye:ygetgohtngogMndChpk
smp:etenvg vdiCpmOg,nmgEmpo pmgo::dmo:Pcg ypg smnEmoiipmgioPg+etyg ngpishnPg MndChpk
smp:etenvg vdiCpmtg ovMg spmrnmig ome yip e:g +e yg nspmovMtg yo g n::dsPg +ng ipinmPg
+nmMtOg.pgvn+gMpTphnsgogsmnEmoig yo goMMtg +ngMndChpksmp:etenvgvdiCpmtOg
g
.pgsho:pgnvpgnrg ypgMndChpksmp:etenvgvdiCpmtgevg +ng:nvtp:d eTpgipinmPghn:o envtcguIg
ovMguzcg+e yguIgynhMevEg ypg:>ghn+knmMpmgCe tOgxypgtp:nvMgvdiCpmgetgsho:pMgevgNIgovMg
NzOgxypgsmnEmoigetghet pMgevgxoChpg;O:@Ogxypg +nghn+knmMpmgsnm envtgompgoMMpMgovMg ypg
:ommPg movtrpmmpMgev ngfOgxypguagetg:hpompMgovMg ypgCe gevgfgetg:em:dho pMgev ng ypghpot g
teEvere:ov gsnte envgnrg ypguaOg
xypg +ngyeEyknmMpmgsnm envtgompg ypvgoMMpMg ng ypg:ommPgovMg ypgMndChpksmp:etenvgtdig
etgt nmpMgevgaIgovMgazOg
g
g
xoChpg;O:@9g-mnEmoig nguMMgx+ng/ndChpk-mp:etenvgbdiCpmtg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

g

4.5.2 Logic Operations

xngspmrnmighnEe:gnspmo envt9gub/cgaSucgovMgaIucgogCote:g:nisd pmgyotg ymppgio:yevpg
evt md: envtOg xypg I/ug evt md: envg etg :nvteMpmpMg otgog hnEe:g nspmo envg yo g movtrpmtg og
hnEe:gnspmovMgev ng ypguaOg.pghet pMg:>gMerrpmpv ghnEe:gnspmo envtgpomhepmcgteiehomhPgohhg:>g
hnEe:gnspmo envtg:ovgCpgeishpipv pMgCPgtnr +ompgipovtgCp:odtpgovPghnEe:grdv: envg:ovg
Cpg eishpipv pMg dtevEg ypg ub/g ovMg :nishpipv g nspmo envtOg ,nmg pAoishpcg ypg wLg
nspmo envg etg vn g oToehoChpg otg og io:yevpg evt md: envg evg ypg Cote:g :nisd pmOg ,mnig
/pSnmEovQtg ypnmpig +pg mp:nEve2pg ypg mpho envg Ag Hg PgIg /AQPQ0QOg xypg tp:nvMg pAsmpttenvg
:nv oevtgnvhPgub/govMg:nishpipv gnspmo envtOgugsmnEmoig yo grnmitg ypgwLgnspmo envg
nrg +nghnEe:gnspmovMtgugovMgNgetgotgrnhhn+t9g
g
xypgn ypmghnEe:gnspmo envtg:ovgCpgeishpipv pMgCPgtnr +ompgevgogteiehomgrotyenvOg

4.5.3 Shift Operations

RvgogCote:g:nisd pmcg ypg:em:dhomktyer gnspmo envtgompgio:yevpgevt md: envtOgxypgn ypmg
ev pmpt evEgtyer tgompg ypghnEe:ohgtyer tgovMgome yip e:gtyer tOg.pg:ovgsmnEmoig yptpg +ng
tyer tg+e ygogtiohhgvdiCpmgnrgevt md: envtOg
xngspmrnmig ypghnEe:ohgtyer gmpGdemptg2pmntgompgoMMpMg ng ypgpA mpipgsnte envtOgxyetg:ovg
CpgpotehPgo::nishetypMg CPg:hpomevEgfgovMg:em:dho evEg ypguagovMgfOgxydtgrnmgoghnEe:ohg
tyer kmeEy gnspmo envg+pgvppMg ypg +ngevt md: envtg
aIfg
aRLg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8Ng a SN1eraS pcemtRSOmt NoOgateNz yO zOOI tcO tyN ezptgurteNzp
:ML
:YM
.cO agetcCOter pcemtp IOoOzI Nz tcO t2oO Nm gOogOpOztateNz Nm zO1ate-O zuC4Ogp3 5O
aINot tcO pe1zOIRGQp rNCoSOCOzt gOogOpOztateNz mNg tcO 4aper rNCoutOg3 8Ng az
agetcCOter ge1ctRpcemt et ep zOrOppag2 tcat tcO pe1z 4et ez tcO SOmtCNpt oNpeteNz gOCaez
uzrcaz1OI3 Put tcO pe1z 4et etpOSm ep pcemtOI eztN tcO ce1cRNgIOg 4et oNpeteNz Nm tcO
zuC4Og3 .cO ogN1gaC mNg tcO agetcCOter ge1ctRpcemt gO/uegOp tcat yO pOt L tN tcO paCO
-aSuO ap tcO pe1z 4et azI regruSatO ge1ctn tcupb

et ep zOrOppag2 mNg agetcCOter pcemtRSOmt tcat tcO aIIOI 4et ez tcO SOapt pe1zemerazt oNpeteNz
4O –3 .cep raz 4O INzO OapeS2 42 rSOagez1 L ogeNg tN tcO regruSatORSOmt NoOgateNz3 .cO pe1z
4et gOCaezp paCO Iugez1 tcep pcemt3 5etc a regruSatO ezptgurteNzn tcO pe1z 4et CN-Op eztN
L3 Yt ep tcOz zOrOppag2 tN rNCoagO tcO pe1z 4et yetc tcO -aSuO Nm L amtOg tcO NoOgateNz3 Ym
tcO tyN -aSuOp agO O/uaSn tcO agetcCOter pcemt cap 4OOz rNggOrtS2 oOgmNgCOI3 Ym tcO2 agO
zNt O/uaSn az N-OgmSNy Nrrugp3 Az N-OgmSNy pcNyp tcat tcO uzpcemtOI zuC4Og yap tNN
Sag1O3 5cOz CuSteoSeOI 42 G 942 COazp Nm tcO pcemtEn tcO zuC4Og pN N4taezOI OBrOOIp tcO
raoaret2 Nm tcO A:3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

UNIT 5

CENTRAL PROGRESSING UNIT (CPU)

5.1 "lE(1iv)1EtD2ElDvti
5.1.1 3w1DNlw)iNlE(1i
5.1.2 sOCNg2 ptarF
5.1.3 3w)w)NwirvADNmitvlElDvti
5.2 7tNl)f(lDvti,v)oElNi
5.2.1 bm)ww!iECC)wNNi7tNl)f(lDvtNi
5.2.2 b+vi3iECC)wNNiDtNl)f(lDvtNi
5.2.3 #tw!iECC)wNNiDtNl)f(lDvtNi
5.2.4 4w)v!ECC)wNNiDtNl)f(lDvtNi
5.2.5 37"ei7tNl)f(lDvtNi
5.3 AIIgOppez1 sNIOp
5.4 3wCf(wCi7tNl)f(lDvti"wlievorflw)i
5.4.1 e7"ei(mE)E(lw)DNlD(Ni
5.4.2 37"ei(mE)E(lw)DNlD(Ni
i
i
5.1 Stack Organization

bmwie-.ivdiovNli(vorflw)Ni(vor)DNwNivdiEiNlE(1iv)iAENl!Dt!dD)Nl!vfli/$7,#0iADNli+mw)wDti
Dtdv)oElDvti DNi Nlv)wCi Dti Nf(mi Ei oEttw)i lmEli lmwi Dlwoi Nlv)wCi AENli DNi lmwi dD)Nli lvi &wi
)wl)Dw)wC%i bmwi vrw)ElDvti vdi Ei NlE(1i (Eti &wi (vorE)wCi lvi Ei NlE(1i vdi l)E N%i bmwi AENli l)E i
rAE(wCivtilvrivdilmwiNlE(1iDNilmwidD)Nlilvi&wilE1wtivdd%i

bmwi NlE(1i Dti CD1DlEAi (vorflw)Ni DNi wNNwtlDEAA i Ei owov) i ftDli +Dlmi Eti ECC)wNNi )w1DNlw)i
lmEli(Eti(vftlivtA i/Edlw)iEtiDtDlDEAi)EAfwiDNiAvECwCiDtlviDl0%isi"lE(1i-vDtlw)i/"-0iDNilmwi
)w1DNlw)i+mw)wilmwiECC)wNNidv)ilmwiNlE(1iDNimwACi&w(EfNwiDlNi)EAfwiEA+E NirvDtlNiElilmwi
lvriDlwoiDtilmwiNlE(1%ibmwirm ND(EAi)w1DNlw)NivdiEiNlE(1iE)wiEA+E NiE)EDAE&Awidv)i)wECDt1i
v)i +)DlDt1i ftAD1wi Ei NlE(1i vdi l)E Ni +mw)wi lmwi l)E i DlNwAdi oE i &wi lE1wti vfli v)i DtNw)lwCi
&w(EfNwiDliDNilmwi(vtlwtlivdilmwi+v)CilmEliDNiDtNw)lwCiv)iCwAwlwC%i
i
siNlE(1imENivtA il+vivrw)ElDvtNiD%w%ilmwiDtNw)lDvtiEtCiCwAwlDvtivdiDlwoN%ibmwivrw)ElDvti
DtNw)lDvti DNi (EAAwCi rfNmi /v)i rfNm!Cv+t0i &w(EfNwi Dli(Eti &wi lmvf1mli vdi ENi lmwi )wNfAli vdi
rfNmDt1iEitw+iDlwoivtilvr%ibmwiCwAwlDvtivrw)ElDvtiDNi(EAAwCirvri/v)irvr!fr0i&w(EfNwiDli
(Eti &wi lmvf1mli vdi ENi lmwi )wNfAli vdi )wov)Dt1i vtwi Dlwoi Nvi lmEli lmwi NlE(1i rvrNi fr%i 7ti
E(lfEAQitvlmDt1iDNiwjE(lA irfNmwCiv)irvrrwCiDtiEi(vorflw)iNlE(1%ibmwNwivrw)ElDvtNiE)wi
NDofAElwCi& iDt()wowtlDt1iv)iCw()wowtlDt1ilmwiNlE(1irvDtlw)i)w1DNlw)%i
i

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

5.1.1 Register Stack
∑
.cOgO agO tyN ya2p tN oSarO a ptarF3 LetcOg et raz 4O oSarOI ez a oNgteNz Nm a Sag1O
COCNg2 Ng et raz 4O Ng1aze(OI ap a rNSSOrteNz Nm a mezetO zuC4Og Nm COCNg2 yNgIp Ng
gO1eptOgp3 .cO Ng1aze(ateNz Nm a ”“RyNgI gO1eptOg ptarF ep OBce4etOI ez me1ugO '3K3 A
4ezag2 zuC4Og ycNpO -aSuO ep O/uaS tN tcO aIIgOpp Nm tcO yNgI tcat ep ruggOztS2 Nz tNo
Nm tcO ptarF ep rNztaezOI 42 tcO ptarF oNeztOg gO1eptOg3 .cgOO etOCp agO oSarOI ez tcO
ptarF R An P azI : ez tcat NgIOg3 YtOC : ep Nz tNo Nm tcO ptarF pN tcat tcO rNztOzt Nm Tl
ep zNy K3 .N gOCN-O tcO tNo etOCn tcO ptarF ep oNooOI 42 gOaIez1 tcO COCNg2 yNgI at
aIIgOpp K azI IOrgOCOztez1 tcO rNztOzt Nm Tl3 YtOC P ep zNy Nz tNo Nm tcO ptarF pezrO
Tl cNSIp aIIgOpp G3 .N ezpOgt a zOy etOCn tcO ptarF ep oupcOI 42 ezrgOCOztez1 Tl azI
ygetez1 a yNgI ez tcO zOBtRce1cOg SNrateNz ez tcO ptarF3 dNtO tcat etOC : cap 4OOz gOaI
Nut 4ut zNt oc2peraSS2 gOCN-OI3 .cep INOp zNt CattOg 4OraupO ycOz tcO ptarF ep
oupcOIn a zOy etOC ep ygettOz ez etp oSarO3
∑
Yz a ”“RyNgI ptarFn tcO ptarF oNeztOg rNztaezp ” 4etp 4OraupO G
>∑
I ”“3 TezrO Tl cap NzS2
peB 4etpn et razzNt OBrOOI a zuC4Og 1gOatOg tcaz ”K 9wwwwww ez 4ezag2E3 5cOz ”K ep
ezrgOCOztOI 42 Sn tcO gOpuSt ep – pezrO wwwwww ; w I w–––––– ez 4ezag2n 4ut Tl raz
arrNCCNIatO NzS2 tcO peB SOapt pe1zemerazt 4etp3 TeCeSagS2n ycOz –––––– ep IOrgOCOztOI
42 wn tcO gOpuSt ep wwwwww3 .cO wR4et gO1eptOg 8VMM ep pOt tN w ycOz tcO ptarF ep muSSn azI
tcO NzOR4et gO1eptOg Ls.W ep pOt tN w ycOz tcO ptarF ep OCot2 Nm etOCp3 6U ep tcO Iata
gO1eptOg tcat cNSIp tcO 4ezag2 Iata tN 4O ygettOz eztN Ng gOaI Nut Nm tcO ptarF3
∑
YzeteaSS2n Tl ep rSOagOI tN –n Ls.W ep pOt tN wn azI 8VMM ep rSOagOI tN –n pN tcat Tl oNeztp
tN tcO yNgI at aIIgOpp – azI tcO ptarF ep CagFOI OCot2 azI zNt muSS3 Ym tcO ptarF ep zNt
muSS 9em 8VMM I –En a zOy etOC ep ezpOgtOI yetc a oupc NoOgateNz3 .cO oupc NoOgateNz ep
eCoSOCOztOI yetc tcO mNSSNyez1 pO/uOzrO Nm CergNRNoOgateNzpb
"-∑← Tl ; w YzrgOCOzt ptarF oNeztOg
sXTlN ← 6U 5getO etOC Nz tNo Nm tcO ptarF
Ym 9TlI –E tcOz 98VMM ← SE :cOrF em ptarF ep muSS
∑
.cO ptarF oNeztOg ep ezrgOCOztOI pN tcat et oNeztp tN tcO aIIgOpp Nm tcO zOBtRce1cOg
yNgI3 .cO yNgI mgNC 6U ep ezpOgtOI eztN tcO tNo Nm tcO ptarF 42 tcO COCNg2 ygetO
NoOgateNz3 .cO sXTlN IOzNtOp tcO COCNg2 yNgI poOremeOI 42 tcO aIIgOpp ogOpOztS2
a-aeSa4SO ez Tl ycOgOap tcO Tl cNSIp tcO aIIgOpp tcO tNo Nm tcO ptarF3 .cO ptNga1O Nm tcO
megpt etOC ep INzO at aIIgOpp w ycOgOap ap tcO Sapt etOC ep ptNgO at aIIgOpp –3 Ym Tl
gOarcOp –n tcO ptarF ep muSS Nm etOCpn pN 8VMM ep pOt tN w3 .cep rNzIeteNz ep gOarcOI em tcO
tNo etOC ogeNg tN tcO Sapt oupc yap ez SNrateNz ”K azI amtOg ezrgOCOztez1 Tln tcO Sapt
etOC ep ptNgOI ez SNrateNz –3 fzrO az etOC ep ptNgOI ez SNrateNz –n tcOgO agO zN CNgO
OCot2 gO1eptOgp ez tcO ptarF3 Ym az etOC ep ygettOz ez tcO ptarFn N4-eNupS2 tcO ptarF
razzNt 4O OCot2n pN Ls.W ep rSOagOI tN –3
∑
A zOy etOC ep IOSOtOI mgNC tcO ptarF em tcO ptarF ep zNt OCot2 9em Ls.W ZJ –E3 .cO oNo
NoOgateNz rNzpeptp Nm tcO mNSSNyez1 pO/uOzrO Nm CergNRNoOgateNzpb

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

6U ← sXTlN UOaI etOC mgNC tcO tNo Nm ptarF
"-∑← Tl ) w 6OrgOCOzt ptarF oNeztOg
Ym 9Tl II –E tcOz 98VMM ← wE :cOrF em ptarF ep OCot2
Ls.W ← – sagF tcO ptarF zNt muSS
∑
6U3 gOaIp tcO tNo etOC mgNC tcO ptarF3 .cOz tcO ptarF oNeztOg ep IOrgOCOztOI3 Ym etp
-aSuO attaezp (OgNn tcO ptarF ep OCot2n pN Ls.W ep pOt tN w3 .cep rNzIeteNz ep gOarcOI em
tcO etOC gOaI yap ez SNrateNz w3 fzrO tcep etOC ep gOaI Nutn Tl ep IOrgOCOztOI azI et
attaez gOarcOp tcO -aSuO –n ycerc ep tcO ezeteaS -aSuO Nm Tl3 dNtO tcat em a oNo NoOgateNz
gOaIp tcO etOC mgNC SNrateNz – azI tcOz Tl ep IOrgOCOztOIn Tl rcaz1Op tN wwwwwwn
ycerc ep O/ue-aSOzt tN IOreCaS ”K3 Yz tcep rNzme1ugateNzn tcO yNgI ez aIIgOpp – gOrOe-Op
tcO Sapt etOC ez tcO ptarF3 dNtO aSpN tcat az OggNzONup NoOgateNz yeSS gOpuSt em tcO ptarF
ep oupcOI ycOz 8VMM I w Ng oNooOI ycOz Lsl.W I w3
∑

5.1.2 Memory Stack
Ap pcNyz ez 8e13 '3Kn ptarF raz OBept ap a ptazIRaSNzO uzet Ng raz 4O OBOrutOI ez a
gazINCRarrOpp COCNg2 attarcOI tN a :lV3 .cO eCoSOCO ztateNz Nm a ptarF ez tcO :lV ep
INzO 42 appe1zez1 a oNgteNz Nm COCNg23 A oNgteNz Nm COCNg2 ep appe1zOI tN a ptarF
NoOgateNz azI a ogNrOppNg gO1eptOg ep upOI ap a ptarF oNeztOg tN OBOrutO ptarF ez tcO
:lV3 8e1ugO '3“ pcNyp a oNgteNz Nm rNCoutOg COCNg2 oagteteNzOI eztN tcgOO pO1COztp R
ogN1gaCn Iatan azI ptarF3 .cO aIIgOpp Nm tcO zOBt ezptgurteNz ez tcO ogN1gaC ep SNratOI
42 tcO ogN1gaC rNuztOg l: yceSO az agga2 Nm Iata ep oNeztOI 42 aIIgOpp gO1eptOg AU3 .cO
tNo Nm tcO ptarF ep SNratOI 42 tcO ptarF oNeztOg Tl3 .cO tcgOO gO1eptOgp agO rNzzOrtOI tN
a rNCCNz aIIgOpp 4upn ycerc rNzzOrtp tcO tcgOO gO1eptOgp azI OetcOg NzO raz ogN-eIO
az aIIgOpp mNg COCNg23 l: ep upOI Iugez1 tcO mOtrc ocapO tN gOaI az ezptgurteNz3 AU ep
upOI Iugez1 tcO OBOrutO ocapO tN gOaI az NoOgazI3 Tl ep upOI tN oupc Ng oNo etOCp eztN
Ng mgNC tcO ptarF3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

∑
8e1ugO '3“b :NCoutOg COCNg2 yetc ogN1gaCn Iatan azI pSarF pO1COztp3
8e1 '3“ IepoSa2p tcO ezeteaS -aSuO Nm Tl at “––w azI tcO 1gNyez1 Nm ptarF yetc IOrgOapez1
aIIgOppOp3 .cup tcO megpt etOC ptNgOI ez tcO ptarF ep at aIIgOpp “–––n tcO pOrNzI etOC ep
ptNgOI at aIIgOpp KXXXn azI tcO Sapt aIIgOpp tcat raz 4O upOI mNg tcO ptarF ep K–––3 dN
rcOrFp agO ogN-eIOI mNg rcOrFez1 ptarF SeCetp3
∑
5O appuCO tcat tcO etOCp ez tcO ptarF rNCCuzeratO yetc a Iata gO1eptOg 6U3 A zOy
etOC ep ezpOgtOI yetc tcO oupc NoOgateNz ap mNSSNyp9∑
"-∑←∑"-∑3∑:∑∑
sXTlN ← 6U
∑
.cO ptarF oNeztOg ep IOrgOCOztOI pN tcat et oNeztp at tcO aIIgOpp Nm tcO zOBt yNgI3 A
COCNg2 ygetO NoOgateNz ezpOgtp tcO yNgI mNgC 6U eztN tcO tNo Nm tcO ptarF3 A zOy etOC
ep IOSOtOI yetc a oNo NoOgateNz ap mNSSNypb
∑
6U ← sXTlN
"-∑←∑"-∑H∑:∑
∑
.cO tNo etOC ep gOaI mgNC tcO ptarF eztN 6U3 .cO ptarF oNeztOg ep tcOz ezrgOCOztOI tN
oNezt at tcO zOBt etOC ez tcO ptarF3
∑

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

StakentpsdkI/aeM/IeotkeIGdgssIDeEgkUeUM/DEM/IektenUInTeit/eakMnTet5I/iytEe4idyyeakMnT6e
t/e doDI/iytEe 4Ipsk1e akMnT6be RUIe akMnTe ygpgkae nMoe HIe nUInTIDe H1e dagole kEte s/tnIaat/e
/IlgakI/a9etoIekteUtyDekUIedssI/eygpgke4<CCCegoekUgaenMaI6OeMoDekUIetkUI/ekteUtyDekUIeytEI/e
ygpgke4=CCC:egoekUgaenMaI6bePikI/eMesdaUetsI/MkgtoOeWGegaentpsM/IDeEgkUekUIedssI/2ygpgke
/IlgakI/eMoDeMikI/eMestsetsI/MkgtoOeWGegaentpsM/IDeEgkUekUIeytEI/2ygpgke/IlgakI/bee
e
e
5.1.3 Reverse Polish Notation

xI5I/aIe GtygaUe CtkMkgtoe gae Me EM1e tie Ius/Iaagole M/gkUpIkgne Ius/Iaagtoae kUMke M5tgDae kUIe
daIetieH/MnTIkaekteDIigoIes/gt/gkgIaeit/eI5MydMkgtoetietsI/Mkt/abehoet/DgoM/1eotkMkgtoOetoIe
pglUkeE/gkIe
4<eHe@6e[e4Ae2e;6eMoDekUIeH/MnTIkaekIyyedaekUMkeEIeUM5IekteMDDe<ekte@OekUIoeadHk/Mnke;ei/tpe
AOeMoDepdykgsy1ekUIekEte/IadykaektlIkUI/behoexGCOekUIeodpHI/aeMoDetsI/Mkt/aeM/IeygakIDe
toIeMikI/eMotkUI/OeMoDeMoetsI/Mkt/eMyEM1aeMnkaetoekUIeptake/InIokeodpHI/aegoekUIeygakbe
RUIeodpHI/aenMoeHIekUtdlUketieMaeit/pgoleMeakMnTOeygTIeMesgyIetiesyMkIabeRUIeptake/InIoke
odpHI/e ltIae toe kUIe ktse tie kUIe akMnTbe Poe tsI/Mkt/e kMTIae kUIe Mss/ts/gMkIe odpHI/e tie
M/ldpIokaei/tpekUIektsetiekUIeakMnTeMoDe/IsyMnIaekUIpeH1ekUIe/IadyketiekUIetsI/Mkgtobe
e
hoekUgaeotkMkgtoekUIeMHt5IeIus/IaagtoeEtdyDeHIe
<e@eHeAe;e2e[e
xIMDgolei/tpeyIikekte/glUkOekUgaegaegokI/s/IkIDeMaeityytEa9e
• GdaUe<etoktekUIeakMnTbee
• GdaUe@etoktekUIeakMnTbeRUIeakMnTeotEentokMgoae4<Oe@6bee
• Pssy1e kUIe He tsI/Mkgto9e kMTIe kUIe ktse kEte odpHI/ae tiie kUIe akMnTOe MDDe kUIpe
ktlIkUI/OeMoDesdkekUIe/IadykeHMnTetoekUIeakMnTbeRUIeakMnTeotEentokMgoaeEdakekUIe
odpHI/eBbee
• GdaUeAetoktekUIeakMnTbee
• GdaUe;etoktekUIeakMnTbehkeotEentokMgoae4BOeAOe;6bee
• Pssy1ekUIe2etsI/Mkgto9ekMTIekUIektsekEteodpHI/aetiiekUIeakMnTOeadHk/MnkekUIektse
toIe i/tpe kUIe toIe HIytEOe MoDe sdke kUIe /Iadyke HMnTe toekUIe akMnTbe RUIe akMnTe otEe
ntokMgoae4BOe@6bee
• Pssy1e kUIe [e tsI/Mkgto9e kMTIe kUIe ktse kEte odpHI/ae tiie kUIe akMnTOe pdykgsy1e kUIpe
ktlIkUI/OeMoDesdkekUIe/IadykeHMnTetoekUIeakMnTbeRUIeakMnTeotEentokMgoaeEdakekUIe
odpHI/e=Cbee
e
GtygaUe CtkMkgtoe EMae DI5gaIDe H1e kUIe GtygaUe sUgytatsUI/e MoDe pMkUIpMkgngMoe 7Moe
fdnMagIEgn(e 4:BAB2:?@>6e it/e daIe goe a1pHtygne ytlgnbehoe Ugae otkMkgtoOe kUIe tsI/Mkt/ae
s/InIDIDekUIg/eM/ldpIokaOeatekUMkekUIeIus/IaagtoeMHt5IeEtdyDeHIeE/gkkIoeMae
[eHe<e@e2eAe;e
e
RUIe Q/I5I/aIDQe it/pe UMae UtEI5I/e HIIoe itdoDe pt/Ie nto5IogIoke i/tpe Me ntpsdkMkgtoMye
stgoketie5gIEbe
e

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

5.2 Instruction Formats
ee
• hkegaekUIeidonkgtoetiekUIentok/tyedogkeEgkUgoekUIecG3ektegokI/s/IkeIMnUegoak/dnkgtoe
ntDIee
• RUIeHgkaetiekUIegoak/dnkgtoeM/IeDg5gDIDegoktel/tdsaenMyyIDeigIyDaee
• RUIeptakentpptoeigIyDaeM/I9ee
o 0sI/MkgtoentDIee
o PDD/IaaeigIyDe)epIpt/1eMDD/Iaaet/eMes/tnIaat/e/IlgakI/ee
o StDIe igIyDe )e asIngigIae kUIe EM1e kUIe tsI/MoDe t/e IiiInkg5Ie MDD/Iaae gae
DIkI/pgoIDee
• Pe/IlgakI/eMDD/IaaegaeMeHgoM/1eodpHI/etiekeHgkaekUMkeDIigoIaetoIetie;
k
e/IlgakI/aegoe
kUIecG3ee
ee
• RUIegoak/dnkgtoaepM1e UM5IeaI5I/Mye DgiiI/IokeyIolkUaentokMgogole5M/1gole odpHI/e
tieMDD/IaaIaee
• RUIe odpHI/e tie MDD/IaaeigIyDae goe kUIe goak/dnkgtoe it/pMke tie Me ntpsdkI/e DIsIoDae
toekUIegokI/oMyet/lMog(Mkgtoetiegkae/IlgakI/aee
• StakentpsdkI/aeiMyyegoktetoIetiekUIekU/IIeityytEgolet/lMog(Mkgtoa9ee
o WgolyIeMnndpdyMkt/et/lMog(Mkgtoee
o mIoI/Mye/IlgakI/et/lMog(Mkgtoee
o WkMnTet/lMog(Mkgtoee
ee
• WgolyIeMnndpdyMkt/et/lbedaIaetoIeMDD/IaaeigIyDee
P99eeTe9eePce←ePceHeSXTNe
• RUIelIoI/Mye/IlgakI/et/lbedaIaekU/IIeMDD/IaaeigIyDaee
P99eex:Oex;Oex<9eex:ee←ex;eHex<e
• cMoedaIekEte/MkUI/ekUMoekU/IIeigIyDaegiekUIeDIakgoMkgtoegaeMaadpIDekteHIetoIetie
kUIeatd/nIe/IlgakI/aee
• WkMnTet/lbeEtdyDe/IGdg/IetoIeMDD/IaaeigIyDeit/eG3W8DG0GetsI/MkgtoaeMoDeotoIe
it/etsI/Mkgto2k1sIegoak/dnkgtoaee
G3W8eeTe
P99e
• WtpIentpsdkI/aentpHgoIeiIMkd/Iaei/tpept/IekUMoetoIet/lMog(MkgtoMyeak/dnkd/Iee
ee
AuMpsyI9eTeIe4PH 6e[e4ceHe96e
e
ee
5.2.1 Three-address instructions:

e P99e x:OePOe e x:e ←eSXPNeHeSX Ne
e P99e x;OecOe9e x;e ←eSXcNeHeSX9Ne
e S3fe TOex:Oex;e SXTNe ←ex:e[ex;e
ee

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

5.2.2 Two-address instructions:
∑
sfi Uwn A Uw ← sXAN
A66 Uwn P Uw ← Uw ; sXPN
sfi UGn : UG ← sX:N
A66 UGn 6 UG ← UG ; 6
sVM Uwn UG   Uw ← Uw [ UG
sfi Tn Uw sXTN ← Uw
∑∑

5.2.3 One-address instructions:
∑
MfA6   A A: ← sXAN
A66   P A: ← A: ; sXPN
T.fUL . sX.N ← A:
MfA6   : A: ← sX:N
A66   6 A: ← A: ; sX6N
sVM   . A: ← A: [ sX.N
T.fUL T sXTN ← A:
∑∑

5.2.4 Zero-address instructions:

lVT7   A .fT ← A
lVT7   P .fT ←•∑
A66 .fT ← 9A ;PE
lVT7   : .fT ←∑ ∑
lVT7   6 .fT ←∑(∑
A66 .fT ←∑/ ∑H∑(0∑
sVM .fT ← 9: ; 6E [ 9A ; PE
lfl   T sXTN ← .fT
∑∑

5.2.5 RISC instructions:

MfA6   Uwn A   Uw ← sXAN
MfA6   UGn P   UG ← sXPN
MfA6   UKn :   UK ← sX:N
MfA6   U“n 6   U“ ← sX6N
A66   Uwn Uwn UG Uw ← Uw ; UG
A66   UKn UKn U“ UK ← UK ; U“

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

e S3fe eex:Oex:Oex<e x:e ←ex:e[ex<e
e WR0xAeeTOex:eSXTNe←ex:e
e
e

5.3 Addressing Modes

SMo1etiekUIegoak/dnkgtoaeEUgnUeMentpsdkI/eMnkdMyy1eIuIndkIaeDd/golekUIe/doogole
tie Me s/tl/Mpe ntonI/oe kUIe pt5IpIoke tie DMkMe kte MoDe i/tpe pIpt/1be hke gae otke
staagHyIeagpsy1ekteasIngi1eiguIDeMDD/IaaIaeEgkUgoeIMnUegoak/dnkgtoOeMaekUgaeEtdyDe
/IGdg/Ie kUIe ytnMkgtoe tie DMkMe kte HIe TotEoe Mke kUIe kgpIe EUIoe kUIe s/tl/Mpe EMae
E/gkkIobeRUgaegaeotkestaagHyIeit/eaI5I/Mye/IMatoabee
o -UIoeMes/tl/Mpegae/IMDei/tpeDgaTOegkeEgyyeHIesdkegoepIpt/1egoeMestagkgtoe
EUgnUenMootkeHIes/IDgnkIDegoeMD5MonIbe8IonIOekUIeytnMkgtoetieMo1eDMkMegoe
kUIes/tl/MpenMootkeHIeTotEoegoeMD5MonIbee
o WgpgyM/y1Oe DMkMe EUgnUe UMae HIIoe s/I5gtday1e M/nUg5IDekte igyIae toe DgaTe t/e
kMsIeEgyyeHIeytMDIDegoktepIpt/1eMkeMestagkgtoeEUgnUenMootkeHIeTotEoegoe
MD5MonIbee
o hie kUIe DMkMe EIe EgaUe kte daIe Egyye HIe /IMDe i/tpe Moe gosdke DI5gnIOe kUIoe EIe
nMootkeTotEegoeMD5MonIeEUI/IegoepIpt/1egkeEgyyeHIeakt/IDbee
o SMo1enMyndyMkgtoaego5ty5IesI/it/pgolekUIeaMpIetsI/Mkgtoe/IsIMkIDy1etoeMe
yM/lIeGdMokgk1etieDMkMe4it/eIuMpsyIOeptDgi1goleMoegpMlIeEUgnUentoagakaetie
t5I/e Me pgyygtoe sguIya6be hie IMnUe goak/dnkgtoe tsI/MkIDe toe Me iguIDe pIpt/1e
ytnMkgtoOe kUIoe kUIe s/tl/Mpe EtdyDe UM5Ie kte ntokMgoe kUIe aMpIe goak/dnkgtoe
pMo1ekgpIaOetonIeit/eIMnUesguIybee
-IekUI/Iit/IeoIIDeDgiiI/Iokeak/MkIlgIaeit/easIngi1golekUIeytnMkgtoetieDMkMbee

Immediate addressingee
RUIe DMkMe gkaIyiOe /MkUI/e kUMoe Moe MDD/IaaOe gae lg5Ioe Mae kUIe tsI/MoD4a6e tie kUIe
goak/dnkgtobe

Direct or Absolute addressingee
PeiguIDeMDD/IaaegaeasIngigIDbe

Implied addressingee
RUIeytnMkgtoetiekUIeDMkMegaegpsygIDeH1ekUIegoak/dnkgtoegkaIyiOeateotetsI/MoDaeoIIDe
kte HIe lg5Iobe Ft/e IuMpsyIOe Me ntpsdkI/e pglUke UM5Ie kUIe goak/dnkgtoe hCcPOe
gon/IpIokekUIeMnndpdyMkt/be

Relative addressingee
RUIeytnMkgtoetiekUIeDMkMegaeasIngigIDe/IyMkg5IektekUIend//Ioke5MydIetiekUIes/tl/Mpe
ntdokI/beRUgaegaedaIidyeit/easIngi1golekUIeytnMkgtoetieDMkMeEUgnUegaelg5IoeMaesM/ke
tiekUIes/tl/Mpbe

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Indirect addressing∑∑
siowov) i Av(ElDvti DNi1D)wti+mD(mi mvACNiEtvlmw)iowov) i Av(ElDvt%ibmDNiNw(vtCi
owov) i Av(ElDvti mvACNi lmwi E(lfEAi CElE%i bmDNi ow(mEtDNoi NvA)wNi lmwi r)v&AwoNi
(EfNwCi& i)wECDt1iCElEid)voidDAwiv)iEtiDtrfliCw)D(wiCf)Dt1ir)v1)Eoiwjw(flDvt%i

Indexed addressing∑∑
bmwiAv(ElDvtivdilmwiCElEiDNi(EA(fAElwCiENilmwiNfoivdiEtiECC)wNNiNrw(DdDwCi& ivtwi
vdilmwir)w)DvfNiowlmvCNQiEtCilmwi)EAfwivdiEtiDtCwji)w1DNlw)%ibmDNiEAAv+NiEtiE))E i
vdiCElEi/dv)iwjEorAwQiEtiDoE1w0ilvi&wiE((wNNwCi)wrwElwCA i& ilmwiNEowiNwGfwt(wi
vdiDtNl)f(lDvtN%ii
• bmwi ECC)wNNDt1i ovCwi Nrw(DdDwNi Ei )fAwi dv)i Dtlw)r)wlDt1i v)i ovCDd Dt1i lmwi ECC)wNNi
dDwACivdilmwiDtNl)f(lDvti&wdv)wilmwivrw)EtCiDNiE(lfEAA i)wdw)wt(wCii
• bmwi Cw(vCDt1i Nlwri Dti lmwi DtNl)f(lDvti ( (Awi Cwlw)oDtwNi lmwi vrw)ElDvti lvi &wi
rw)dv)owCQi lmwi ECC)wNNDt1i ovCwi vdi lmwi DtNl)f(lDvtQiEtCi lmwi Av(ElDvti vdi lmwi
vrw)EtCNii
• b+vi ECC)wNNDt1i ovCwNi )wGfD)wi tvi ECC)wNNi dDwACNi 3i lmwi DorADwCi ovCwi EtCi
DoowCDElwiovCwii
• 7orADwCi ovCw9i lmwi vrw)EtCNi E)wi Nrw(DdDwCi DorAD(DlA i Dti lmwi CwdDtDlDvti vdi lmwi
DtNl)f(lDvti3i(vorAwowtliE((fofAElv)iv)i2w)v!ECC)wNNiDtNl)f(lDvtNii
• 7oowCDElwiovCw9ilmwivrw)EtCiDNiNrw(DdDwCiDtilmwiDtNl)f(lDvtii
• 3w1DNlw)iovCw9ilmwivrw)EtCNiE)wiDti)w1DNlw)Nii
• 3w1DNlw)i DtCD)w(li ovCw9i lmwi DtNl)f(lDvti Nrw(DdDwNi Ei )w1DNlw)i lmEli (vtlEDtNi lmwi
ECC)wNNivdilmwivrw)EtCii
• sflviDt()wowtliv)iEflviCw()wowtliovCw9iNDoDAE)ilvilmwi)w1DNlw)iDtCD)w(liovCwii
• (D)w(liECC)wNNiovCw9ilmwivrw)EtCiDNiAv(ElwCiElilmwiNrw(DdDwCiECC)wNNi1D)wtii
• 7tCD)w(liECC)wNNiovCw9ilmwiECC)wNNiNrw(DdDwNilmwiwddw(lD)wiECC)wNNivdilmwivrw)EtCii
• 3wAElD)wi ECC)wNNi ovCw9i lmwi wddw(lD)wi ECC)wNNi DNi lmwi NfooElDvti vdi lmwi ECC)wNNi
dDwACiEtCilmwi(vtlwtlivdilmwi-eii
• 7tCwjwCi ECC)wNNDt1i ovCw9i lmwi wddw(lD)wi ECC)wNNi DNi lmwi NfooElDvti vdi Eti DtCwji
)w1DNlw)iEtCilmwiECC)wNNidDwACii
• ENwi )w1DNlw)i ECC)wNNi ovCw9i lmwi wddw(lD)wi ECC)wNNi DNi lmwi NfooElDvti vdi Ei &ENwi
)w1DNlw)iEtCilmwiECC)wNNidDwACii
∑∑

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

∑
∑
∑∑
Data Transfer and Manipulation
∑∑
• bmw)wi DNi Ei &END(i Nwli vdi vrw)ElDvtNi lmEli ovNli (vorflw)Ni Dt(AfCwi Dti lmwD)i
DtNl)f(lDvtiNwli
• bmwi vr(vCwi EtCDv)i N o&vAD(i (vCwi oE i CDddw)i dv)i lmwiNEowi DtNl)f(lDvti Eovt1i
CDddw)wtli(vorflw)Ni

• bmw)wiE)wilm)wwioEDti(Elw1v)DwNivdi(vorflw)iDtNl)f(lDvtN9i

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

o /o og movtrpmg
o /o ogiovesdho envg
o -mnEmoig:nv mnhg

• Data transfer instructions9g movtrpmg Mo og rmnig nvpg hn:o envg ng ovn ypmg +e ynd∑
:yovEevEg ypgCevomPgevrnmio envg:nv pv g
∑∑
InoMg g I/g g Rvsd g g Rbg
D nmpg g Dxg g wd sd gw.xg
SnTpg g Swlg g -dtyg g -.Dzg
fA:yovEpg Tazg g -nsg g -w-g
∑∑
• Dnipg ottpiChPg hovEdoEpg :nvTpv envtg inMerPg ypg ivpin ve:g tPiCnhg ng
Merrpmpv eo pgCp +ppvgoMMmpttevEginMptgg
I/Rg3ghnoMgeiipMeo pg
• Dnipgdtpgogtsp:eohg:yomo: pmg ngMpteEvo pg ypginMpg∑
∑∑
∑
• Data manipulation instructions9gspmrnmigome yip e:cghnEe:cgovMDnmgtyer gnspmo env∑
∑∑
• ume yip e:gevt md: envt9gg
∑∑
Rv:mpipv gg Rbag g /eTeMpg g g /Rlg
/p:mpipv gg /fag g uMMg+D:ommPg g u//ag
uMMg g u//g g DdCOg+DCnmmn+g g D.NNg
DdC mo: g g D.Ng g bpEo pg/;Otg:nis0g bf-g
Sdh eshPg g S.Ig
∑∑
• Dnipg:nisd pmtgyoTpgMerrpmpv gevt md: envtgMpspvMevEgdsnvg ypgMo og Pspgg
u//Rg uMMg +ngCevomPgev pEpmgvdiCpmtg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

s((,i sCCil+vidAvElDt1irvDtlitfo&w)Ni
s(((i sCCil+viCw(DoEAitfo&w)NiDti e(i
∑∑
• $v1D(EAiEtCi&DlioEtDrfAElDvtiDtNl)f(lDvtN9ii
∑∑
eAwE)i i e$3i i eAwE)i(E)) i i e$3ei
:NCoSOCOzt :fs TOt ragg2 TL.:
Ad6 Ad6 :NCo3 ragg2 :fs:
#3ii i #3i i ktE&AwiDtlw)%i i k7i
kj(AfND)w!#3i T#3i i (DNE&AwiDtlw)%iii (7i
∑∑
• eAwE)iNwAw(lwCi&DlNi3isn(iDtNl)f(lDvtii
• "wliNwAw(lwCi&DlNi3i#3iDtNl)f(lDvtii
• evorAwowtliNwAw(lwCi&DlNi3iT#3iDtNl)f(lDvtii
∑∑
• "mDdliDtNl)f(lDvtN9ii
∑∑
$v1D(EAiNmDdli)D1mli i "*3i i 3vlElwi)D1mli i 3#3i
$v1D(EAiNmDdliAwdli i "*$i i 3vlElwiAwdli i 3#$i
s)DlmowlD(iNmDdli)D1mli i "*3si i 3#3ilm)fi(E)) i 3#3ei
s)DlmowlD(iNmDdliAwdli i "*$si i 3#$ilm)fi(E)) i 3#$ei
∑∑
#-iiiii3kaiiiiibW-kiiiii3$iiiiie#.nbi
∑∑
∑∑
Program Control
∑∑
• -)v1)Eoi (vtl)vAi DtNl)f(lDvtN9i r)v)DCwi Cw(DNDvt!oE1Dt1i (ErE&DADlDwNi EtCi (mEt1wi
lmwir)v1)EoirElmi
• b rD(EAA Qi lmwi r)v1)Eoi (vftlw)i DNi Dt()wowtlwCi Cf)Dt1i lmwi dwl(mi rmENwi lvi lmwi
Av(ElDvtivdilmwitwjliDtNl)f(lDvti
• si r)v1)Eoi (vtl)vAi l rwi vdi DtNl)f(lDvti oE i (mEt1wi lmwi ECC)wNNi )EAfwi Dti lmwi
r)v1)Eoi(vftlw)iEtCi(EfNwilmwidAv+ivdi(vtl)vAilvi&wiEAlw)wCi
• bmDNi r)v)DCwNi (vtl)vAi v)w)i lmwi dAv+i vdi r)v1)Eoi wjw(flDvti EtCi Ei (ErE&DADl i dv)i
&)Et(mDt1ilviCDddw)wtlir)v1)EoiNw1owtlNi
∑∑
)Et(mi 3i i 3wlf)tii i 3kbi
HuCo Hsl :NCoagO :sl
"1Dri "8-i i bwNli i i b"bi
eEAAi es$$i
∑∑
• .T. azI :sl raupO 4gazrcOp 4apOI uoNz mNug ptatup 4DlN9ieQi"Qi4QiEtCiui
∑∑

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

∑
∑∑
• ug :ohhg tdCmnd evpg evt md: envg :nvtet tg nrg ovg nspmo envg :nMpg nEp ypmg +e yg ovg
oMMmpttg yo gtsp:ereptg ypgCpEevvevEgnrg ypgtdCmnd evpgg
• fAp:d envgnrgauII9gg
o xpisnmomehPgt nmpgmp dmvgoMMmpttgg
o xmovtrpmg:nv mnhg ng ypgCpEevvevEgnrg ypgtdCmnd evpg3gdsMo pg-agg
∑∑
"-∑∑ ∑ ←∑"-∑3∑:∑
SXD-Ng←∑- ∑
- ∑ ∑ ←gprrp: eTpgoMMmpttg
∑∑
• fAp:d envgnrgLfx9gg
o xmovtrpmgmp dmvgoMMmpttgrmnig ypg pisnmomPghn:o envg ng ypg-agg
- ∑ ←gSXD-Ng
"-∑ ←∑"-∑H∑:∑
• Program interruptgmprpmtg ng ypg movtrpmgnrgsmnEmoig:nv mnhg ngogtpmTe:pgmnd evpgotg
ogmptdh gnrgev pmmds gmpGdpt gg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

• anv mnhgmp dmvtg ng ypgnmeEevohgsmnEmoigor pmg ypgtpmTe:pgsmnEmoigetgpAp:d pMgg
∑∑
• uvgev pmmds gsmn:pMdmpgetgteiehomg ngogtdCmnd evpg:ohhgpA:ps 9gg
o xypgev pmmds getgdtdohhPgeve eo pMgCPgovgev pmvohgnmgpA pmvohgteEvohgmo ypmg
yovgovgevt md: envgg
o xypg oMMmpttg nrg ypg ev pmmds g tpmTe:pg mnd evpg etg Mp pmievpMg CPg ypg
yomM+ompgmo ypmg yovg ypgoMMmpttgrephMgnrgovgevt md: envgg
o uhhgevrnmio envgvp:pttomPg ngMprevpg ypgt o pgnrg ypga-.getgt nmpMgmo ypmg
yovgEdt g ypgmp dmvgoMMmpttgg
∑∑
• xypgev pmmds pMgsmnEmoigtyndhMgmptdipgpAo: hPgotgergvn yevEgyoMgyosspvpMgg
• xypgt o pgnrg ypga-.go g ypgpvMgnrg ypgpAp:d pg:P:hpgetgMp pmievpMgrmni9gg
o xypg:nv pv gnrg ypg-agg
o xypg:nv pv gnrgohhgsmn:pttnmgmpEet pmtgg
o xypg:nv pv gnrg:pm oevgt o dtg:nvMe envtgg
∑∑
• xypgprogram status wordg /-D.0g etg og mpEet pmg yo g ynhMtg ypg t o dtg ovMg :nv mnhg
rhoEg:nvMe envtgg
• bn gohhg:nisd pmtgt nmpg ypgmpEet pmg:nv pv tg+ypvgmptsnvMevEg ngovgev pmmds gg
• xypg a-.g Mnptg vn g mptsnvMg ng ovg ev pmmds g dv ehg ypgpvMg nrg ovg evt md: envg
pAp:d envgg
• xypg:nv mnhg:yp:1tgrnmgovPgev pmmds gteEvohtgCprnmpgpv pmevEg ypgvpA grp :ygsyotpgg
• xymppg Psptgnrgev pmmds t9gg
o fA pmvohgev pmmds tgg
o Rv pmvohgev pmmds tgg
o Dnr +ompgev pmmds tgg
∑∑
• External interruptsg:nipgrmnigRDwgMpTe:ptcg eievEgMpTe:ptcgnmgovPgn ypmgpA pmvohg
tndm:pgg
• Internal interruptsgometpgrmnigehhpEohgnmgpmmnvpndtgdtpgnrgovgevt md: envgnmgMo ocg
ohtng:ohhpMg mostgg
• Rv pmvohgev pmmds tgompgtPv:ymnvndtg+yehpgpA pmvohgnvptgompgotPv:ymnvndtgg
• Nn ygompgeve eo pMgrmnigteEvohtg yo gn::dmgevg ypgyomM+ompgnrg ypga-.gg
• ugsoftware interruptgetgeve eo pMgCPgpAp:d evEgovgevt md: envgg
∑∑
5.4 Reduced Instruction Set Computer

5.4.1 CISC characteristics

aRDacg +ye:yg t ovMtg rnmgComplex Instruction Set Computercg etg og syehntnsyPg rnmg
MpteEvevEg:yestg yo gompgpotPg ngsmnEmoigovMg+ye:ygio1pgprre:epv gdtpgnrgipinmPOgfo:yg
evt md: envg evg og aRDag evt md: envg tp g ieEy g spmrnmig og tpmeptg nrg nspmo envtg evteMpg ypg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

ogNrOppNg3 .cep gOIurOp tcO zuC4Og Nm ezptgurteNzp gO/uegOI tN eCoSOCOzt a 1e-Oz
ogN1gaCn azI aSSNyp tcO ogN1gaCCOg tN SOagz a pCaSS 4ut mSOBe4SO pOt Nm ezptgurteNzp3

TezrO tcO OagSeOpt CarcezOp yOgO ogN1gaCCOI ez appOC4S2 Saz1ua1O azI COCNg2 yap
pSNy azI OBoOzpe-On tcO :YT: oceSNpNoc2 CaIO pOzpOn azI yap rNCCNzS2 eCoSOCOztOI
ez purc Sag1O rNCoutOgp ap tcO l6lRww azI tcO 6L:p2ptOC w– azI G– CarcezOp3

sNpt rNCCNz CergNogNrOppNg IOpe1zp RRR ezrSuIez1 tcO YztOS9UE x–Bx” azI sNtNgNSa
”x? pOgeOp RRR aSpN mNSSNy tcO :YT: oceSNpNoc23

Ap yO pcaSS pOOn gOrOzt rcaz1Op ez pNmtyagO azI cagIyagO tOrczNSN12 ca-O mNgrOI a gOR
OBaCezateNz Nm :YT:3 Put megptn SOtQp taFO a rSNpOg SNNF at tcO IOrepeNzp ycerc SOI tN
:YT:3

5.4.2 CISCphilosophy1UseMicrocode

.cO OagSeOpt ogNrOppNg IOpe1zp upOI IOIeratOI 9cagIyegOE SN1er tN IOrNIO azI OBOrutO
Oarc ezptgurteNz ez tcO ogNrOppNgQp ezptgurteNz pOt3 .cep yNgFOI yOSS mNg peCoSO IOpe1zp
yetc mOy gO1eptOgpn 4ut CaIO CNgO rNCoSOB agrcetOrtugOp cagI tN 4ueSIn ap rNztgNS oatc
SN1er raz 4O cagI tN eCoSOCOzt3 TNn IOpe1zOgp pyetrcOI tarterp RRR tcO2 4ueSt pNCO
peCoSO SN1er tN rNztgNS tcO Iata oatcp 4OtyOOz tcO -ageNup OSOCOztp Nm tcO ogNrOppNgn
azI upOI a peCoSemeOI CergNrNIO ezptgurteNz pOt tN rNztgNS tcO Iata oatc SN1er3 .cep t2oO
Nm eCoSOCOztateNz ep FzNyz ap a CergNogN1gaCCOI eCo SOCOztateNz3

Yz a CergNogN1gaCCOI p2ptOCn tcO Caez ogNrOppNg cap pNCO 4ueStRez COCNg2 9t2oeraSS2
UfsE ycerc rNztaezp 1gNuop Nm CergNrNIO ezptgurteNzp ycerc rNggOpoNzI yetc Oarc
CarcezORSaz1ua1O ezptgurteNz3 5cOz a CarcezO Saz1ua1O ezptgurteNz agge-Op at tcO
rOztgaS ogNrOppNgn tcO ogNrOppNg OBOrutOp tcO rNggOpoNzIez1 pOgeOp Nm CergNrNIO
ezptgurteNzp3

POraupO ezptgurteNzp rNuSI 4O gOtgeO-OI uo tN w– teCOp maptOg mgNC a SNraS Ufs tcaz
mgNC Caez COCNg2n IOpe1zOgp 4O1az tN out ap Caz2 ezptgurteNzp ap oNppe4SO eztN
CergNrNIO3 Yz martn pNCO ogNrOppNgp rNuSI 4O NgIOgOI yetc ruptNC CergNrNIO ycerc
yNuSI gOoSarO mgO/uOztS2 upOI 4ut pSNy gNutezOp ez rOgtaez aooSerateNz3

There are some real advantages to a microcoded impl ementation:

pezrO tcO CergNrNIO COCNg2 raz 4O Curc maptOg tcaz Caez COCNg2n az ezptgurteNz
pOt raz 4O eCoSOCOztOI ez CergNrNIO yetcNut SNpez1 Curc poOOI N-Og a ougOS2 cagIR
yegOI eCoSOCOztateNz3
  zOy rceop agO OapeOg tN eCoSOCOzt azI gO/uegO mOyOg tgazpeptNgp tcaz eCoSOCOztez1
tcO paCO ezptgurteNz pOt yetc IOIeratOI SN1ern azI333
  a CergNogN1gaCCOI IOpe1z raz 4O CNIemeOI tN cazISO OztegOS2 zOy ezptgurteNz pOtp

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

/uerFS23

Vpez1 CergNrNIOI ezptgurteNz pOtpn tcO YPs K”– pOgeOp yap a4SO tN NmmOg tcO paCO
ogN1gaCCez1 CNIOS argNpp a gaz1O Nm IemmOgOzt cagIyagO rNzme1ugateNzp3

TNCO CarcezOp yOgO NoteCe(OI mNg preOztemer rNCoutez1n yceSO NtcOgp yOgO NoteCe(OI mNg
4upezOpp rNCoutez13 7NyO-Ogn pezrO tcO2 aSS pcagOI tcO paCO ezptgurteNz pOtn ogN1gaCp
rNuSI 4O CN-OI mgNC CarcezO tN CarcezO yetcNut gORrNCoeSateNz 94ut yetc a oNppe4SO
ezrgOapO Ng IOrgOapO ez oOgmNgCazrO IOoOzIez1 Nz tcO uzIOgS2ez1 cagIyagO3E

.cep FezI Nm mSOBe4eSet2 azI oNyOg CaIO CergNrNIez1 tcO ogOmOggOI ya2 tN 4ueSI zOy
rNCoutOgp mNg /uetO pNCO teCO3

CISCphilosophy2:Build"rich"instructionsets

fzO Nm tcO rNzpO/uOzrOp Nm upez1 a CergNogN1gaCCOI IOpe1z ep tcat IOpe1zOgp rNuSI
4ueSI CNgO muzrteNzaSet2 eztN Oarc ezptgurteNz3 .cep zNt NzS2 rut INyz Nz tcO tNtaS
zuC4Og Nm ezptgurteNzp gO/uegOI tN eCoSOCOzt a ogN1gaCn azI tcOgOmNgO CaIO CNgO
OmmereOzt upO Nm a pSNy Caez COCNg2n 4ut et aSpN CaIO tcO appOC4S2RSaz1ua1O
ogN1gaCCOgQp SemO peCoSOg3
TNNzn IOpe1zOgp yOgO Ozcazrez1 tcOeg ezptgurteNz pOtp yetc ezptgurteNzp aeCOI
poOremeraSS2 at tcO appOC4S2 Saz1ua1O ogN1gaCCOg3 Turc OzcazrOCOztp ezrSuIOI ptgez1
CazeouSateNz NoOgateNzpn poOreaS SNNoez1 rNzptgurtpn azI poOreaS aIIgOppez1 CNIOp mNg
ezIOBez1 tcgNu1c ta4SOp ez COCNg23

8NgOBaCoSOb

AP:6AII6OreCaSyetcLBtOzI
A66AAIIAIIgOpp
A66TAIIyetcLBtOzI
ATMAgetcCOzterTcemtMOmt
:AT:NCoagOazITyaofoOgazIp
dP:6dO1atO6OreCaSyetcLBtOzI
LfUYMN1eraSLBrSupe-OfUYCCOIeatO
.AT .Opt foOgazI azI TOt

CISCphilosophy3:Buildhigh-levelinstructionsets

fzrO IOpe1zOgp ptagtOI 4ueSIez1 ogN1gaCCOgRmgeOzIS2 ezptgurteNz pOtpn tcO SN1eraS zOBt
ptOo yap tN 4ueSI ezptgurteNz pOtp ycerc Cao IegOrtS2 mgNC ce1cRSO-OS Saz1ua1Op3 dNt
NzS2 INOp tcep peCoSem2 tcO rNCoeSOg ygetOgQp tapFn 4ut et aSpN aSSNyp rNCoeSOgp tN OCet
mOyOg ezptgurteNzp oOg SezO Nm pNugrO rNIO3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

sNIOgz :YT: CergNogNrOppNgpn purc ap tcO ”x–––n eCo SOCOzt pO-OgaS purc
ezptgurteNzpn ezrSuIez1 gNutezOp mNg rgOatez1 azI gOCN-ez1 ptarF mgaCOp yetc a pez1SO
raSS3

8NgOBaCoSOb

6Prr.Opt:NzIeteNzn6OrgOCOztazIPgazrc
UfTMUNtatOyetcLBtOzIMOmt
U.UUOtugzazIUOptNgO:NIOp
TP:6Tu4tgart6OreCaSyetcLBtOzI
T5AlTyaogO1eptOg5NgIp
:slG :NCoagO UO1eptOg a1aezpt VooOg azI MNyOg PNuzI p
TheriseofCISC
:YT:6Ope1z6OrepeNzpb

upOCergNrNIO
   4ueSIgercezptgurteNzpOtp
4ueSIce1cRSO-OSezptgurteNzpOtp

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rNCoutOg IOpe1zp uzteS tcO SatO wXx–pn azI ep pteSS ez CaZNg upO tNIa23 9dNtO tcat
R:YT:R IeIzQt OztOg tcO rNCoutOg IOpe1zOgQp -Nra4uSag2 uzteS tcO aI-Ozt Nm UYT: RRR
et yap peCoS2 tcO ya2 tcat O-Og24NI2 IOpe1zOI rNCoutOgp3E

.cO zOBt SOppNz IepruppOp tcO rNCCNz rcagartOgepterp tcat aSS :YT: IOpe1zp
pcagOn azI cNy tcNpO rcagartOgepterp ammOrt tcO NoOgateNz Nm a :YT: CarcezO3

The disadvantages of CISC

TteSSn IOpe1zOgp pNNz gOaSe(OI tcat tcO :YT: oceSNpNoc2 caI etp Nyz ogN4SOCpn ezrSuIez1b

   LagSeOg 1OzOgateNzp Nm a ogNrOppNg maCeS2 1OzOgaSS2 yOgO rNztaezOI ap a pu4pOt ez
O-Og2 zOy -OgpeNz RRR pN ezptgurteNz pOt \ rceo cagIyagO 4OrNCO CNgO rNCoSOB yetc
Oarc 1OzOgateNz Nm rNCoutOgp3

   TN tcat ap Caz2 ezptgurteNzp ap oNppe4SO rNuSI 4O ptNgOI ez COCNg2 yetc tcO SOapt
oNppe4SO yaptOI poarOn ezIe-eIuaS ezptgurteNzp rNuSI 4O Nm aSCNpt az2 SOz1tcRRRtcep
COazp tcat IemmOgOzt ezptgurteNzp yeSS taFO IemmOgOzt aCNuztp Nm rSNrF teCO tN OBOrutOn
pSNyez1 INyz tcO N-OgaSS oOgmNgCazrO Nm tcO CarcezO3

  saz2 poOreaSe(OI ezptgurteNzp agOzQt upOI mgO/uOztS2 OzNu1c tN Zuptem2 tcOeg OBeptOzrO
RRR aoogNBeCatOS2 G–] Nm tcO a-aeSa4SO ezptgurteNzp agO upOI ez a t2oeraS ogN1gaC3

  :YT: ezptgurteNzp t2oeraSS2 pOt tcO rNzIeteNz rNIOp ap a peIO OmmOrt Nm tcO ezptgurteNz3
dNt NzS2 INOp pOttez1 tcO rNzIeteNz rNIOp taFO teCOn 4ut ogN1gaCCOgp ca-O tN

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

)wowo&w)ilviwjEoDtwilmwi(vtCDlDvti(vCwi&DlNi&wdv)wiEiNf&NwGfwtliDtNl)f(lDvti(mEt1wNi
them.
∑
RISC characteristics
∑
bmwi CwND1ti vdi lmwi DtNl)f(lDvti Nwli dv)i lmwi r)v(wNNv)i DNi )w) i Dorv)lEtli Dti lw)oNi vdi
(vorflw)iE)(mDlw(lf)w%i7lONilmwiDtNl)f(lDvtiNwlivdiEirE)lD(fAE)i(vorflw)ilmEliCwlw)oDtwNi
lmwi +E i lmEli oE(mDtwi AEt1fE1wi r)v1)EoNi E)wi (vtNl)f(lwC%i evorflw)i mE)C+E)wi DNi
Dor)v)DNwCi & i )E)DvfNi dE(lv)NQi Nf(mi ENi fr1)ECDt1i wjDNlDt1i ovCwANi lvi r)v)DCwi ov)wi
(fNlvow)iErrAD(ElDvtNiECCDt1iDtNl)f(lDvtNilmElidE(DADlElwilmwil)EtNAElDvtid)voimD1m!Aw)wAi
AEt1fE1wiDtlvioE(mDtwiAEt1fE1wir)v1)EoNiEtCiNl)D)Dt1ilviCw)wAvrioE(mDtwNilmEliov)wi
dft(lDvtNi d)voi Nvdl+E)wi DorAwowtlElDvti Dtlvi mE)C+E)wi DorAwowtlElDvt%i si (vorflw)i
+DlmiEiAE)1witfo&w)ivdiDtNl)f(lDvtNiDNi(AENNDdDwCiENiEi(vorAwjiDtNl)f(lDvtiNwli(vorflw)Qi
E&&)w)DElwCiENie7"e%i
∑
isti Dorv)lEtli ENrw(li vdi (vorflw)i E)(mDlw(lf)wi DNi lmwi CwND1ti vdi lmwi DtNl)f(lDvti Nwli dv)i
lmwir)v(wNNv)ii
bmwi DtNl)f(lDvti Nwli Cwlw)oDtwNi lmwi +E i lmEli oE(mDtwi AEt1fE1wi r)v1)EoNi E)wi
(vtNl)f(lwCii
• saz2 rNCoutOgp ca-O ezptgurteNzp pOtp Nm a4Nut w–– !i;@CiDtNl)f(lDvtNii
• bmwNwi (vorflw)Ni worAv i Ei )E)Dwl i vdi CElEi l rwNi EtCiEi AE)1wi tfo&w)i vdi
ECC)wNNDt1iovCwNi3i(vorAwjiDtNl)f(lDvtiNwli(vorflw)i/e7"e0ii
• si37"eifNwNidw+w)iDtNl)f(lDvtNi+DlmiNDorAwi(vtNl)f(lNiNvilmw i(Eti&wiwjw(flwCi
of(midENlw)i+DlmDtilmwie-.i+DlmvflimE)Dt1ilvifNwiowov) iENivdlwtii
∑∑
• bmwi wNNwtlDEAi 1vEAi vdi Ei e7"ei E)(mDlw(lf)wi DNi lvi Ellworli lvi r)v)DCwi Ei NDt1Awi
oE(mDtwiDtNl)f(lDvtidv)iwE(miNlElwowtlilmEliDNi+)DllwtiDtiEimD1m!Aw)wAiAEt1fE1wii
• bmwioEEv)i(mE)E(lw)DNlD(Nivdie7"eiE)(mDlw(lf)wiE)w9∑∑
B $E)1witfo&w)ivdiDtNl)f(lDvtNii
B "vowi DtNl)f(lDvtNi lmEli rw)dv)oi Nrw(DEAD2wCi lEN1Ni EtCi E)wi fNwCi
Dtd)wGfwtlA ii
B $E)1wi)E)Dwl ivdiECC)wNNDt1iovCwNii
B uE)DE&AwiAwt1lmiDtNl)f(lDvtidv)oElNii
B 7tNl)f(lDvtNilmElioEtDrfAElwivrw)EtCNiDtiowov) ii
• bmwi 1vEAi vdi 37"ei E)(mDlw(lf)wi DNi lvi )wCf(wi wjw(flDvti lDowi & i NDorADd Dt1i lmwi
DtNl)f(lDvtNiNwlii
∑
RISC Characteristics
bmwiwNNwtlDEAi1vEAivdi37"eiE)(mDlw(lf)wiDt)vA)wNiEtiEllworlilvi)wCf(wiwjw(flDvtilDowi& i
NDorADd Dt1i lmwi DtNl)f(lDvti Nwli vdi lmwi (vorflw)%i bmwi oEEv)i (mE)E(lw)DNlD(Ni vdi Ei 37"ei
r)v(wNNv)iE)w9i
a 3wAElD)wA idw+iDtNl)f(lDvtN%i
a 3wAElD)wA idw+iECC)wNNDt1iovCwN%i
a sOCNg2 arrOpp SeCetOI tN SNaI azI ptNgO ezptgurteNz←%∑

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

a uhhgnspmo envtgMnvpg+e yevg ypgmpEet pmtgnrg ypga-.%∑
a ,eApMghpvE ygpotehPgMp:nMpMgevt md: envgrnmio Og
a DevEhpk:P:hpgevt md: envgpAp:d envOg
a zomM+empMgmo ypmg yovgie:mnsmnEmoiipMg:nv mnhOg
∑
ug Pse:ohgLRDagsmn:pttnmgom:ye p: dmpgev:hdMptgmpEet pmk nkmpEet pmgnspmo envtcg+e ygnvhPg
teishpg hnoMg ovMg t nmpg nspmo envtg rnmg ipinmPg o::pttOg xydtg ypg nspmovMg etg :nMpg ev ng og
smn:pttnmgmpEet pmg+e ygoghnoMgevt md: envOguhhg:nisd o envohg ot1tgompgspmrnmipMgoinvEg
ypgMo ogt nmpMgevgsmn:pttnmgmpEet pmtgovMg+e yg ypgyphsgnrgt nmpgevt md: envtgmptdh tgompg
movtrpmmpMg ng ypgipinmPOgxyetgom:ye p: dmohgrpo dmpgteishereptg ypgevt md: envgtp govMg
pv:ndmoEptg ypg ns eie2o envg nrg mpEet pmg iovesdho envOg uhint g ohhg evt md: envtg yoTpg
teishpg mpEet pmg oMMmpttevEg tng nvhPg og rp+g oMMmpttevEg inMptg ompg d ehetpMOg w ypmg
oMMmpttevEginMptgioPgCpgev:hdMpMcgtd:ygotgeiipMeo pgnspmovMtgovMgmpho eTpginMpOguvg
oMTov oEpgnrgLRDagevt md: envgrnmio getg yo ge getgpotPg ngMp:nMpOg
uvgeisnm ov grpo dmpgnrgLRDagsmn:pttnmgetge tgoCehe Pg ngpAp:d pgnvpgevt md: envgspmg:hn:1g
:P:hpOgxyetgetgMnvpgCPgogsmn:pMdmpgmprpmmpMg ngotgsesphevevEOgughnoMgnmgt nmpgevt md: envg
ioPgvppMg +ng:hn:1g:P:hptgCp:odtpgo::pttg ngipinmPg:nvtdiptginmpg eipg yovgmpEet pmg
nspmo envtOgw ypmg:yomo: pmet e:tgo meCd pMg ngLRDagom:ye p: dmpgomp9g
a ugmpho eTphPghomEpgvdiCpmgnrgmpEet pmgevg ypgsmn:pttnmgdve Og
a .tpgnrgnTpmhosspMgmpEet pmg+evMn+tg ngtsppMkdsgsmn:pMdmpg:ohhgovMgmp dmvOg
a frre:epv gevt md: envgsesphevpOg
a anisehpmg tdssnm g rnmg prre:epv g movtho envg nrg yeEykhpTphg hovEdoEpg smnEmoitg ev ng
io:yevpghovEdoEpgsmnEmoitOg
∑
• Overlapped register windowsg ompgdtpMg ngsottgsomoip pmtgovMgoTneMtg ypgvppMg
rnmgtoTevEgovMgmpt nmevEgmpEet pmgTohdptgMdmevEgsmn:pMdmpg:ohhtgg
• fo:ygsmn:pMdmpg:ohhgo: eTo ptgogvp+gmpEet pmg+evMn+gCPgev:mpipv evEgogsnev pmcg
+yehpg ypgmp dmvgt o pipv gMp:mpipv tg ypgsnev pmgovMg:odtptg ypgo: eTo envgnrg
ypgsmpTendtg+evMn+gg
• .evMn+tgrnmgoMEo:pv g smn:pMdmptgyoTpgnTpmhossevEg mpEet pmtg yo gompgtyompMg ng
smnTeMpg ypgsottevEgnrgsomoip pmtgovMgmptdh tgg
∑∑
• fAoishp9gtPt pig+e ygA=gmpEet pmtgovMgrndmgsmn:pMdmptgg
a fo:ygsmn:pMdmpgyotgog n ohgnrg<;gmpEet pmtg+yehpgo: eTpgg
a :CgEhnCohgmpEet pmtgg
a :Cghn:ohgmpEet pmtgg
a >ghn+gnTpmhossevEgmpEet pmtgg
a >gyeEygnTpmhossevEgmpEet pmtgg
• Lpho envtyestgnrgmpEet pmg+evMn+tgg
a ^gnrgEhnCohgmpEet pmtgIg-gg
a ^gnrghn:ohgmpEet pmtgevgpo:yg+evMn+gIgIgg
a ^gnrg:niinvgmpEet pmtg ng +ng+evMn+tgIgagg
a ^gnrg+evMn+tgIg.gg
a +evMn+gte2pgIgIgHg;agHg-gg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

a n ohg^gnrgmpEet pmtgIg/IgHga0.gHg-gg
g
xypgremt ga-.tgyoMgogtng:ohhpMgComplex Instruction Set Computer (CISC).g
xyetg ipovtg yo g ypg :nisd pmg :ovg dvMpmt ovMg iovPg ovMg :nishpAg
evt md: envtOg xypg TB>g evt md: envg tp cg +e yg e tg TomPevEg hpvE yg rmnig Bg ng
:;Cg Ce cg +otg nmeEevohhPg MpTphnspMg rnmg ypg BCB>g +e yg e tg ipmpg ;?CCCg
movtet nmtOgg
g
Snmpgevt md: envtgyoTpgCppvgoMMpMg+e yevgvp+gEpvpmo envtgnrga-.tOgxypg
BC<B>g yoMg ;>g vp+g evt md: envtcg ypg =B>g oMMpMg >g ovMg ypg -pv edig
ovn ypmg Bg vp+g evt md: envtOg xyetg ipov cg yo g smnEmoitg yoMg ng Cpg
mp+me pvg ngdtpg yptpgvp+gevt md: envtOgxyetgyosspvpMgrnmgpAoishpg+e yg
vp+g Tpmtenvtg nrg .evMn+tg Og zpv:pcg tnipg smnEmoitg mpGdempg og <B>g nmg og
-pv edigsmn:pttnmg ngrdv: envOgg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

UNIT 6

INPUT-OUTPUT ORGANIZATION

6.2 StDIaetiek/MoaiI/e
6.2.1 G/tl/MppIDehD0e
6.2.2 hokI//dsk2hogkgMkIDehD0e
6.3 eG/gt/gk1egokI//dske
6.3.1 9Mga12nUMgogoles/gt/gk1e
6.3.2 GM/MyyIyes/gt/gk1egokI//dske
6.3.3 hokI//dsken1nyIe
6.4 e9SPe
6.4.1 9SPectok/tyyI/e
6.4.2 9SPeR/MoaiI/e
6.5 ehosdk20dksdkeG/tnIaat/e4h0G6e
6.5.1 cG32h0GectppdognMkgtoe
6.5.2 WI/gMyectppdognMkgtoe
6.5.3 cUM/MnkI/20/gIokIDeG/tktntye
6.5.4 gk20/gIokIDeG/tktntye
e >b@eeeeeeStDIaetiek/MoaiI/e

6.1.1 Programmed I/O

RUIeagpsyIakeak/MkIl1eit/eUMoDygolentppdognMkgtoeHIkEIIoekUIecG3eMoDeMoehD0e
ptDdyIe gaeprogrammed I/Obe 3agole kUgae ak/MkIl1Oe kUIe cG3e gae /IastoagHyIe it/e Myye
ntppdognMkgtoe EgkUe hD0e ptDdyIaOe H1e IuIndkgole goak/dnkgtoae EUgnUe ntok/tye kUIe
MkkMnUIDeDI5gnIaOet/ek/MoaiI/eDMkMbee
Ft/eIuMpsyIOegiekUIecG3eEMokIDekteaIoDeDMkMekteMeDI5gnIedagoles/tl/MppIDehD0Oe
gke EtdyDe ig/ake gaadIe Moe goak/dnkgtoe kte kUIe Mss/ts/gMkIe hD0e ptDdyIe kte kIyye gke kte
IusInkeDMkMbeRUIecG3epdakekUIoeEMgkedokgyekUIeptDdyIe/IastoDaeHIit/IeaIoDgole
kUIeDMkMbehiekUIeptDdyIegaeaytEI/ekUMoekUIecG3OekUIoekUIecG3epM1eMyateUM5Iekte
EMgkedokgyekUIek/MoaiI/egaentpsyIkIbeRUgaenMoeHIe5I/1egoIiigngIokbee
PotkUI/e s/tHyIpe Iugakae gie kUIe cG3e pdake /IMDe DMkMe i/tpe Me DI5gnIe adnUe Mae Me
TI1HtM/DbeA5I/1eatetikIoekUIecG3epdakegaadIeMoegoak/dnkgtoektekUIeMss/ts/gMkIe
hD0e ptDdyIe kte aIIe gie Mo1e TI1ae UM5Ie HIIoe s/IaaIDbe RUgae gae Myate Iuk/IpIy1e
goIiigngIokbectoaIGdIoky1ekUgaeak/MkIl1egaetoy1edaIDegoe5I/1eapMyyepgn/ts/tnIaat/e
ntok/tyyIDeDI5gnIabee

6.1.2 Interrupt Driven I/O

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

uD)lfEAA i EAAi (vorflw)Ni r)v)DCwi Ei ow(mEtDNoi i +mD(mi vlmw)i ovCfAwNi /7D#Qi owov) i 0i
oE i Dtlw))frli lmwi tv)oEAi r)v(wNNDt1i vdi lmwi e-.%i bE&Awi <%:i ADNlNi lmwi ovNli (voovti
(AENNwNi vdi Dtlw))frlN%i bmwi Nrw(DdD(i tElf)wi vdi lmwNwi Dtlw))frlNi DNi wjEoDtwCi AElw)i Dti lmDNi
&vv1QiNrw(DEAA iDti(mErlw)Ni>iEtCi::%i*v+w)w)Qi+witwwCilviiDtl)vCf(wilmwi(vt(wrlitv+i
Dti v)Cw)i lvi ftCw)NlEtCi ov)wi (AwE)A i lmwi tElf)wi vdi ilmwi DtNl)f(lDvti ( (Awi EtCi lmwi
DorAD(ElDvtNi vdi Dtlw))frlNi vti lmwi Dtlw)(vttw(lDvti Nl)f(lf)w%i bmwi )wECw)i twwCi tvli &wi
(vt(w)twCiElilmDNiNlE1wiE&vflilmwiCwlEDANivdilmwi1wtw)ElDvtiEtCir)v(wNNDt1ivdiDtlw))frlNQi
&flivtA idv(fNivtilmwi(vooftD(ElDvti&wl+wwtiiovCfAwNilmEli)wNfAlNid)voiDtlw))frlN%ii
7tlw))frlNi E)wi r)v)DCwCi r)DoE)DA i ENi Ei +E i lvi Dor)v)wi r)v(wNNDt1i wddD(Dwt( %i ,v)i
wjEorAwQiovNliwjlw)tEAiCw)D(wNiE)wiof(miNAv+w)ilmEtilmwiir)v(wNNv)%i"frrv)lilmElii
∑
∑
∑
-)v1)Eoi iiiiawtw)ElwCi& iNvowi(vtCDlDvtilmEliv((f)N iENiEi)wNfAlivdiEtiDtNl)f(lDvtiiii
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiwjw(flDvtQiNf(miiiENiE)DlmowlD(iv)w)dAv+QiCD)DNDvti& i2w)vQiEllworlilviiii
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiwjw(flwi Eti DAAw1EAi oE(mDtwi DtNl)f(lDvtQi i EtCi )wdw)wt(wi vflNDCwi Ei
fNw)ONiiiii
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiEAAv+wCiowov) iNrE(w%ii∑∑
bDow)ii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiawtw)ElwCi& iEiilDow)ii+DlmDtilmwir)v(wNNv)QibmDNiEAAv+Nilmwivrw)ElDt1iii
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiN Nlwoilvirw)dv)oi(w)lEDtidft(lDvtNivtiEi)w1fAE)i&ENDN%i
7D#ii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiawtw)ElwCi& iEti7D#i(vtl)vAAw)QilviND1tEAitv)oEAi(vorAwlDvtivdiEtiii
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiivrw)ElDvtiv)ilviND1tEAiEi)E)Dwl ivdiw))v)i(vtCDlDvtN%i
*E)C+E)widEDAf)wiiawtw)ElwCi& iEidEDAf)wiNf(miENirv+w)idEDAf)wiv)iowov) irE)Dl iw))v)%ii
∑
bmwi r)v(wNNv)i DNi l)EtNdw))Dt1i CElEi lvi Ei r)Dtlw)i fNDt1i lmwi DtNl)f(lDvti ( (Awi N(mwowi vdi
,D1f)wi<%<%isdlw)iiwE(mi+)Dlwivrw)ElDvtQilmwir)v(wNNv)i+DAAimE)wilvirEfNwiEtCi)woEDtiDCAwi
ftlDAi lmwi r)Dtlw)i (El(mwNi fr%i *wi Awt1lmi vdi lmDNi rEfNwi (Eti &wi vti lmwi v)Cw)i vdi oEt i
mftC)wCNiv)iw)wtilmvfNEtCNivdiDtNl)f(lDvti( (AwNilmEliCvitvliDt)vA)wiowov) %ieAwE)A Qi
lmDNi DNi Ei )w) i +ENlwdfAi fNwi vdi lmwi r)v(wNNv)%i 'DlmiDtlw))frlNQi lmwi r)v(wNNv)i (Eti &wi
wt1E1wCiDtiwjw(flDt1ivlmw)iDtNl)f(lDvtNi+mDAwiEti7D#ivrw)ElDvtiDNiDtir)v1)wNN%ii
∑
,D1f)wi <%AEi DAAfNl)ElwNi lmDNi NlElwi vdi EddED)Ni dv)i lmwi ErrAD(ElDvti )wdw))wCi i lvi Dti lmwi
r)w(wCDt1i rE)E1)Erm%i *wi fNw)i r)v1)Eoi rw)dv)oNi Ei Nw)DwNi vdi '37bki (EAANi Dtlw)!AwE)wCi
+Dlmi r)v(wNNDt1%i evCwi Nw1owtlNi :Q;Qi EtCi <i )wdw)i lviNwGfwt(wNi vdi DtNl)f(lDvtNi lmEli Cvi
tvliDt)vA)wi7D#%ibmwi'37bki(EAANiE)wi(EAANilviEti7D#ir)v1)Eoi(vtNDNlNivdilm)wwiNw(lDvtN9i
• siNwGfwt(wivdiDtNl)f(lDvtNQiAE&wAwCi=iDtilmwidD1f)wQilvir)wrE)widv)ilmwiE(lfEAi7D#i
vrw)ElDvt%ibmDNioE iDt(AfCwi(vr Dt1ilmwiCElEilvi&wivflrfliDtlviEiNrw(DEAi&fddw)Qi
EtCir)wrE)Dt1ilmwirE)Eowlw)Nidv)iEiCw)D(wi(vooEtC%i
• bmwiE(lfEAi7D#i(vooEtC%i'DlmvflilmwifNwivdiDtlw))frlNQivt(wilmDNi(vooEtCiDNi
DNNfwCQi i lmwi r)v1)Eoi ofNli i +EDli dv)i lmwi 7D#i Cw)D(wilvi rw)dv)oi lmwi )wGfwNlwCi
dft(lDvt%i *wi r)v1)Eoi oD1mli +EDli & i NDorA i )wrwElwCA i rw)dv)oDt1i Ei lwNli
vrw)ElDvtilviCwlw)oDtwiDdilmwi7D#ivrw)ElDvtiDNiCvtw%∑

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

• ug tpGdpv:pg nrg evt md: envtcg hoCphpMg @g evg ypg reEdmpcg ng :nishp pg ypg nspmo envcgg
xyetgioPgev:hdMpgtp evEgogrhoEgevMe:o evEg ypgtd::pttgnmgroehdmpgnrg ypgnspmo envOgg
∑
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snev gnrg ypg.LRxfg:ohhgrnmgtnipg:nvteMpmoChpgspmenMgnrg eipOg
∑
uginmpg:niinvgt mo pEPgetg ngdtpginterrupt driven I/OOgxyetgt mo pEPgohhn+tg ypga-.g ng
:ommPgnvg+e yge tgn ypmgnspmo envtgdv ehg ypginMdhpgetgmpoMPg ng movtrpmgMo oOg.ypvg ypg
a-.g +ov tg ng :niidve:o pg +e yg og MpTe:pcg e g ettdptg ovg evt md: envg ng ypg ossmnsmeo pg
RDwginMdhpcgovMg ypvg:nv evdptg+e ygn ypmgnspmo envtOg.ypvg ypgMpTe:pgetgmpoMPcge g+ehhg
interruptg ypga-.Ogxypga-.g:ovg ypvg:ommPgnd g ypgMo og movtrpmgotgCprnmpOgg
∑
xyetgohtngmpinTptg ypgvppMgrnmg ypga-.g ng:nv evdohhPgsnhhgevsd gMpTe:ptg ngtppgerge gidt g
mpoMg ovPg Mo oOg .ypvg ovg evsd g MpTe:pg yotg Mo ocg ypvg ypg ossmnsmeo pg RDwg inMdhpg :ovg
ev pmmds g ypga-.g ngmpGdpt gogMo og movtrpmOgg
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ypgoMMmpttgnrg ypgossmnsmeo pgev pmmds gyovMevEgmnd evpOgg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Memory Mapped and Isolated I/O

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Interrupts and the Instruction Cycle
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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6 Figure Transfer of control via interrupts
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7 Figure Instruction cycle with interrupts
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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8 Figure Program timing; short I/O wait
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Pae Moe IuMpsyIe tie kUgae aIntoDe e Mss/tMnUOe ntoagDI/e Mea1akIpe EgkUe kU/IIe hD0e DI5gnIa9e Me
s/gokI/Oe Me DgaTe Oe MoDe Me ntppdognMkgtoae ygoIOe EgkUe gon/IMagole s/gt/gkgIae tie ;O=e MoDe @e
/IasInkg5Iy1beFgld/Ie<b:=egyydak/MkIaeMestaagHyIeaIGdIonIbePedaI/es/tl/MpeHIlgoaeMkekeIeCe
bePkekeI:COeMes/gokI/egokI//dsketnnd/eKeedaI/egoit/pMkgtoegaesyMnIDetoekUIea1akIpeakMnTOe
MoDeIuIndkgtoentokgodIaeMkekUIes/gokI/egokI//dskeaI/5gnIe/tdkgoIe4hWx6be-UgyIekUgae/tdkgoIe
gae akgyye IuIndkgolOe Mke ke e Ie :@Oe Me ntppdognMkgtoae gokI//dske tnnd/abe WgonIe kUIe
ntppdognMkgtoaeygoIeeUMaeUglUI/es/gt/gk1ekUMoekUIes/gokI/OekUIegokI//dskegaeUtot/IDbeRUIe
s/gokI/ehWxegaegokI//dskIDOegkaeakMkIeegaesdaUIDetoktekUIeakMnTOeMoDeIuIndkgtoentokgodIae
MkekUIentppdognMkgtoaehWxbe-UgyIekUgae/tdkgoIegaeIuIndkgoleOeMeDgaTeeegokI//dsketnnd/ae4ke
Ie;C6beWgonIekUgaegokI//dskegaetieytEI/es/gt/gk1Oegkegaeagpsy1eUIyDOeMoDekUIentppdognMkgtoae
hWxe/doaektentpsyIkgtobee
e
-UIoe kUIe ntppdognMkgtoae hWxe gae ntpsyIkIe 4e ke Ie ;@6OekUIe s/I5gtdae s/tnIaat/e akMkIe gae
/Iakt/IDOe EUgnUe gae kUIe IuIndkgtoe tie kUIe s/gokI/e hWxbe 8tEI5I/Oe HIit/Ie I5Ioe Me agolyIe
goak/dnkgtoe goe kUMke /tdkgoIe nMoe HIe IuIndkIDOe kUIe s/tnIaat/e Utot/ae UIe UglUI/2s/gt/gk1e
DgaTegokI//dskeMoDentok/tyek/MoaiI/aektekUIeDgaTehWxbe0oy1eEUIoekUMke/tdkgoIegaentpsyIkIe
4keIe<@6egaekUIes/gokI/ehWxe/IadpIDbe-UIoekUMke/tdkgoIentpsyIkIae4keIe=C6Oentok/tyeigoMyy1e
/Ikd/oaeektekUIedaI/es/tl/Mpbee
e
6.2 Priority Interrupt

Pes/gt/gk1egokI//dskeIakMHygaUIaeMes/gt/gk1ekteDIngDIeEUgnUentoDgkgtoegaekteHIeaI/5gnIDeig/ake
EUIoe kEte t/e pt/Ie /IGdIakae M//g5Ie agpdykMoItday1be RUIe a1akIpe pM1e Myate DIkI/pgoIe
EUgnUe ntoDgkgtoae M/Ie sI/pgkkIDe kte gokI//dske kUIe ntpsdkI/e EUgyIe MotkUI/e gokI//dske gae
HIgole aI/5gnIDbe 8glUI/2s/gt/gk1e gokI//dske yI5Iyae M/Ie MaagloIDe kte /IGdIakaOe EUgnUe gie
DIyM1IDe t/e gokI//dskIDOe ntdyDe UM5Ie aI/gtdae ntoaIGdIonIabe 9I5gnIae EgkUe UglU2e asIIDe
k/MoaiI/aeM/Ielg5IoeUglUes/gt/gk1OeMoDeaytEeDI5gnIae/InIg5IeytEes/gt/gk1be-UIoekEteDI5gnIae
gokI//dske kUIe ntpsdkI/e Mke kUIe aMpIe kgpIOe kUIe ntpsdkI/e aI/5gnIae kUIe DI5gnIOe EgkUe kUIe
UglUI/es/gt/gk1eig/akbeAakMHygaUgolekUIes/gt/gk1etieagpdykMoItdaegokI//dskaenMoeHIeDtoIeH1e
atikEM/Ie t/e UM/DEM/Ibe -Ie nMoe daIe Me styygole s/tnIDd/Ie kte gDIokgi1e kUIe UglUIak2s/gt/gk1be
RUI/IegaetoIentpptoeH/MonUeMDD/Iaaeit/eMyyegokI//dskabeRUIes/tl/MpekUMkekMTIaenM/Ietie
gokI//dskae HIlgoae Mke kUIe H/MonUe MDD/Iaae MoDe styyae kUIe gokI//dske atd/nIae goe aIGdIonIbe
RUIet/DI/egoeEUgnUekUI1eM/IekIakIDeDIkI/pgoIaekUIes/gt/gk1etieIMnUegokI//dskbe-IekIakekUIe
UglUIak2s/gt/gk1e atd/nIe ig/akOe MoDe gie gkae gokI//dske agloMye gae toOe ntok/tye H/MonUIae kte Me
aI/5gnIe/tdkgoIeit/ekUgaeatd/nIbe0kUI/EgaIOekUIeoIuk2ytEI/2s/gt/gk1eatd/nIegaekIakIDOeMoDe
ate tobe RUdae kUIe gogkgMye aI/5gnIe /tdkgoIe gokI//dskaentoagakae tie Me s/tl/Mpe kUMke kIakae kUIe
gokI//dskeatd/nIaegoeaIGdIonIeMoDe H/MonUIaektetoIetiepMo1e staagHyIeaI/5gnIe/tdkgoIabe
RUIesM/kgndyM/eaI/5gnIe/tdkgoIe/IMnUIDeHIytolaektekUIeUglUIak2s/gt/gk1eDI5gnIeMptoleMyye
DI5gnIaekUMkegokI//dskIDekUIentpsdkI/bee
e

6.2.1 Daisy-Chaining Priority

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.cO Iaep2Rrcaezez1 COtcNI cap a pOgeaS rNzzOrteNz Nm aSS IO-erOp tcat gO/uOpt az
eztOgguot3 .cO IO-erO yetc tcO ce1cOpt ogeNget2 ep FOot ez tcO megpt oNpeteNzn mNSSNyOI 42
SNyOgRogeNget2 IO-erOp azI pN Nz3 .cep COtcNI Nm rNzzOrteNz ep pcNyz ez 8e13”3KG3 .cO
eztOgguot gO/uOpt SezO ep rNCCNz tN aSS IO-erOp azI mNgCp a yegOI SN1er rNzzOrteNz3 Ym
az2 IO-erO cap etp eztOgguot pe1zaS ez tcO SNyRSO-OS ptatOn tcO eztOgguot SezO 1NOp tN tcO
SNyRSO-OS ptatO azI Oza4SOp tcO eztOgguot ezout ez tcO :lV3 5cOz zN eztOgguotp agO
oOzIez1n tcO eztOgguot SezO pta2p ez tcO ce1cRSO-OS ptatO azI ap a gOpuSt :lV INOp zNt
gOrN1ze(O az2 eztOgguot3 .cep ep O/ue-aSOzt tN a zO1ate-O SN1er fU NoOgateNz3 .cO :lV
gOpoNzIp tN az eztOgguot gO/uOpt 42 Oza4Sez1 tcO eztOgguot arFzNySOI1O SezO3 .cep pe1zaS
ep gOrOe-OI 42 IO-erO w at etp lY 9ogeNget2 ezE ezout3 .cO arFzNySOI1O pe1zaS oappOp Nz tN
tcO zOBt IO-erO tcgNu1c tcO lf 9ogeNget2 NutE Nutout NzS2 em IO-erO w ep zNt gO/uOptez1 az
eztOgguot3 Ym IO-erO Y cap a oOzIez1 eztOgguotn et 4SNrFp tcO arFzNySOI1O pe1zaS mgNC tcO
zOBt IO-erO 42 oSarez1 a – ez tcO lf Nutout3 Yt tcOz ogNrOOIp tN ezpOgt etp Nyz eztOgguot
-OrtNg aIIgOpp 9iA6E eztN tcO Iata 4up mNg tcO :lV tN upO Iugez1 tcO eztOgguot r2rSO3

A IO-erO yetc lYI– ezout 1OzOgatOp a – ez etp lf Nutout tN ezmNgC tcO zOBtRSNyOgRogeNget2
IO-erO tcat tcO arFzNySOI1O pe1zaS cap 4OOz 4SNrFOI3 A IO-erO tcat CaFOp a gO/uOpt mNg
az eztOgguot azI cap a Y ez etp le ezout yeSS eztOgrOot tcO arFzNySOI1O pe1zaS 42 oSarez1
a – ez etp lf Nutout3 Ym tcO IO-erO INOp zNt ca-O oOzIez1 eztOgguotpn et tgazpCetp tcO
arFzNySOI1O pe1zaS tN tcO zOBt IO-erO 42 oSarez1 a w ez etp lf Nutout3 .cup tcO IO-erO
yetc lY I w azI lf I – ep tcO NzO yetc tcO ce1cOpt ogeNget2 tcat ep gO/uOptez1 az
eztOgguotn azI tcep IO-erO oSarOp etp iA6 Nz tcO Iata 4up3 .cO Iaep2 rcaez aggaz1OCOzt
1e-Op tcO ce1cOpt ogeNget2 tN tcO IO-erO tcat gOrOe-Op tcO eztOgguot arFzNySOI1O pe1zaS
mgNC tcO :lV3 .cO magtcOg tcO IO-erO ep mgNC tcO megpt oNpeteNzn tcO SNyOg ep etp ogeNget23

8e1ugO ”3KGb 6aep2Rrcaez ogeNget2 eztOgguot

8e1ugO ”3KK pcNyp tcO eztOgzaS SN1er tcat Cupt 4O ezrSuIOI yetcez Oarc IO-erO ycOz
rNzzOrtOI ez tcO Iaep2Rrcaezez1 prcOCO3 .cO IO-erO pOtp etp U8 mSeoRmSNo ycOz et yaztp
tN eztOgguot tcO :lV3 .cO Nutout Nm tcO U8 mSeoRmSNo 1NOp tcgNu1c az NoOzRrNSSOrtNg
ez-OgtOg 9a regruet tcat ogN-eIOp tcO yegOI SN1er mNg tcO rNCCNz eztOgguot SezOE3 Ym lY I –n
4Ntc lf azI tcO Oza4SO SezO tN iA6 agO O/uaS tN –n eggOpoOrte-O Nm tcO -aSuO Nm U83 Ym lY I
w azI U8I –n tcOz lf I w azI tcO -OrtNg aIIgOpp ep Iepa4SOI3 .cep rNzIeteNz oappOp tcO

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

arFzNySOI1O pe1zaS tN tcO zOBt IO-erO tcgNu1c lf3 .cO IO-erO ep arte-O ycOz lY I w azI
U8 I w3 .cep rNzIeteNz oSarOp a – ez lf azI Oza4SOp tcO -OrtNg aIIgOpp mNg tcO Iata 4up3
Yt ep appuCOI tcat Oarc IO-erO cap etp Nyz Ieptezrt -OrtNg aIIgOpp3 .cO U8 mSeoRmSNo ep
gOpOt amtOg a pummereOzt IOSa2 tN OzpugO tcat tcO :lV cap gOrOe-OI tcO -OrtNg aIIgOpp3

6.2.2 Parallel Priority Interrupt

.cO COtcNI upOp a gO1eptOg ycNpO 4etp agO pOt pOoagatOS2 42 tcO eztOgguot pe1zaS mgNC
Oarc IO-erO3 dNy yO Opta4Sepc tcO ogeNget2 arrNgIez1 tN tcO oNpeteNz Nm tcO 4etp ez tcO
gO1eptOg3 Yz aIIeteNz tN tcO eztOgguot gO1eptOgn tcO regruet Ca2 ezrSuIO a CapF gO1eptOg
ycNpO ougoNpO ep tN rNztgNS tcO ptatup Nm Oarc eztOgguot gO/uOpt3 .cO CapF gO1eptOg raz
4O ogN1gaCCOI tN Iepa4SO SNyOgRogeNget2 eztOgguotp yceSO a ce1cOgRogeNget2 IO-erO ep
4Oez1 pOg-erOI3 Yt raz aSpN ogN-eIO a mareSet2 tcat aSSNyp a ce1cRogeNget2 IO-erO tN
eztOgguot tcO yceSO a SNyOgRogeNget2 IO-erO ep 4Oez1 pOg-erOI3

8e1ugO ”3KKb fzO pta1O Nm tcO Iaep2Rrcaez ogeNget2 aggaz1OCOzt

8e13 ”3K“ pcNyp tcO ogeNget2 SN1er mNg a p2ptOC Nm mNug eztOgguot pNugrOp3 Yt cap az
eztOgguot gO1eptOg3 .cO 4etp Nm tcep gO1eptOg agO OBtOgzaS rNzIeteNzp azI rSOagOI 42
ogN1gaC ezptgurteNzp3 .cO Ca1zOter IepFn 4Oez1 a ce1cRpoOOI IO-erOn ep 1e-Oz tcO
ce1cOpt ogeNget23 .cO ogeztOg cap tcO zOBt ogeNget2n mNSSNyOI 42 a rcagartOg gOaIOg azI a
FO24NagI3 .cO CapF gO1eptOg cap tcO paCO zuC4Og Nm 4etp ap tcO eztOgguot gO1eptOg3 P2
COazp Nm ogN1gaC ezptgurteNzpn et ep oNppe4SO tN pOt Ng gOpOt az2 4et ez tcO CapF gO1eptOg3
Larc eztOgguot 4et azI etp rNggOpoNzIez1 CapF 4et agO aooSeOI tN az Ad6 1atO tN
ogNIurO tcO mNug ezoutp tN a ogeNget2 OzrNIOg3 Yz tcep ya2 az eztOgguot ep gOrN1ze(OI NzS2

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

em etp rNggOpoNzIez1 CapF 4et ep pOt tN w 42 tcO ogN1gaC3 .cO ogeNget2 OzrNIOg 1OzOgatOp
tyN 4etp Nm tcO -OrtNg aIIgOppn ycerc ep tgazpmOggOI tN tcO :lV3

AzNtcOg Nutout mgNC tcO OzrNIOg pOtp az eztOgguot ptatup mSeoRmSNo YT. ycOz az
eztOgguot tcat ep zNt CapFOI Nrrugp3 .cO eztOgguot Oza4SO mSeoRmSNo YLd raz 4O pOt Ng
rSOagOI 42 tcO ogN1gaC tN ogN-eIO az N-OgaSS rNztgNS N-Og tcO eztOgguot p2ptOC3 .cO
Nutoutp Nm wT. Ad6 yetc YLd ogN-eIO a rNCCNz eztOgguot pe1zaS mNg tcO :lV3 .cO
eztOgguot arFzNySOI1O Yd.A:? pe1zaS mNgC tcO :lV Oza4SOp tcO 4up 4ummOgp ez tcO
Nutout gO1eptOg azI a -OrtNg aIIgOpp iA6 ep oSarOI eztN tcO Iata 4up3 5O yeSS zNy
OBoSaez tcO ogeNget2 OzrNIOg regruet azI tcOz Ieprupp tcO eztOgarteNz 4OtyOOz tcO
ogeNget2 eztOgguot rNztgNSSOg azI tcO :lV3

8e1ugO ”3K“b lgeNget2 eztOgguot cagIyagO

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
6.2.3 Interrupt Cycle

.cO eztOgguot CaFOp mSeoRmSNo YLd pN tcat raz 4O pOt Ng rSOagOI 42 ogN1gaC ezptgurteNzp3
5cOz YLd ep rSOagOIn tcO eztOgguot gO/uOpt rNCez1 mgNC wT. ep zO1SOrtOI 42 tcO :lV3
.cO ogN1gaCRrNztgNSSOI YLd 4et aSSNyp tcO ogN1gaCCOg tN rcNNpO ycOtcOg tN upO tcO
eztOgguot mareSet23 Ym az ezptgurteNz tN rSOag YLd cap 4OOz ezpOgtOI ez tcO ogN1gaCn et
COazp tcat tcO upOg INOp zNt yazt cep ogN1gaC tN 4O eztOgguotOI3 Az ezptgurteNz tN pOt
YLd ezIeratOp tcat tcO eztOgguot mareSet2 yeSS 4O upOI yceSO tcO ruggOzt ogN1gaC ep
guzzez13 sNpt rNCoutOgp ezrSuIO eztOgzaS cagIyagO tcat rSOagp YLd tN – O-Og2 teCO az
eztOgguot ep arFzNySOI1OI 42 tcO ogNrOppNg3
∑
:lV rcOrFp YLd azI tcO eztOgguot pe1zaS mgNC YT. at tcO OzI Nm Oarc ezptgurteNz r2rSO
tcO3 Ym OetcOg –n rNztgNS rNztezuOp yetc tcO zOBt ezptgurteNz3 Ym 4Ntc YLd azI YT. agO
O/uaS tN wn tcO :lV 1NOp tN az eztOgguot r2rSO3 6ugez1 tcO eztOgguot r2rSO tcO :lV
oOgmNgCp tcO mNSSNyez1 pO/uOzrO Nm CergNRNoOgateNzp9∑
SP
←Tl ) w 6OrgOCOzt ptarF oNeztOg
s XTlN ← l: lupc l: eztN ptarF
Yd.A:? ←w Lza4SO eztOgguot arFzNySOI1O
PC←iA6 .gazpmOg -OrtNg aIIgOpp tN l:
IEN←– 6epa4SO mugtcOg eztOgguotp
hN tN mOtrc zOBt ezptgurteNz
∑
.cO gOtugz aIIgOpp ep oupcOI mgNC l: eztN tcO ptarF3 Yt tcOz arFzNySOI1Op tcO
eztOgguot 42 Oza4Sez1 tcO Yd.A:? SezO3 .cO ogeNget2 eztOgguot uzet gOpoNzIp 42 oSarez1 a
uze/uO eztOgguot -OrtNg eztN tcO :lV Iata 4up3 .cO :lV tgazpmOgp tcO -OrtNg aIIgOpp
eztN l: azI rSOagp YLd ogeNg tN 1Nez1 tN tcO zOBt mOtrc ocapO3 .cO ezptgurteNz gOaI mgNC
COCNg2 Iugez1 tcO zOBt mOtrc ocapO yeSS 4O tcO NzO SNratOI at tcO -OrtNg aIIgOpp3
TNmtyagO UNutezOp
∑
A ogeNget2 eztOgguot p2ptOC upOp 4Ntc cagIyagO azI pNmtyagO tOrcze/uOp3 dNy yO
Ieprupp tcO pNmtyagO gNutezOp mNg tcep3 .cO rNCoutOg Cupt aSpN ca-O pNmtyagO gNutezOp
mNg pOg-erez1 tcO eztOgguot gO/uOptp azI mNg rNztgNSSez1 tcO eztOgguot cagIyagO gO1eptOgp3
8e1ugO ”3K' pcNyp tcO ogN1gaCp tcat Cupt gOpeIO ez COCNg2 mNg cazISez1 tcO eztOgguot
p2ptOC3 Larc IO-erO cap etp Nyz pOg-erO ogN1gaC tcat raz 4O gOaI tcgNu1c a ZuCo

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

9HslE ezptgurteNz ptNgOI at tcO appe1zOI -OrtNg aIIgOpp3 .cO p2C4NSer zaCO Nm Oarc
gNutezO gOogOpOztp tcO ptagtez1 aIIgOpp Nm tcO pOg-erO ogN1gaC3 .cO ptarF pcNyz ez tcO
Iea1gaC ep upOI mNg ptNgez1 tcO gOtugz aIIgOpp amtOg Oarc eztOgguoteNz3

8e1ugO ”3K'b lgN1gaCp ptNgOI ez COCNg2 mNg pOg-erez1 eztOgguotp

dNy yO taFO az OBaCoSO tN eSSuptgatO et3 MOt tcO FO24NagI pOtp eztOgguot 4et yceSO tcO
:lV ep OBOrutez1 tcO ezptgurteNz ez SNrateNz v“X Nm Caez ogN1gaC3 At tcO OzI Nm tcO
ezptgurteNz r2rSOn tcO rNCoutOg 1NOp tN eztOgguot r2rSO3 Yt ptNgOp tcO gOtugz aIIgOpp v'–
ez tcO ptarF azI tcOz arrOotp tcO -OrtNg aIIgOpp ––––––ww mgNC tcO 4up azI tgazpmOgp
et tN l:3 .cO ezptgurteNz ez SNrateNz K ep OBOrutOI zOBtn gOpuStez1 ez tgazpmOg Nm rNztgNS tN
tcO ?P6 gNutezO3 dNy puooNpO tcat tcO IepF pOtp etp eztOgguot 4et ycOz tcO :lV ep
OBOrutez1 tcO ezptgurteNz at aIIgOpp G'' ez tcO ?P6 ogN1gaC3 AIIgOpp G'” ep oupcOI
eztN tcO ptarF azI rNztgNS ep tgazpmOggOI tN tcO 6YT? pOg-erO ogN1gaC3 .cO Sapt
ezptgurteNz ez Oarc gNutezO ep a gOtugz mgNC eztOgguot ezptgurteNz3 5cOz tcO IepF pOg-erO
ogN1gaC ep rNCoSOtOIn tcO gOtugz ezptgurteNz oNop tcO ptarF azI oSarOp G'” eztN l:3
.cep gOtugzp rNztgNS tN tcO ?P6 gNutezO tN rNztezuO pOg-erez1 tcO FO24NagI3 At tcO OzI
Nm tcO ?P6 ogN1gaCn tcO Sapt ezptgurteNz oNop tcO ptarF azI gOtugzp rNztgNS tN tcO Caez
ogN1gaC at aIIgOpp v'–3 .cupn a ce1cOgRogeNg IO-erO raz eztOgguot a SNyOgRogeNget2
IO-erO3 Yt ep appuCOI tcat tcO teCO poOzt ez pOg-erez1 tcO ce1cRogeNget2 eztOgguot ep pcNgt
rNCoagOI tN tcO tgazpmOg gatO Nm tcO SNyRogeNget2 IO-erO pN tcat zN SNpp Nm ezmNgCateNz
taFOp oSarO3

Initial and Final Operations

5O pcNuSI gOCOC4Og tcat tcO eztOgguot Oza4SO YLd ep rSOagOI at tcO OzI Nm az eztOgguot
r2rSO3 .cep mSeoRmSNo Cupt 4O pOt a1aez tN Oza4SO ce1cOgRogeNget2 eztOgguot gO/uOptpn 4ut
zNt 4OmNgO SNyOgRogeNget2 eztOgguotp agO Iepa4SOI3 .cO ezeteaS pO/uOzrO Nm Oarc eztOgguot

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

aI/5gnIe /tdkgoIe pdake UM5Ie goak/dnkgtoae kte ntok/tye kUIe gokI//dske UM/DEM/Ie goe kUIe
ityytEgolepMooI/9e
:beee cyIM/eytEI/2yI5IyepMaTe/IlgakI/eHgkabe
;beee cyIM/egokI//dskeakMkdaeHgke:WRbe
<bee WM5IentokIokaeties/tnIaat/e/IlgakI/abe
=bee WIkegokI//dskeIoMHyIeHgkehACbe
@bee G/tnIIDeEgkUeaI/5gnIe/tdkgoIbe
e
RUIeigoMyeaIGdIonIegoeIMnUegokI//dskeaI/5gnIe/tdkgoIepdakeUM5Iegoak/dnkgtoaektentok/tye
kUIegokI//dskeUM/DEM/IegoekUIeityytEgolepMooI/9e
e
:be cyIM/egokI//dskeIoMHyIeHgkehACbe
;be xIakt/IentokIokaeties/tnIaat/e/IlgakI/abe
<be cyIM/e kUIe Hgke goe kUIe gokI//dske /IlgakI/e HIytolgole kte kUIe atd/nIe kUMke UMae HIIoe
aI/5gnIDbe
=be WIkeytEI/2yI5Iyes/gt/gk1eHgkaegoekUIepMaTe/IlgakI/be
@be xIakt/Ie/Ikd/oeMDD/IaaegokteGceMoDeaIkehACbe
e
6.3 Direct Memory Access
PykUtdlUegokI//dskeD/g5IoehD0egaepdnUept/IeIiigngIokekUMoes/tl/Mpentok/tyyIDehD0OeMyye
DMkMe gae akgyye k/MoaiI//IDe kU/tdlUe kUIe cG3be RUgae Egyye HIe goIiigngIoke gie yM/lIe GdMokgkgIae tie
DMkMe M/Ie HIgole k/MoaiI//IDe HIkEIIoe kUIe sI/gsUI/Mye MoDe pIpt/1be RUIe k/MoaiI/e Egyye HIe
aytEI/ekUMoeoInIaaM/1OeMoDekUIecG3eEgyyeHIedoMHyIektesI/it/peMo1etkUI/eMnkgtoaeEUgyIegke
gaekMTgolesyMnIbee
e

6.3.1 DMA Controller

SMo1e a1akIpae kUI/Iit/Ie daIe Moe MDDgkgtoMye ak/MkIl1OeTotEoe Mae Dg/Inke pIpt/1e MnnIaae
49SP6be 9SPe daIae Moe MDDgkgtoMye sgInIe tie UM/DEM/Ie 2e Me 9SPe ntok/tyyI/be RUIe 9SPe
ntok/tyyI/enMoekMTIet5I/ekUIea1akIpeHdaeMoDek/MoaiI/eDMkMeHIkEIIoeMoehD0eptDdyIeMoDe
pMgoepIpt/1eEgkUtdkekUIegokI/5IokgtoetiekUIecG3be-UIoI5I/ekUIecG3eEMokaektek/MoaiI/e
DMkMOegkekIyyaekUIe9SPentok/tyyI/ekUIeDg/InkgtoetiekUIek/MoaiI/OekUIehD0eptDdyIego5ty5IDOe
kUIeytnMkgtoetiekUIeDMkMegoepIpt/1OeMoDekUIeag(IetiekUIeHytnTetieDMkMekteHIek/MoaiI//IDbehke
nMoekUIoentokgodIeEgkUetkUI/egoak/dnkgtoaeMoDekUIe9SPentok/tyyI/eEgyyegokI//dskegkeEUIoe
kUIek/MoaiI/egaentpsyIkIbee
RUIecG3eMoDekUIe9SPentok/tyyI/enMootkedaIekUIea1akIpeHdaeMkekUIeaMpIekgpIOeateatpIe
EM1e pdake HIe itdoDe kte aUM/Ie kUIe Hdae HIkEIIoe kUIpbe 0oIe tie kEte pIkUtDae gae ot/pMyy1e
daIDbee
d/akeptDIee
e
RUIe 9SPe ntok/tyyI/e k/MoaiI/ae HytnTae tie DMkMe H1e UMykgole kUIe cG3e MoDe ntok/tyygole kUIe
a1akIpeHdaeit/ekUIeDd/MkgtoetiekUIek/MoaiI/beRUIek/MoaiI/eEgyyeHIeMaeGdgnTeMaekUIeEIMTIake

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

ygoTegoekUIehD0eptDdyIDHdaDpIpt/1enUMgoOeMaeDMkMeDtIaeotkesMaaekU/tdlUekUIecG3OeHdke
kUIecG3epdakeakgyyeHIeUMykIDeEUgyIekUIek/MoaiI/ekMTIaesyMnIbee
c1nyIeakIMygolee
e
RUIe9SPentok/tyyI/ek/MoaiI/aeDMkMetoIeEt/DeMkeMekgpIOeH1edagolekUIeHdaeDd/goleMesM/ketie
Moegoak/dnkgtoen1nyIeEUIoekUIecG3egaeotkedagolegkOet/eH1esMdagolekUIecG3eit/eMeagolyIe
nytnTen1nyIetoeIMnUegoak/dnkgtobeRUgaepM1eaytEekUIecG3eDtEoeayglUky1et5I/MyyOeHdkeEgyye
akgyyeHIe5I/1eIiigngIokbee

1. Channel I/O
RUgae gae Me a1akIpe k/MDgkgtoMyy1e daIDe toe pMgoi/MpIe ntpsdkI/aOe Hdke gae HIntpgole pt/Ie
ntpptoe toe apMyyI/e a1akIpabe hke gae Moe IukIoagtoe tie kUIe 9SPe ntonIskOe EUI/Ie kUIe 9SPe
ntok/tyyI/eHIntpIaeMeidyy2anMyIentpsdkI/ea1akIpegkaIyieEUgnUeUMoDyIaeMyyentppdognMkgtoe
EgkUekUIehD0eptDdyIabee

2. I/O Interfaces
RUIegokI/iMnIetieMoehD0eptDdyIegaekUIentooInkgtoektekUIesI/gsUI/My4a6eMkkMnUIDektegkbeRUIe
gokI/iMnIeUMoDyIaea1onU/togaMkgtoeMoDentok/tyetiekUIesI/gsUI/MyOeMoDekUIeMnkdMyek/MoaiI/e
tieDMkMbeFt/eIuMpsyIOekteaIoDeDMkMekteMesI/gsUI/MyOekUIeaIGdIonIetieI5IokaeEtdyDeHIeMae
ityytEabee
M6e RUIehD0eptDdyIeaIoDaeMentok/tyeagloMyektekUIesI/gsUI/Mye /IGdIakgole sI/pgaagtoekte
aIoDeDMkMbee
b) RUIesI/gsUI/MyeMnTotEyIDlIaekUIe/IGdIakbee
c) RUIehD0eptDdyIeaIoDaekUIeDMkMe4kUgaepM1eHIeIgkUI/eMeEt/DeMkeMekgpIet/eMeHytnTeMkeMe
kgpIeDIsIoDgoletoekUIesI/gsUI/My6bee
d) RUIesI/gsUI/MyeMnTotEyIDlIae/InIgsketiekUIeDMkMbee
RUgaes/tnIaaetiea1onU/togaMkgtoegaeTotEoeMaehandshakingbee
RUIe gokI/oMye HdiiI/e MyytEae kUIe hD0e ptDdyIe kte ntpsIoaMkIe it/e atpIe tie kUIe
DgiiI/IonIe goe kUIe asIIDe Mke EUgnUe kUIe gokI/iMnIe nMoentppdognMkIe EgkUe kUIe
sI/gsUI/MyOeMoDekUIeasIIDetiekUIea1akIpeHdabee
hD0egokI/iMnIaenMoeHIeDg5gDIDegoktekEtepMgoek1sIabee
e
3. Parallel interfaces
RUI/IeM/IepdykgsyIeEg/IaentooInkgolekUIehD0eptDdyIektekUIesI/gsUI/MyOeMoDeHgkaetieDMkMe
M/Iek/MoaiI//IDeagpdykMoItday1OeMaekUI1eM/Iet5I/ekUIeDMkMeHdabeRUgaek1sIetiegokI/iMnIegae
daIDeit/eUglUeasIIDesI/gsUI/MyaeadnUeMaeDgaTeD/g5Iabee
e
4. Serial interfaces
0oy1e Me agolyIe Eg/Ie ntooInkae kUIe hD0e ptDdyIe kte kUIe sI/gsUI/MyOe MoDe DMkMe pdake HIe
k/MoaiI//IDetoIeHgkeMkeMekgpIbeRUgaegaedaIDeit/eaytEI/esI/gsUI/MyaeadnUeMaes/gokI/aeMoDe
TI1HtM/Dabee

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

5. I/O Function
RUdaeiM/OeEIeUM5IeeDgandaaIDekUIetsI/MkgtoetiekUIentpsdkI/eMeaentok/tyyIDeH1ekUIecG3Oe
MoDe EIe UM5Ie yttTIDe s/gpM/gy1e Mke kUIe gokI/Mnkgtoe tiecG3e MoDe pIpt/1be RUIe Dgandaagtoe
UMae toy1e MyydDIDe kte kUIe /tyIe tie kUIe hD0e ntpstoIokbeRUgae /tyIe gae DgandaaIDe goe DIkMgye goe
nUMskI/e>OeHdkeMeH/gIieeadppM/1egaegoet/DI/eUI/Ibee
PoehD0eptDdyIenMoeIunUMolIeDMkMeDg/Inky1eEgkUekUIecG3be7dakeMaekUIecG3enMoegogkgMkIeMe
/IMDet/eE/gkIeEgkUepIpt/1OeDIagloMkgolekUIeMDD/IaaetieMeasIngigneytnMkgtoOekUIecG3enMoe
Myate /IMDe DMkMe it/pe t/e E/gkIe DMkMe kte Moe hD0e ptDdyIbe hoe kUgae yMkkI/e nMaIOe kUIe cG3e
gDIokgigIae Me asIngigne DI5gnIe kUMke gae e ntok/tyyIDe H1e Me sM/kgndyM/e hD0e ptDdyIbe RUdaOe e Moe
goak/dnkgtoe aIGdIonIe agpgyM/e goe it/pe kte kUMke tie Fgld/Ie <b@e ntdyDe tnnd/Oe EgkUe hD0e
goak/dnkgtoae/MkUI/eekUMoeEgkUepIpt/12/IiI/Iongolegoak/dnkgtoabee
hoeatpIeenMaIaOegkegaeDIag/MHyIekteMyytEehb0eIunUMolIaektetnnd/eeDg/Inky1eEgkUepIpt/1behoe
adnUeMenMaIOekUIecG3el/MokaekteMoehD0eeptDdyIekUIeMdkUt/gk1ekte/IMDei/tpet/eE/gkIekte
pIpt/1OeatekUMkekUIehb0epIpt/1ek/MoaiI/enMoetnnd/eEgkUtdkek1goledsekUIecG3be9d/gole
adnUe Me k/MoaiI/Oe kUIe hD0e ptDdyIe gaadIae /IMDe t/e E/gkIe ntppMoDae kte pIpt/1Oe /IygI5gole
kUIecG3etie/IastoagHgygk1eeit/ekUIeIunUMolIbeRUgaetsI/MkgtoegaeTotEoeMaeDg/InkepIpt/1e
MnnIaae49SP6OeMoegkeEgyyeHIeIuMpgoIDegoeDIkMgyegoenUMskI/e>beFt/eotEOeMyyekUMkeEIeoIIDekte
TotEegaekUMkekUIegokI/ntooInkgtoeak/dnkd/IetiekUIentpsdkI/epM1eoIIDekteMyytEeit/eDg/Inke
pIpt/1e)ehD0egokI/Mnkgtobe
e
RUgaeaInkgtoegok/tDdnIaekUIentonIskaetiegosdkDtdksdkeDI5gnIaOeptDdyIaeMoDegokI/iMnIabehke
ntoagDI/ae kUIe 5M/gtdae ak/MkIlgIae daIDe it/e ntppdognMkgtoe HIkEIIoe kUIe cG3e MoDe hD0e
ptDdyIaOe MoDe kUIe gokI/iMnIe HIkEIIoe Moe hD0e ptDdyIe MoDe kUIe DI5gnI4a6e ntooInkIDe kte gkbe
WtpIentpptoehD0eDI5gnIaeM/IentoagDI/IDegoekUIeyMakeaInkgtobee
e
e
6.3.2 DMA Transfer
e
RUI/Ie M/Ie kU/IIe goDIsIoDIoke nUMooIyae it/e 9SPe k/MoaiI/abe AMnUe nUMooIye /InIg5Iae gkae
k/gllI/e it/e kUIe k/MoaiI/e kU/tdlUe Me yM/lIe pdykgsyIuI/e kUMke nUttaIae i/tpe Mptole Me yM/lIe
odpHI/e tie agloMyabe -UIoe kUIaIeagloMyae Mnkg5MkIOe kUIe k/MoaiI/e tnnd/abe RUIe 9SPuRWAfue
HgkaetiekUIe9SPectok/tyexIlgakI/eCe49SPcRfC6beRUIe9SPentok/tyyI/e/InIg5IaekUIek/gllI/e
agloMye Hdke Egyye glot/Ie gke doDI/e nI/kMgoe ntoDgkgtoabe RUgae gae oInIaaM/1e kte /IaI/5Ie kUIe
pIpt/1e Hdae it/e /Is/tl/Mppgole MoDe oto2pMaTMHyIe gokI//dskae Iknbe RUIe ntok/tyyI/e Myate
UMoDyIae ntoiygnkae it/e agpdykMoItdae k/gllI/abe RUIe s/gt/gkgIae nMoe HIe MDEdakIDe dagole kUIe
9SPe ctok/tye xIlgakI/e :e 49SPcRf:6be -UIoe pdykgsyIe k/gllI/ae UMssIoe agpdykMoItday1Oe
kUI1etnnd/egoet/DI/etie ptDdyIe s/gt/gk1beRUIe9SPek/gllI/e gaekUIoe sMaaIDektekUIeptDdyIe
EUtaIek/gllI/eMnkg5MkIDbeRUIe9SPenUMooIyeEgyyents1ekUIeDMkMei/tpekUIeakM/kgolepIpt/1e
ytnMkgtoe t/e HytnTe kte kUIe DIakgoMkgtoe pIpt/1e ytnMkgtoe t/e HytnTbe RUI/Ie M/Ie pMo1e
5M/gMkgtoae toe kUgaOe MoDe kUI1e M/Ie ntok/tyyIDe H1e kUIe9SPe cUMooIye ue ctok/tye xIlgakI/e
49SPucRf69ee
e

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Single Transfer -i wE(mi l)D11w)i (EfNwNi Ei NDt1Awi l)EtNdw)%i bmwi ovCfAwi+DAAi CDNE&Awi DlNwAdi
ycOz 6sABT0 zuC4Og Nm tgazpmOgp ca-O NrruggOI 9pOtt Dt1iDlilvi2w)vir)w)wtlNil)EtNdw)0%i
.cO 6sABTA azI 6sAB6A gO1eptOgp pOt tcO aIIgOppOp tvi &wi l)EtNdw))wCi lvi EtCi d)vo%i
.cO 6sAB:.M gO1eptOg aSpN aSSNyp tcOpO aIIgOppOp tNi &wi Dt()wowtlwCi v)i Cw()wowtlwCi
& i:iv)i;i& lwNi+DlmiwE(mil)EtNdw)%ibmDNil)EtNdw)imEAlNilmwie-.%i
∑
Block Transfer - Eti wtlD)wi &Av(1i DNi l)EtNdw))wCi vti wE(mi l)D11w)%i bmwi ovCfAwi CDNE&AwNi
DlNwAdi+mwtilmDNi&Av(1il)EtNdw)iDNi(vorAwlw%ibmDNil)EtNdw)imEAlNilmwie-.QiEtCi+DAAil)EtNdw)i
wE(miowov) iAv(ElDvtivtwiEliEilDow%ibmDNiovCwiCDNE&AwNilmwiovCfAwi+mwtilmwil)EtNdw)i
DNi(vorAwlw%i
Burst-Block Transfer -ilmDNiDNi)w) iNDoDAE)ilvi Av(1ib)EtNdw)iovCwiwj(wrlilmElilmwie-.i
azI tcO 6sA tgazpmOg raz eztOgSOa-O tcOeg NoOgateNz%ibmDNi)wCf(wNilmwie-.ilvi;C]i+mDAwi
tcO 6sA ep 1Nez1 Nzn 4ut tcO :lV yeSS zNt 4O ptNooOCiEAlv1wlmw)%ibmwiDtlw))frliv((f)Ni
+mwti lmwi &Av(1i mENi (vorAwlwA i l)EtNdw))wC%i bmDNi ovCwi CDNE&AwNi lmwi ovCfAwi +mwti lmwi
l)EtNdw)iDNi(vorAwlw%ii
∑
Repeated Single Transfer -i lmwi NEowi ENi "Dt1Awi b)EtNdw)i ovCwi E&v)wi wj(wrli lmEli lmwi
ovCfAwiDNitvliCDNE&AwCi+mwtilmwil)EtNdw)iDNi(vorAwlw%i
∑
Repeated Block Transfer -i lmwi NEowi ENi Av(1i b)EtNdw)i ovCwi E&v)wi wj(wrli lmElilmwi
ovCfAwiDNitvliCDNE&AwCi+mwtilmwil)EtNdw)iDNi(vorAwlw%i
∑
Repeated Burst-Block Transfer -ilmwiNEowiENi f)Nli Av(1ib)EtNdw)iovCwiE&v)wiwj(wrl∑
lmElilmwiovCfAwiDNitvliCDNE&AwCi+mwtilmwil)EtNdw)iDNi(vorAwlw%i
∑
5getez1 tN mSapc gO/uegOp pOttez1 tcO 6sAfd8L.:7 4el%i7dilmDNiDNitvliCvtwQilmwi)wNfAlNivdi
tcO 6sA NoOgateNz agO DuzogOIerta4SO3W ASpNn tcO 4Oca-eNg azI pOttez1p Nm tcO 6sA
ovCfAwiNmvfACivtA i&wiovCDdDwCi+mwtilmwiovCfAwiDNiCDNE&AwC%ibmwiNwllDt1iEtCil)D11w)Ni
E)wimD1mA i(vtdD1f)E&AwQiEAAv+Dt1i&vlmiwC1wiEtCiAw)wAil)D11w)Dt1%ibmwi)E)Dwl ivdiNwllDt1NiDNi
IOtaeSOI ez tcO 6sA rcaotOg Nm tcO upOgp 1ueIO3 ASpvQi Dli DNi Dorv)lEtli lvi tvlwi lmEli
eztOgguotp yeSS zNt 4O arFzNySOI1OI Iugez1 tcO 6sA l)EtNdw)i &w(EfNwi lmwi e-.i DNi tvli
arte-O3 Larc 6sA rcazzOS cap etp Nyz mSa1n 4ut tcO Dtlw))frli)w(lv)iDNiNmE)wCi+Dlmilmwi
(se%ibmDNitw(wNNDlElwNiNvowiNvdl+E)wi(mw(1Dt1ilvimEtCAwiDtlw))frlNi+Dlmi&vlmiovCfAwNi
wtE&AwC%i
∑
∑
6.4 Input-output Processor (IOP)
∑
bmwi e-.i v)i r)v(wNNv)i DNi lmwi rE)li i lmEli oE1wNi lmwi (vorflw)i NoE)l%i 7li DNi Ei NDt1Awi
Dtlw1)ElwCi (D)(fDli i )wdw))wCi lvi ENi Ei oD()vr)v(wNNv)%i bmwi wE)ADw)i oD()vr)v(wNNv)Ni +w)wi
7tlwAiBCBCiv)iBCB>Qilmw i+w)wii)w) iNAv+%ibmwti(EowidENlw)iovCwANid)voi7tlwAiiNf(miENi
BC;B>Qi BC<B>Qi BC=B>i EtCi tv+i i -wtlDfoi i r)v(wNNv)N%i kE(mi vdi lmwNwi )E) i Dti NrwwCi vdi
lmwD)ivrw)ElDvt%ibmwisbi(vorElD&AwNi3iBC;B>ivt+E)CNQi)ftiDtivtwivdilmwil+viovCwN9i
• 3wEAiiovCwii

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

• -)vlw(lwCiovCwii
∑
bmwir)v(wNNv)i(vorAwjiDNilmwitEowivdilmwi(D)(fDli&vE)CilmEli(vtlEDtNilmwioEDtiN Nlwoi
r)v(wNNv)iEtCiEt ivlmw)i(D)(fDl) iCD)w(lA i)wAElwCilviDlQiNf(miENi(Av(1i(vtl)vAQi(E(mwQiEtCi
Nvi dv)lm%i bmwi r)v(wNNv)i (vorAwji CwND1ti EAAv+Ni lmwi fNw)i lvi wENDA i fr1)ECwi lmwi N Nlwoi
AElw)ilviEitw+ir)v(wNNv)il rwi& i(mEt1Dt1ivtwi(E)C%i7tiwddw(lQiDliEovftlNilviEiovCfAE)i
ovlmw)&vE)Ci+DlmiEi)wrAE(wE&Awir)v(wNNv)iNw(lDvt%i
∑
$ElwNli CwND1tNi EAAi Dt(v)rv)Elwi lmwi i fr1)ECE&Awi r)v(wNNv)%i 7tlwAi mENi CwND1twCi EAAi =B>Qi
lOzteuCn lOzteuC ssTn azI lOzteuC lgN ogNrOppNgp tNi &wi fr1)ECE&Awi lvi dENlw)i
/NvowlDowNi (EAAwCi #)w)()D)w0i r)v(wNNv)Ni Dti lmwi dflf)wi & i NDorA i N+ErrDt1i /v)i ECCDt10i
lmwitw+ir)v(wNNv)i(mDr%iemEt1Dt1ivtA ilmwir)v(wNNv)i(mDridv)iEidENlw)ivtwiDNilmwiwENDwNli
EtCi 1wtw)EAA i ovNli (vNl!wddw(lD)wi +E i lvi fr1)ECwi +Dlmvfli (mEt1Dt1i lmwi wtlD)wi
ovlmw)&vE)C%ii
∑
si(vorflw)ioE iDt(v)rv)Elwivtwiv)iov)wiwjlw)tEAir)v(wNNv)NiEtCiENND1tilmwoilmwilEN1i
vdi(vooftD(ElDt1iCD)w(lA i+DlmiEAAi7D#iCw)D(wN%istiDtrfl!vflrflir)v(wNNv)i/7#-0ioE i&wi
(AENNDdDwCiENiEir)v(wNNv)i+DlmiCD)w(liowov) iE((wNNi(ErE&DADl ilmEli(vooftD(ElwNi+Dlmi
7D#iCw)D(wN%i7tilmDNi(vtdD1f)ElDvtQilmwi(vorflw)iN Nlwoi(Eti&wiCD)DCwCiDtlviEiowov) i
ftDlQi EtCi Ei tfo&w)i vdi r)v(wNNv)Ni (vor)DNwCi vdi lmwi e-.i EtCi vtwi v)i ov)wi7#-N%i kE(mi
7#-i lE1wNi (E)wi vdi Dtrfli EtCi vflrfli lEN1NQi )wADw)Dt1i lmwi e-.i d)voi lmwi mvfNw1wwrDt1i
(mv)wNiDt)vA)wCiDti7D#il)EtNdw)N%i
∑
bmwi 7#-i DNi NDoDAE)i lvi Ei e-.i wj(wrli lmEli Dli DNi CwND1twCi lvi mEtCAwi lmwi CwlEDANi vdi 7D#i
ogNrOppez13 VzSeFO tcO 6sA rNztgNSSOg tcat Cupt 4O NwlifriwtlD)wA i& ilmwie-.Qilmwi7#-i
(Eti dwl(mi EtCi wjw(flwi DlNi v+ti DtNl)f(lDvtN%i7#-i DtNl)f(lDvtNi E)wi Nrw(DEAA i CwND1twCi lvi
dE(DADlElwi7D#il)EtNdw)N%i7ti ECCDlDvtQilmwi7#-i(Etirw)dv)oivlmw)i r)v(wNNDt1ilEN1NQiNf(mi
ENiE)DlmowlD(QiAv1D(Qi&)Et(mDt1QiEtCi(vCwil)EtNAElDvt%i
∑
bmwi &Av(1i CDE1)Eoi vdi Ei (vorflw)i +Dlmi l+vi r)v(wNNv)Ni DNi Nmv+ti Dti ,D1f)wi >%<?%i bmwi
owov) iftDliv((frDwNiEi(wtl)EAirvNDlDvtiEtCi(Eti(vooftD(Elwi+DlmiwE(mir)v(wNNv)i& i
owEtNivdiCD)w(liowov) iE((wNN%ibmwie-.iDNi)wNrvtND&Awidv)ir)v(wNNDt1iCElEitwwCwCiDti
lmwi NvAflDvti vdi (vorflElDvtEAi lEN1N%i bmwi 7#-i r)v)DCwNi Ei rElmi dv)i l)EtNdw)i vdi CElEi
&wl+wwti)E)DvfNirw)Drmw)EAiCwD(wNiEtCilmwiowov) ift→%∑
∑
,D1f)wi>%<?9i Av(1iCDE1)EoivdiEi(vorflw)i+Dlmi7D#ir)v(wNNv)i

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.cO Iata mNgCatp Nm oOgeocOgaS IO-erOp IemmOg mgNC COCNg2 azI :lV Iata mNgCatp3 .cO
Yfl Cupt ptgurtugO Iata yNgIp mgNC Caz2 IemmOgOzt pNugrOp3 8Ng OBaCoSOn et Ca2 4O
zOrOppag2 tN taFO mNug 42tOp mgNC az ezout IO-erO azI oarF tcOC eztN NzO KGR4et yNgI
4OmNgO tcO tgazpmOg tN COCNg23 6ata agO 1atcOgOI ez tcO Yfl at tcO IO-erO gatO azI 4et
raoaret2 yceSO tcO :lV ep OBOrutez1 etp Nyz ogN1gaC3 AmtOg tcO ezout Iata agO
appOC4SOI eztN a COCNg2 yNgIn tcO2 agO tgazpmOggOI mgNC Yfl IegOrtS2 eztN COCNg2 42
RptOaSez1R NzO COCNg2 r2rSO mgNC tcO :lV3 TeCeSagS2n az Nutout yNgI tgazpmOggOI mgNC
COCNg2 tN tcO Yfl ep IegOrtOI mgNC tcO Yfl tN tcO Nutout IO-erO at tcO IO-erO gatO azI
4et raoaret23

.cO rNCCuzerateNz 4OtyOOz tcO Yfl azI tcO IO-erOp attarcOI tN et ep peCeSag tN tcO
ogN1gaC rNztgNS COtcNI Nm tgazpmOg3 .cO ya2 42 ycerc tcO :lV azI Yfl rNCCuzeratO
IOoOzIp Nz tcO SO-OS Nm pNocepterateNz ezrSuIOI ez tcO p2ptOC3 Yz CNpt rNCoutOg
p2ptOCpn tcO :lV ep tcO CaptOg yceSO tcO Yfl ep a pSa-O ogNrOppNg3 .cO :lV ep appe1zOI
tcO tapF Nm ezeteatez1 aSS NoOgateNzpn 4ut Ykf ezptgurteNzp agO OBOrutO ez tcO Yfl3 :lV
ezptgurteNzp ogN-eIO NoOgateNzp tN ptagt az Ykf tgazpmOg azI aSpN tN tOpt Ykf ptatup
rNzIeteNzp zOOIOI mNg CaFez1 IOrepeNzp Nz -ageNup Ykf arte-eteOp3 .cO Yfln ez tugzn
t2oeraSS2 apFp mNg :lV attOzteNz 42 COazp Nm az eztOgguot3 Yt aSpN gOpoNzIp tN :lV
gO/uOptp 42 oSarez1 a ptatup yNgI ez a ogOprge4OI SNrateNz ez COCNg2 tN 4O OBaCezOI
SatOg 42 a :lV ogN1gaC3 5cOz az Ykf NoOgateNz ep IOpegOIn tcO :lV ezmNgCp tcO Yfl
ycOgO tN mezI tcO Ykf ogN1gaC azI tcOz SOa-Op tcO tgazpmOg IOtaeSp tN tcO Yfl3

6.4.1 CPU-IOP Communication

.cOgO agO Caz2 mNgC Nm tcO rNCCuzerateNz 4OtyOOz :l V azI Yfl3 .cOpO agO IOoOzIez1
Nz tcO oagteruSag rNCoutOg rNzpeIOgOI3 Yz CNpt rapOp tcO COCNg2 uzet artp ap a
COppa1O rOztOg ycOgO Oarc ogNrOppNg SOa-Op ezmNgCateNz mNg tcO NtcOg3 .N aoogOreatO tcO
NoOgateNz Nm a t2oeraS Yfln yO yeSS eSSuptgatO 42 a poOremer OBaCoSO tcO COtcNI 42 ycerc
tcO :lV azI Yfl rNCCuzeratO3 .cep ep a peCoSemeOI OBaCoSO tcat NCetp Caz2 NoOgatez1
IOtaeSp ez NgIOg tN ogN-eIO az N-Og-eOy Nm 4aper rNzrOotp3

.cO pO/uOzrO Nm NoOgateNzp Ca2 4O raggeOI Nut ap pcNyz ez tcO mSNyrcagt Nm 8e13 ”3“–3
.cO :lV pOzIp az ezptgurteNz tN tOpt tcO Yfl oatc3 .cO Yfl gOpoNzIp 42 ezpOgtez1 a
ptatup yNgI ez COCNg2 mNg tcO :lV tN rcOrF3 .cO 4etp Nm tcO ptatup yNgI ezIeratO tcO
rNzIeteNz Nm tcO Yfl azI Ykf IO-erOn purc ap Yfl N-OgSNaI rNzIeteNzn IO-erO 4up2 yetc
azNtcOg tgazpmOgn Ng IO-erO gOaI2 mNg Ykf tgazpmOg3 .cO :lV gOmOgp tN tcO ptatup yNgI ez
COCNg2 tN IOreIO ycat tN IN zOBt3 Ym aSS ep ez NgIOgn tcO :lV pOzIp tcO ezptgurteNz tN
ptagt Ykf tgazpmOg3 .cO COCNg2 aIIgOpp gOrOe-OI yetc tcep ezptgurteNz tOSSp tcO Yfl
ycOgO tN mezI etp ogN1gaC3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO ”3“–b :lVRYfl rNCCuzerateNz

.cO :lV raz zNy rNztezuO yetc azNtcOg ogN1gaC yceSO tcO Yfl ep 4up2 yetc tcO Ykf
ogN1gaC3 PNtc ogN1gaCp gOmOg tN COCNg2 42 COazp Nm 6sA tgazpmOg3 5cOz tcO Yfl
tOgCezatOp tcO OBOruteNz Nm etp ogN1gaCn et pOzIp az eztOgguot gO/uOpt tN tcO :lV3 .cO
:lV gOpoNzIp tN tcO eztOgguot 42 eppuez1 az ezptgurteNz tN gOaI tcO ptatup mgNC tcO
Yfl3 .cO Yfl gOpoNzIp 42 oSarez1 tcO rNztOztp Nm etp ptatup gOoNgt eztN a poOremeOI
COCNg2 SNrateNz3

.cO Yfl taFOp ragO Nm aSS Iata tgazpmOgp 4OtyOOz pO-OgaS Ykf uzetp azI tcO COCNg2
yceSO tcO :lV ep ogNrOppez1 azNtcOg ogN1gaC3 .cO Yfl azI :lV agO rNCoOtez1 mNg tcO
upO Nm COCNg2n pN tcO zuC4Og Nm IO-erOp tcat raz 4O ez NoOgateNz ep SeCetOI 42 tcO
arrOpp teCO Nm tcO COCNg23
YPs Kv– Ykf :cazzOS

Yz tcO YPs Kv–n tcO Ykf ogNrOppNg rNCoutOg ep FzNyz ap a rcazzOS3 A t2oeraS rNCoutOg
p2ptOC rNzme1ugateNz ezrSuIOp a zuC4Og Nm rcazzOSp yetc Oarc rcazzOS attarcOI tN NzO
Ng CNgO Ykf IO-erOp3 .cOgO agO tcgOO t2oOp Nm rcazzOSpb CuSteoSOBOgn pOSOrtNgn azI 4SNrFR
CuSteoSOBOg3 .cO CuSteoSOBOg rcazzOS raz 4O rNzzOrtOI tN a zuC4Og Nm pSNyR azI
COIeuCRpoOOI IO-erOp azI ep raoa4SO Nm NoOgatez1 yetc a zuC4Og Nm Ykf IO-erOp
peCuStazONupS23 .cO pOSOrtNg rcazzOS ep IOpe1zOI tN cazISO NzO Ykf NoOgateNz at a teCO
azI ep zNgCaSS2 upOI tN rNztgNS NzO ce1cRpoOOI IO-erO3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.cO :lV rNCCuzeratOp IegOrtS2 yetc tcO rcazzOSp tcgNu1c IOIeratOI rNztgNS SezOp azI
ezIegOrtS2 tcgNu1c gOpOg-OI ptNga1O agOap ez COCNg23 8e1ugO ”3“w pcNyp tcO yNgI
mNgCatp appNreatOI yetc tcO rcazzOS NoOgateNz3 .cO Ykf ezptgurteNz mNgCat cap tcgOO
meOSIpb NoOgateNz rNIOn rcazzOS aIIgOppn azI IO-erO aIIgOpp3 .cO rNCoutOg p2ptOC Ca2
ca-O a zuC4Og Nm rcazzOSpn azI Oarc ep appe1zOI az aIIgOpp3 TeCeSagS2n Oarc rcazzOS
Ca2 4O rNzzOrtOI tN pO-OgaS IO-erOp azI Oarc IO-erO ep appe1zOI az aIIgOpp3 .cO
NoOgateNz rNIO poOremeOp NzO Nm Oe1ct Ykf ezptgurteNzpb ptagt Ykfn ptagt Ykf mapt gOSOapOn
tOpt Ykfn rSOag Ykfn caSt Ykfn caSt IO-erOn tOpt rcazzOSn azI ptNgO rcazzOS eIOztemerateNz3
.cO aIIgOppOI rcazzOS gOpoNzIp tN Oarc Nm tcO Ykf ezptgurteNzp azI OBOrutOp et3 Yt aSpN
pOtp NzO Nm mNug rNzIeteNz rNIOp ez a ogNrOppNg gO1eptOg raSSOI lT5 9ogNrOppNg ptatup
yNgIE3 .cO :lV raz rcOrF tcO rNzIeteNz rNIO ez tcO lT5 tN IOtOgCezO tcO gOpuSt Nm tcO
Ykf NoOgateNz3 .cO COazez1 Nm tcO mNug rNzIeteNz rNIOp ep IemmOgOzt mNg Oarc Ykf
ezptgurteNz3 Putn ez 1OzOgaSn tcO2 poOrem2 ycOtcOg tcO rcazzOS Ng tcO IO-erO ep 4up2n
ycOtcOg Ng zNt et ep NoOgateNzaSn ycOtcOg eztOgguoteNzp agO oOzIez1n em tcO Ykf NoOgateNz
caI ptagtOI purrOppmuSS2n azI ycOtcOg a ptatup yNgI yap ptNgOI ez COCNg2 42 tcO
rcazzOS3

.cO mNgCat Nm tcO rcazzOS ptatup yNgI ep pcNyz ez 8e13 ”3“w94E3 Yt ep aSya2p ptNgOI ez
SNrateNz ”“ ez COCNg23 .cO FO2 meOSI ep a ogNtOrteNz COrcazepC upOI tN ogO-Ozt
uzautcNge(OI arrOpp 42 NzO upOg tN ezmNgCateNz tcat 4OSNz1p tN azNtcOg upOg Ng tN tcO
NoOgatez1 p2ptOC3 .cO aIIgOpp meOSI ez tcO ptatup yNgI 1e-Op tcO aIIgOpp Nm tcO Sapt
rNCCazI yNgI upOI 42 tcO rcazzOS3 .cO rNuzt meOSI 1e-Op tcO gOpeIuaS rNuzt ycOz tcO
tgazpmOg yap tOgCezatOI3 .cO rNuzt meOSI yeSS pcNy (OgN em tcO tgazpmOg yap rNCoSOtOI
purrOppmuSS23 .cO ptatup meOSI eIOztemeOp tcO rNzIeteNzp ez tcO IO-erO azI tcO rcazzOS azI
az2 OggNgp tcat NrruggOI Iugez1 tcO tgazpmOg3

.cO IemmOgOzrO 4OtyOOz tcO ptagt Ykf azI ptagt Ykf mapt gOSOapO ezptgurteNzp ep tcat tcO
SattOg gO/uegOp SOpp :lV teCO mNg etp OBOruteNz3 5cOz tcO rcazzOS gOrOe-Op NzO Nm tcOpO
tyN ezptgurteNzpn et gOmOgp tN COCNg2 SNrateNz vG mNgrO aIIgOpp Nm tcO megpt rcazzOS
rNCCazI yNgI 9::5E3 .cO mNgCat Nm tcO rcazzOS rNCCazI yNgI ep pcNyz ez 8e13
”3“w9rE3 .cO Iata aIIgOpp meOSI poOremeOp megpt aIIgOpp Nm a COCNg2 4ummOg azI tcO rNuzt
meOSI 1e-Op tcO zuC4Og Nm ez-NS-OI ez tcO tgazpmOg3 .cO rNCCazI meOSI poOremeOp az Ykf
NoOgateNz mSa1 4etp ogN-eIO aIIeteNzaS ezmNgCateNz mNg tcO rcazzOS3 .cO rNCCazI azI
rNggOpoNzIp tN az NoOgateNz rNIO tcat poOremeOp NzO Nm peB 4aper t2oOp Nm f NoOgateNzpb

w3   5getO3 .gazpmOg Iata mgNC COCNg2 tN w– IO-erO3
G3   UOaI3 .gazpmOg Iata mgNC Ykf IO-erO tN COCNg23
K3   UOaI 4arFyagIp3 UOaI Ca1zOter taoO yetc taoO CN-ez1 4arFyagI
“3   :NztgNS3 VpOI tN ezeteatO az NoOgateNz zNt ez-NS-ez1 tgazpmOg Nm Iatan purc ap
gOyezIez1 Nm taoO Ng oNpeteNzez1 a IepFRarrOpp COrcazepC3
'3   TOzpO3 YzmNgCp tcO rcazzOS tN tgazpmOg etp rcazzOS ptatup yOgO COCNg2 SNrateNz
”“3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

”3 .gazpmOg ez rcazzOS3 VpOI ezptOaI Nm a ZuCo ezptgurteNz3 7OgO a yNgI ez Ceppez1
aIIgOpp meOSI poOremeOp tcO aIIgOpp Nm tcO zOBt rNCCazI yNgI tN 4O OBOrutOI 42 tcO
rcazzOS3

8e1ugO ”3“wb YPs Kv– Ykf gOSatOI yNgI mNgCatp3

Az OBaCoSO Nm a rcazzOS ogN1gaC ep pcNyz ez .a4SO ”3v3 Yt rNzpeptp Nm tcgOO rNCCazI
yNgIp3 .cO megpt raupOp a 42tO tgazpmOg eztN a Ca1zOter taoO mgNC COCNg2 ptagtez1 at
aIIgOpp “–––3 .cO zOBt tyN rNCCazIRyNgIp oOgmNgC a peCeSag muzrteNz yetc a IemmOgOzt
oNgteNz Nm COCNg2 azI 42tO rNuzt3 .cO peB mSa1p ez Oarc rNztgNS yNgI poOrem2 rOgtaez
eztOggOSateNzp 4OtyOOz rNuzt3 .cO megpt mSa1 ep pOt tN w ez tcO megpt rNCCazI yNgI tN
poOrem2 RIata rcaezez13R Yt gOpuStp ez rNC4ezez1 tcO ”– 42tOp mgNC tcO megpt rNCCazI
yNgI yetc tcO yNgI yetc tcO G– 42tOp Nm etp purrOppNg eztN NzO gOrNgI Nm x– 42tOp3 .cO
x– 42tOp agO ygettOz Nz taoO yetcNut az2 pOoagateNz Ng 1aop O-Og tcNu1c tyN COCNg2
pOrteNzp yOgO upOI3 .cO pOrNzI mSa1 ep pOt tN w ez tcO pOrNzI rNCCazI yNgI tN poOrem2
RrNCCazI rcaezez13R Yt ezmNgCp tcO rcazzOS tcat tcO zOBt rNCCazI yNgI yeSS upO tcO
paCO Ykf IO-erOn ez tcep rapOn tcO taoOn tcO rcazzOS ezmNgCp tcO taoO uzet tN ptagt
ezpOgtez1 a gOrNgI 1ao Nz tcO taoO azI ogNrOOIp tN gOaI tcO zOBt rNCCazI yNgI mgNC
COCNg23 .cO “– 42tOp at tcO tcegI rNCCazI yNgI agO tcOz ygettOz Nz taoO ap a
pOoagatO gOrNgI3 5cOz aSS tcO mSa1p agO O/uaS tN (OgNn et pe1zemeOp tcO OzI Nm Ykf
NoOgateNzp mNg tcO oagteruSag Ykf IO-erO3

.a4SO ”3vb PsRKv– :cazzOS lgN1gaC LBaCoSO

A COCNg2 Cao pcNyez1 aSS oOgtezOzt ezmNgCateNz mNg Ykf ogNrOppez1 ep eSSuptgatOI ez 8e1
”3“G3 .cO NoOgateNz 4O1ezp ycOz tcO :lV ogN1gaC Ozr NuztOgp a ptagt Ykf ezptgurteNz3
.cO Yfl tcOz 1NOp tN COCNg2 SNrateNz vG tN N4taez a rcazzOS aIIgOpp yNgI3 .cep yNgI

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

rNztaezp tcO ptagtez1 aIIgOpp Nm tcO Ykf rcazzOS ogN1gaC3 .cO rcazzOS tcOz ogNrOOIp
tN OBOrutO tcO ogN1gaC poOremeOI 42 tcO rcazzOS rNCCazI yNgIp3 .cO rcazzOS
rNzptgurtp a ptatup yNgI Iugez1 tcO tgazpmOg azI ptNgOp et ez SNrateNz ”“3 VoNz
eztOgguoteNzn tcO :lV raz gOmOg tcO COCNg2 SNrateNz ”“ mNg tcO ptatup yNgI3

8e1ugO ”3“Gb MNrateNz Nm YzmNgCateNz ez sOCNg2 mNg Ykf foOgateNz ez tcO YPs v–

6.4.2 Serial Communication

dNy yO pOO tcO pOgeaS rNCCuzerateNz3 A Iata rNCCuzerateNz ogNrOppNg ep az Ykf
ogNrOppNg tcat Ieptge4utOp azI rNSSOrtp Iata mgNC Caz2 gOCNtO tOgCezaSp rNzzOrtOI
tcgNu1c tOSOocNzO azI NtcOg rNCCuzerateNz SezOp3 Yt ep a poOreaSe(OI Ykf ogNrOppNg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

IOpe1zOI tN rNCCuzeratO IegOrtS2 yetc Iata rNCCuzer ateNz zOtyNgFp3 A
rNCCuzerateNz zOtyNgF Ca2 rNzpept Nm az2 Nm a yeIO -ageOt2 Nm IO-erOpn purc ap
ogeztOgpn eztOgarte-O IepoSa2 IO-erOpn Ie1etaS pOzpNgpn Ng a gOCNtO rNCoutez1 mareSet23
5etc tcO upO Nm a Iata rNCCuzerateNz ogNrOppNgn tcO rNCoutOg raz pOg-erO mga1COztp Nm
Oarc zOtyNgF IOCazI ez az eztOgpoOgpOI CazzOg azI t cup ca-O tcO aooagOzt 4Oca-eNg
Nm pOg-ez1 Caz2 upOgp at NzrO3 Yz tcep ya2 tcO rNCoutOg ep a4SO tN NoOgatO OmmereOztS2 ez
a teCORpcagez1 Oz-egNzCOzt3

.cO Caez IemmOgOzrO 4OtyOOz az Ykf ogNrOppNg azI a Iata rNCCuzerateNz ogNrOppNg ep
ez tcO ya2 tcO ogNrOppNg rNCCuzeratOp yetc tcO Ykf IO-erOp3 Az Ykf ogNrOppNg
rNCCuzeratOp yetc tcO oOgeocOgaSp tcgNu1c a rNCCNz Ykf 4up tcat ep rNCogepOI Nm
Caz2 Iata azI rNztgNS SezOp3 ASS oOgeocOgaSp pcagO tcO rNCCNz 4up azI upO et tN
tgazpmOg ezmNgCateNz tN azI mgNC tcO Ykf ogNrOppNg3 A Iata rNCCuzerateNz ogNrOppNg
rNCCuzeratOp yetc Oarc tOgCezaS tcgNu1c a pez1SO oaeg Nm yegOp3 PNtc Iata azI rNztgNS
ezmNgCateNz agO tgazpmOggOI ez a pOgeaS mapceNz yetc tcO gOpuSt tcat tcO tgazpmOg gatO ep
Curc pSNyOg3 .cO tapF Nm tcO Iata rNCCuzerateNz ogNrOppNg ep tN tgazpCet azI rNSSOrt
Ie1etaS ezmNgCateNz tN azI mgNC Oarc tOgCezaSn IOtOgCezO em tcO ezmNgCateNz ep Iata Ng
rNztgNS azI gOpoNzI tN aSS gO/uOptp arrNgIez1 tN ogOIOtOgCezOI Opta4SepcOI ogNrOIugOp3
.cO ogNrOppNgn N4-eNupS2n Cupt aSpN rNCCuzeratOn yetc tcO :lV azI COCNg2 ez tcO
paCO CazzOg ap az2 Ykf ogNrOppNg3

.cO ya2 tcat gOCNtO tOgCezaSp agO rNzzOrtOI tN a Iata rNCCuzerateNz ogNrOppNg ep -ea
tOSOocNzO SezOp Ng NtcOg ou4Ser Ng oge-atO rNCCuzerateNz mareSeteOp3 TezrO tOSOocNzO SezOp
yOgO Nge1ezaSS2 IOpe1zOI mNg -NerO rNCCuzerateNz azI rNCoutOgp rNCCuzeratO ez tOgCp
Nm Ie1etaS pe1zaSpn pNCO mNgC Nm rNz-OgpeNz Cupt 4O upOI3 .cO rNz-OgtOgp agO raSSOI Iata
pOtpn arNupter rNuoSOgp Ng CNIOCp 9mgNC RCNIuSatNgRIOCNIuSatNgRE3 A CNIOC rNz-Ogtp
Ie1etaS pe1zaSp eztN auIeN tNzOp tN 4O tgazpCettOI N-Og tOSOocNzO SezOp azI aSpN rNz-Ogtp
auIeN tNzOp mgNC tcO SezO tN Ie1etaS pe1zaSp mNg CarcezO upO3

T2zrcgNzNup tgazpCeppeNz INOp zNt upO ptagtRptNo 4etp tN mgaCO rcagartOgp azI
tcOgOmNgO CaFOp CNgO OmmereOzt upO Nm tcO rNCCuzerateNz SezF3 7e1cRpoOOI IO-erOp upO
p2zrcgNzNup tgazpCeppeNz tN gOaSe(O tcep OmmereOzr23 .cO CNIOCp upOI ez p2zrcgNzNup
tgazpCeppeNz ca-O eztOgzaS rSNrFp tcat agO pOt tN tcO mgO/uOzr2 tcat 4etp agO 4Oez1
tgazpCettOI ez tcO rNCCuzerateNz SezO3 8Ng ogNoOg NoOgateNzn et ep gO/uegOI tcat tcO
rSNrFp ez tcO tgazpCettOg azI gOrOe-Og CNIOCp gOCaez p2zrcgNze(OI at aSS teCOp3 .cO
rNCCuzerateNz SezOn cNyO-Ogn rNztaezp NzS2 tcO Iata 4etp mgNC ycerc tcO rSNrF
ezmNgCateNz Cupt 4O OBtgartOI3 8gO/uOzr2 p2zrcgNze(ateNz ep arceO-OI 42 tcO gOrOe-ez1
CNIOC mgNC tcO pe1zaS tgazpeteNzp tcat Nrrug ez tcO gOrOe-OI Iata3 Az2 mgO/uOzr2 pcemt
tcat Ca2 Nrrug 4OtyOOz tcO tgazpCettOg azI gOrOe-Og rSNrFp ep rNztezuNupS2 aIZuptOI 42
Caeztaezez1 tcO gOrOe-Og rSNrF Qat tcO mgO/uOzr2 Nm tcO ezrNCez1 4et ptgOaC3 .cO CNIOC
tgazpmOgp tcO gOrOe-OI Iata tN1OtcOg yetc tcO rSNrF tN tcO eztOgmarO uzet3

:Nztgag2 tN ap2zrcgNzNup tgazpCeppeNzn ycOgO Oarc rcagartOg raz 4O pOzt pOoagatOS2
yetc etp Nyz ptagt azI ptNo 4etpn p2zrcgNzNup tgazpCeppeNz Cupt pOzI a rNztezuNup

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

COppa1O ez NgIOg tN Caeztaez p2zrcgNzepC3 .cO COppa1O rNzpeptp Nm a 1gNuo Nm 4etp
tgazpCettOI pO/uOzteaSS2 ap a 4SNrF Nm Iata3 .cO OztegO 4SNrF ep tgazpCettOI yetc poOreaS
rNztgNS rcagartOgp at tcO 4O1ezzez1 azI OzI Nm tcO 4SNrF3 .cO rNztgNS rcagartOgp at tcO
4O1ezzez1 Nm tcO 4SNrF puooS2 tcO ezmNgCateNz zOOIOI tN pOoagatO tcO ezrNCez1 4etp eztN
ezIe-eIuaS rcagartOgp3

Yz p2zrcgNzNup tgazpCeppeNzn ycOgO az OztegO 4SNrF Nm rcagartOgp ep tgazpCettOIn Oarc
rcagartOg cap a oaget2 4et mNg tcO gOrOe-Og tN rcOrF3 AmtOg tcO OztegO 4SNrF ep pOztn tcO
tgazpCettOg pOzIp NzO CNgO rcagartOg ap a oaget2 N-Og tcO SOz1tc Nm tcO COppa1O3 .cep
rcagartOg ep raSSOI a SNz1etuIezaS gOIuzIazr2 rcOrF 9MU:E azI ep tcO arruCuSateNz Nm
tcO OBrSupe-ORfU Nm aSS tgazpCettOI rcagartOgp3 .cO gOrOe-ez1 ptateNz raSruSatOp tcO MU:
ap et gOrOe-Op rcagartOgp azI rNCoagOp et yetc tcO tgazpCettOI MU:3 .cO raSruSatOI azI
gOrOe-OI MU: pcNuSI 4O O/uaS mNg OggNgRmgOO COppa1Op3 Ym tcO gOrOe-Og mezIp az OggNg ez
tcO tgazpCettOI 4SNrFn et ezmNgCp tcO pOzIOg tN gOtgazpCet tcO paCO 4SNrF NzrO a1aez3
AzNtcOg COtcNI upOI mNg rcOrFez1 OggNgp ez tgazpCeppeNz ep tcO r2rSer gOIuzIazr2
rcOrF 9:U:E3 .cep ep a oNS2zNCeaS rNIO N4taezOI mgNC tcO COppa1O 4etp 42 oappez1 tcOC
tcgNu1c a mOOI4arF pcemt gO1eptOg rNztaezez1 a zuC4Og Nm OBrSupe-ORfU 1atOp3 .cep t2oO
Nm rNIO ep pueta4SO mNg IOtOrtez1 4ugpt OggNgp Nrruggez1 ez tcO rNCCuzerateNz rcazzOS3
6ata raz 4O tgazpCettOI 4OtyOOz tyN oNeztp ez tcgOO IemmOgOzt CNIOp R peCoSOBn caSmR
IuoSOBn azI muSSRIuoSOB3 A peCoSOB SezO raggeOp ezmNgCateNz ez NzO IegOrteNz NzS23 .cep
CNIO ep pOSINC upOI ez Iata rNCCuzerateNz 4OraupO tcO gOrOe-Og razzNt rNCCuzeratO
yetc tcO tgazpCettOg tN ezIeratO tcO NrruggOzrO Nm OggNgp3 LBaCoSOp Nm peCoSOB
tgazpCeppeNz agO gaIeN azI tOSO-epeNz 4gNaIraptez13
A caSmRIuoSOB tgazpCeppeNz p2ptOC ep NzO tcat ep raoa4SO Nm tgazpCettez1 ez 4Ntc
IegOrteNzp 4ut Iata raz 4O tgazpCettOI ez NzS2 NzO IegOrteNz at a teCO3 A oaeg Nm yegOp ep
zOOIOI mNg tcep CNIO3
A muSSRIuoSOB tgazpCeppeNz raz pOzI azI gOrOe-O Iata ez 4Ntc IegOrteNzp peCuStazONupS23
.cep raz 4O arceO-OI 42 COazp Nm a mNugRyegO SezFn yetc a IemmOgOzt oaeg Nm yegOp
IOIeratOI tN Oarc IegOrteNz Nm tgazpCeppeNz3

.cO rNCCuzerateNz SezOpn CNIOCpn azI NtcOg O/ueoCOzt upOI ez tcO tgazpCeppeNz Nm
ezmNgCateNz 4OtyOOz tyN Ng CNgO ptateNzp ep raSSOI a Iata SezF3 .cO NgIOgS2 tgazpmOg Nm
ezmNgCateNz ez a Iata SezF ep arrNCoSepcOI 42 COazp Nm a ogNtNrNS3 A Iata SezF rNztgNS
ogNtNrNS ep a pOt Nm guSOp tcat agO mNSSNyOI 42 eztOgrNzzOrtez1 rNCoutOgp azI tOgCezaSp
tN OzpugO tcO NgIOgS2 tgazpmOg Nm ezmNgCateNz3 .cO ougoNpO Nm a Iata SezF ogNtNrNS ep tN
Opta4Sepc azI tOgCezatO a rNzzOrteNz 4OtyOOz tyN ptateNzpn tN eIOztem2 tcO pOzIOg azI
gOrOe-Ogn tN OzpugO tcat aSS COppa1Op agO oappOI rNggOrtS2 yetcNut OggNgpn azI tN cazISO
aSS rNztgNS muzrteNzp ez-NS-OI ez a pO/uOzrO Nm Iata tgazpmOgp3 lgNtNrNSp agO Ie-eIOI eztN
tyN CaZNg ratO1NgeOp arrNgIez1 tN tcO COppa1ORmgaCez1n tOrcze/uO upOI3 .cOpO agO
rcagartOgRNgeOztOI ogNtNrNS azI 4etRNgeOztOI ogNtNrNS3

6.4.3 Character-Oriented Protocol

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.cO rcagartOgRNgeOztOI ogNtNrNS ep 4apOI Nz a rcagartOg pOt3 .cO rNIO CNpt rNCCNzS2
upOI ep AT:YY 9ACOgeraz TtazIagI :NIO mNg YzmNgCateNz YztOgrcaz1OE3 Yt ep a vR4et rNIO
yetc az Oe1ctc 4et upOI mNg oaget23 .cO rNIO cap wGx rcagartOgpn Nm ycerc X' agO 1gaocer
rcagartOgp azI KK agO rNztgNS rcagartOgp3 .cO 1gaocer rcagartOgp ezrSuIO tcO uooOgR
azI SNyOgrapO SOttOgpn tcO tOz zuCOgaSpn azI a -ageOt2 Nm poOreaS p2C4NSp3 A Sept Nm tcO
AT:YY rcagartOgp raz 4O mNuzI ez .a4SO ”3x3 .cO rNztgNS rcagartOgp agO upOI mNg tcO
ougoNpO Nm gNutez1 Iatan aggaz1ez1 tcO tOpt ez a IOpegOI mNgCatn azI mNg tcO Sa2Nut Nm tcO
ogeztOI oa1O3 .cO rcagartOgp tcat rNztgNS tcO tgazpCeppeNz agO raSSOI rNCCuzerateNz
rNztgNS rcagartOgp3 .cOpO rcagartOgp agO SeptOI ez .a4SO ”3x3 Larc rcagartOg cap a vR4et
rNIO azI ep gOmOggOI tN 42 a tcgOORSOttOg p2C4NS3 .cO gNSO Nm Oarc rcagartOg ez tcO rNztgNS
Nm Iata tgazpCeppeNz ep ptatOI 4geOmS2 ez tcO muzrteNz rNSuCz Nm tcO ta4SO3
.cO TWd rcagartOg pOg-Op ap p2zrcgNze(ez1 a1Ozt 4OtyOOz tcO tgazpCettOg azI gOrOe-Og3

5cOz tcO vR4et AT:YY rNIO ep upOI yetc az NIIRoaget2 4et ez tcO CNpt pe1zemerazt
oNpeteNzn tcO appe1zOI TWd rcagartOg cap tcO xR4et rNIO –––w–ww– ycerc cap tcO
ogNoOgt2 tcatn uoNz regruSag pcemtez1n et gOoOatp etpOSm NzS2 amtOg a muSS xR4et r2rSO3 5cOz
tcO tgazpCettOg ptagtp pOzIez1 xR4et rcagartOgpn et pOzIp a mOy rcagartOgp megpt azI tcOz
pOzIp tcO artuaS COppa1O3 .cO ezeteaS rNztezuNup ptgez1 Nm 4etp arrOotOI 42 tcO gOrOe-Og
ep rcOrFOI mNg a TWd rcagartOg3 Yz NtcOg yNgIpn yetc Oarc rSNrF ouSpOn tcO gOrOe-Og
rcOrFp tcO Sapt Oe1ct 4etp gOrOe-OI3 Ym tcO2 IN zNt Catrc tcO 4etp Nm tcO TWd rcagartOgn
tcO gOrOe-Og arrOotp tcO zOBt 4etn gOZOrtp tcO ogO-eNup ce1cRNgIOg 4etn azI a1aez rcOrFp
tcO Sapt Oe1ct 4etp gOrOe-OI mNg a TWd rcagartOg3 .cep ep gOoOatOI amtOg Oarc rSNrF ouSpO
azI 4et gOrOe-OI uzteS a TWd rcagartOg ep gOrN1ze(OI3 fzrO a TWd rcagartOg ep IOtOrtOIn
tcO gOrOe-Og cap mgaCOI a rcagartOg3 8gNC cOgO Nz tcO gOrOe-Og rNuztp O-Og2 Oe1ct 4etp
azI arrOotp tcOC ap a pez1SO rcagartOg3 VpuaSS2n tcO gOrOe-Og rcOrFp tyN rNzpOrute-O
TWd rcagartOgp tN gOCN-O az2 INu4t tcat tcO megpt IeI zNt Nrrug ap a gOpuSt Nm a zNepO
pe1zaS Nz tcO SezO3 sNgON-Ogn ycOz tcO tgazpCettOg ep eISO azI INOp zNt ca-O az2
COppa1O rcagartOgp tN pOzIn et pOzIp a rNztezuNup ptgez1 Nm TWd rcagartOgp3 .cO
gOrOe-Og gOrN1ze(Op tcOpO rcagartOgp ap a rNzIeteNz mNg p2zrcgNze(ez1 tcO SezO azI 1NOp
eztN a p2zrcgNzNup eISO ptatO3 Yz tcep ptatOn tcO tyN uzetp Caeztaez 4et azI rcagartOg
p2zrcgNzepC O-Oz tcNu1c zN COazez1muS ezmNgCateNz ep rNCCuzeratOI3
.a4SO ”3xb AT:YY :NCCuzerateNz :NztgNS :cagartOgp

5O tgazpCet COppa1Op tcgNu1c tcO Iata SezF yetc az Opta4SepcOI mNgCat rNzpeptez1 Nm a
cOaIOg meOSIn a tOBt meOSIn azI az OggNgRrcOrFez1 meOSI3 A t2oeraS COppa1O mNgCat mNg a
rcagartOgRNgeOztOI ogNtNrNS ep pcNyz ez 8e13 ”3“K3 .cO tyN TWd rcagartOgp appugO

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

ogNoOg p2zrcgNze(ateNz at tcO ptagt Nm tcO COppa1O3 8NSSNyez1 tcO TWd rcagartOgp ep tcO
cOaIOgn ycerc ptagtp yetc az Tf7 9ptagt Nm cOaIez1E rcagartOg3 .cO cOaIOg rNzpeptp Nm
aIIgOpp azI rNztgNS ezmNgCateNz3 .cO T.T rcagartOg tOgCezatOp tcO cOaIOg azI pe1zemeOp
tcO 4O1ezzez1 Nm tcO tOBt tgazpCeppeNz3 .cO tOBt oNgteNz Nm tcO COppa1O ep -agea4SO ez
SOz1tc azI Ca2 rNztaez az2 AT:YY rcagartOgp OBrOot tcO rNCCuzerateNz rNztgNS
rcagartOgp3 .cO tOBt meOSI ep tOgCezatOI yetc tcO L.T rcagartOg3 .cO Sapt meOSI ep a 4SNrF
rcOrF rcagartOg 9P::E upOI mNg OggNg rcOrFez13 Yt ep upuaSS2 OetcOg a SNz1etuIezaS
gOIuzIazr2 rcOrF 9MU:E Ng a r2rSer gOIuzIazr2 rcOrF 9:U:E3 .cO gOrOe-Og arrOotp tcO
COppa1O azI raSruSatOp etp Nyz P::3 Ym tcO P:: tgazpCettOI INOp zNt a1gOO yetc tcO
P:: raSruSatOI 42 tcO gOrOe-Ogn tcO gOrOe-Og gOpoNzIp yetc a zO1ate-O arFzNySOI1O
9dA?E rcagartOg3 .cO COppa1O ep tcOz gOtgazpCettOI azI rcOrFOI a1aez3 UOtgazpCeppeNz
yeSS 4O t2oeraSS2 attOCotOI pO-OgaS teCOp 4OmNgO et ep appuCOI tcat tcO SezO ep mauSt23
5cOz tcO tgazpCettOI P:: CatrcOp tcO NzO raSruSatOI 42 tcO gOrOe-Ogn tcO gOpoNzpO ep
a oNpete-O arFzNySOI1COzt upez1 tcO A:? rcagartOg3

.gazpCeppeNz LBaCoSO

MOt up eSSuptgatO 42 a poOremer OBaCoSO tcO COtcNI 42 ycerc a tOgCezaS azI tcO
ogNrOppNg rNCCuzeratO3 .cO rNCCuzerateNz yetc tcO C OCNg2 uzet azI :lV ep peCeSag
tN az2 Ykf ogNrOppNg3

8e1ugO ”3“Kb .2oeraS COppa1O mNgCat mNg rcagartOgRNgeOztOI ogNtNrNS

A t2oeraS COppa1O tcat Ce1ct 4O pOzt mgNC a tOgCezaS tN tcO ogNrOppNg ep SeptOI ez .a4SO
”3X3 A SNNF at tcep COppa1O gO-OaSp tcat tcOgO agO a zuC4Og Nm rNztgNS rcagartOgp upOI
mNg COppa1O mNgCateNz3 Larc rcagartOgn ezrSuIez1 tcO rNztgNS rcagartOgpn ep tgazpCettOI
pOgeaSS2 ap az xR4et 4ezag2 rNIO ycerc rNzpept Nm tcO vR4et AT:YY rNIO oSup az NII oaget2
4et ez tcO Oe1ctc CNpt pe1zemerazt oNpeteNz3 .cO tyN TWd rcagartOgp agO upOI tN
p2zrcgNze(O tcO gOrOe-Og aC tgazpCettOg3 .cO cOaIez1 ptagtp yetc tcO Tf7 rcagartOg
azI rNztezuOp yetc tyN rcagartOgp tcat poOrem2 tcO aIIgOpp Nm tcO tOgCezaS3 Yz tcep
oagteruSag OBaCoSO tcO aIIgOpp ep .“n 4ut ez 1OzOgaS et raz ca-O az2 pOt Nm tyN Ng CNgO
1gaocer rcagartOgp3 .cO T.T rcagartOg tOgCezatOp tcO cOaIez1 azI pe1zemeOp tcO
4O1ezzez1 Nm tcO tOBt tgazpCeppeNz3 .cO tOBt Iata Nm rNzrOgz cOgO ep RgO/uOpt 4aSazrO Nm
arrNuzt zuC4Og wGK“3R .cO ezIe-eIuaS rcagartOgp mNg tcep COppa1O agO zNt SeptOI ez tcO
ta4SO 4OraupO tcO2 yeSS taFO tNN Curc poarO3 Yt Cupt 4O gOaSe(OI cNyO-Ogn tcat Oarc
rcagartOg ez tcO COppa1O cap az xR4et rNIO azI tcat Oarc 4et ep tgazpCettOI pOgeaSS23
.cO L.T rNztgNS rcagartOg pe1zemeOp tcO tOgCezateNz Nm tcO tOBt rcagartOgp3 .cO zOBt
rcagartOg mNSSNyez1 L.T ep a SNz1etuIezaS gOIuzIazr2 rcOrF 9MU:E3 Larc 4et ez tcep
rcagartOg ep a oaget2 4et raSruSatOI mgNC aSS tcO 4etp ez tcO paCO rNSuCz ez tcO rNIO
pOrteNz Nm tcO ta4SO3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.cO Iata rNCCuzerateNz ogNrOppNg gOrOe-Op tcep COppa1O azI ogNrOOIp tN azaS2(O et3 Yt
gOrN1ze(Op tOgCezaS .“ azI ptNgOp tcO tOBt appNreatOI yetc tcO COppa1O3 5ceSO gOrOe-ez1
tcO rcagartOgpn tcO ogNrOppNg rcOrFp tcO oaget2 Nm Oarc rcagartOg azI aSpN rNCoutOp tcO
SNz1etuIezaS oaget23 .cO rNCoutOI MU: ep rNCoagOI yetc tcO MU: rcagartOg gOrOe-OI3 Ym
tcO tyN Catrcn a oNpete-O arFzNySOI1OCOzt 9A:?E a pOzt 4arF tN tcO tOgCezaS3 Ym a
CepCatrc OBeptpn a zO1ate-O arFzNySOI1COzt 9dA?E ep gOtugzOI tN tcO tOgCezaSn ycerc
yNuSI ezeteatO a gOtgazpCeppeNz Nm tcO paCO 4SNrF3 Ym tcO ogNrOppNg mezIp tcO COppa1O
yetcNut OggNgpn et tgazpmOgp tcO COppa1O eztN COCNg2 azI eztOgguotp tcO :lV3 5cOz tcO
:lV arFzNySOI1Op tcO eztOgguotn et azaS2(Op tcO COppa1O azI ogOoagOp a tOBt COppa1O
mNg gOpoNzIez1 tN tcO gO/uOpt3 .cO :lV pOzIp az ezptgurteNz tN tcO Iata rNCCuzerateNz
ogNrOppNg tN pOzI tcO COppa1O tN tcO tOgCezaS3

.a4SO ”3Xb .2oeraS .gazpCeppeNz mgNC a .OgCezaS tN lgNrOppNg

A t2oeraS gOpoNzpO mgNC ogNrOppNg tN tOgCezaS ep SeptOI ez .a4SO ”3X3 AmtOg tyN TWd
rcagartOgpn tcO ogNrOppNg arFzNySOI1Op tcO ogO-eNup COppa1O yetc az A:? rcagartOg3
.cO SezO rNztezuOp tN eISO yetc TWd rcagartOg yaetez1 mNg tcO gOpoNzpO tN rNCO3 .cO
COppa1O gOrOe-OI mgNC tcO :lV ep aggaz1OI ez tcO ogNoOg mNgCat 42 tcO ogNrOppNg 42
ezpOgtez1 tcO gO/uegOI rNztgNS rcagartOgp 4OmNgO azI amtOg tcO tOBt3 .cO COppa1O cap tcO
cOaIez1 Tf7 azI tcO aIIgOpp Nm tcO tOgCezaS .“3 .cO tOBt COppa1O ezmNgCp tcO tOgCezaS
tcat tcO 4aSazrO ep Uw––3 Az MU: rcagartOg ep rNCoutOI azI pOzt tN tcO tOgCezaS3 Ym tcO
tOgCezaS gOpoNzIp yetc a dA? rcagartOgn tcO ogNrOppNg gOtgazpCetp tcO COppa1O3

.a4SO ”3w–b .2oeraS .gazpCeppeNz mgNC lgNrOppNg tN .OgCezaS

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

6.4.4 Bit-Oriented Protocol

.cep ogNtNrNS INOp zNt upO rcagartOgp ez etp rNztgNS meOSI azI ep ezIOoOzIOzt Nm az2
oagteruSag rNIO3 Yt aSSNyp tcO tgazpCeppeNz Nm pOgeaS 4et ptgOaC Nm az2 SOz1tc yetcNut tcO
eCoSerateNz Nm rcagartOg 4NuzIageOp3 sOppa1Op agO Ng1aze(OI ez a poOremer mNgCat raSSOI
a mgaCO3 Yz aIIeteNz tN tcO ezmNgCateNz meOSIn a mgaCO rNztaezp aIIgOppn rNztgNSn azI
OggNgRrcOrFez1 meOSIp .cO mgaCO 4NuzIageOp agO IOtOgCezOI mgNC a poOreaS xR4et zuC4Og
raSSOI a mSa1 LBaCoSOp Nm 4etRNgeOztOI ogNtNrNSp agO T6M: 9p2zrcgNzNup Iata SezF
rNztgNSE upOI 42 YPsn 76M: 9ce1cRSO-OS Iata SezF rNztgNSE aINotOI 42 tcO YztOgzateNzaS
TtazIagIp fg1aze(ateNzn azI A6::l 9aI-azrOI Iata rN CCuzerateNz rNztgNS ogNrOIugOE
aINotOI 42 tcO ACOgeraz dateNzaS TtazIagIp YzptetutO3

Az2 Iata rNCCuzerateNz SezF ez-NS-Op at SOapt tyN oagtereoatez1 ptateNzp .cO ptateNz
tcat cap gOpoNzpe4eSet2 mNg tcO Iata SezF azI eppuOp tcO rNCCazIp tN rNztgNS tcO SezF ep
raSSOI tcO ogeCag2 ptateNz3 .cO NtcOg ptateNz ep a pOrNzIag2 ptateNz3 PetRNgeOztOI
ogNtNrNSp appuCO tcO ogOpOzrO Nm NzO ogeCag2 ptateNz azI NzO Ng CNgO pOrNzIag2
ptateNzp3 ASS rNCCuzerateNz Nz tcO Iata SezF ep mgNC tcO ogeCag2 ptateNz tN NzO Ng CNgO
pOrNzIag2 ptateNzpn Ng mgNC a pOrNzIag2 ptateNz tN tcO ogeCag2 ptateNz3

.cO mgaCO mNgCat mNg tcO 4etRNgeOztOI ogNtNrNS ep pcNyz ez 8e13 ”3““3 A mgaCO ptagtp
yetcRtcO xR4et mSa1 –wwwwww– mNSSNyOI 42 az aIIgOpp azI rNztgNS pO/uOzrO3 .cO
ezmNgCateNz meOSI ep zNt gOptgertOI ez mNgCat Ng rNztOzt azI raz 4O Nm az2 SOz1tc3 .cO
mgaCO rcOrF meOSI ep a :U: 9r2rSer gOIuzIazr2 rcOrF pO/uOzrO upOI mNg IOtOrtez1 OggNgp
ez tgazpCeppeNz3 .cO OzIez1 mSa1 ezIeratOK tN tcO gOrOe-ez1 ptateNz tcat tcO w” 4etp Zupt
gOrOe-OI rNzptetutO tcO :U: 4etp .cO OzIez1 mgaCO raz 4O mNSSNyOI 42 azNtcOg mgaCOn
azNtcOg mSa1n Ng a pO/uOzrO Nm rNzpOrute-O ip3 5cOz tyN mgaCOp mNSSNy Oarc NtcOgn tcO
eztOg-Ozez1 mSa1 ep peCuStazONupS2 tcO OzIez1 mSa1 Nm tcO megpt mgaCO azI tcO 4O1ezzez1
mSa1 Nm tcO zOBt mgaCO3 Ym zN ezmNgCateNz ep OBrcaz1OIn tcO tgazpCettOg pOzIp a pOgeOp Nm

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

mSa1p tN FOOo tcO SezO ez tcO arte-O ptatO3 .cO SezO ep paeI tN 4O ez tcO eISO ptatO yetc tcO
NrruggOzrO Nm w' Ng CNgO rNzpOrute-O SQp3 8gaCOp yetc rOgtaez rNztgNS COppa1Op agO pOzt
yetcNut az ezmNgCateNz meOSI3 A mgaCO Cupt ca-O a CezeCuC Nm KG 4etp 4OtyOOz tyN
mSa1p tN arrNCCNIatO tcO aIIgOppn rNztgNSn azI mgaCO rcOrF meOSIp3 .cO CaBeCuC
SOz1tc IOoOzIp Nz tcO rNzIeteNz Nm tcO rNCCuzerateNz rcazzOS azI etp a4eSet2 tN
tgazpCet SNz1 COppa1Op OggNgRmgOO3

.N ogO-Ozt a mSa1 mgNC Nrruggez1 ez tcO CeIISO Nm a mgaCOn tcO 4etRNgeOztOI ogNtNrNS upOp
a COtcNI raSSOI (OgN ezpOgteNz3 Yt gO/uegOp a – 4O ezpOgtOI 42 tcO tgazpCettez1 ptateNz
amtOg az2 purrOppeNz Nm me-O rNztezuNup SQp3 .cO gOrOe-Og aSya2p gOCN-Op a – tcat mNSSNyp
a purrOppeNz Nm me-O SQp3 .cup tcO 4et oattOgz –wwwwww ep tgazpCettOI ap –wwwww–w azI
gOptNgOI 42 tcO gOrOe-Og tN et Nge1ezaS -aSuO 42 gOCN-aS Nm tcO – mNSSNyez1 tcO me-O SQp3 Ap a
rNzpO/uOzrOn zN oattOgz Nm –wwwwww– ep O-Og tgazpCettOI 4OtyOOz tcO 4O1ezzez1 azI
OzIez1 mSa1p3

8e1ugO ”3““b 8gaCO 8NgCat mNg PetRNgeOztOI lgNtNrNS

8NSSNyez1 tcO mSa1 ep tcO aIIgOpp meOSIn ycerc ep upOI 42 tcO ogeCag2 ptateNz tN IOpe1zatO
tcO pOrNzIag2 ptateNz aIIgOpp3 Az aIIgOpp meOSI Nm Oe1ct 4etp raz poOrem2 uo tN G'”
aIIgOppOp3 TNCO 4etRNgeOztOI ogNtNrNSp oOgCet tcO upO Nm az OBtOzIOI aIIgOpp meOSI3 .N
IN tcepn tcO SOapt pe1zemerazt 4et Nm az aIIgOpp 42tO ep pOt tNN em azNtcOg aIIgOpp 42tO
mNSSNyp3 A w ez tcO SOapt pe1zemerazt 4et Nm a 42tO ep upO tN gOrN1ze(O tcO Sapt aIIgOpp 42tO3

8NSSNyez1 tcO aIIgOpp meOSI ep tcO rNztgNS meOSI3 .cO rNztgNS meOSI rNCOp ez tcgOO IemmOgOzt
mNgCatpn ap pcNyz ez 8e13 ”3“'3 .cO ezmNgCateNz tgazpmOg mNgCat ep upOI mNg NgIezag2
Iata tgazpCeppeNz3 Larc mgaCO tgazpCettOI ez tcep mNgCat rNztaezp pOzI azI gOrOe-O
rNuztp3 A ptateNz tcat tgazpCetp pO/uOzrO mgaCOp rNuztp azI zuC4Ogp Oarc mgaCO3 .cep
rNuzt ep 1e-Oz 42 tcO pOzI rNuzt d
s3 A ptateNz gOrOe-ez1 pO/uOzrOI mgaCOp rNuztp Oarc
OggNgRmgOO mgaCO tcat gOrOe-Op3 .cep rNuzt ep 1e-Oz 42 tcO gOrOe-O rNuzt d
r3 .cO dr rNuzt
aI-azrO ycOz a mgaCO ep rcOrFOI azI mNuzI tN 4O yetcNut OggNgp3 .cO gOrOe-Og rNzmegCp
arrOotOI zuC4OgOI ezmNgCateNz mgaCOp 42 gOtugzez1 etp d
r rNuzt tN tcO tgazpCettez1
ptateNz3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO ”3“'b :NztgNS 8eOSI 8NgCat ez PetRNgeOztOI lgNtNrNS

.cO lk8 4et ep upOI 42 tcO ogeCag2 ptateNz tN oNSS a pOrNzIag2 ptateNz tN gO/uOpt tcat et
QezeteatO tgazpCeppeNz3 Yt ep upOI 42 tcO pOrNzIag2 ptateNz tN ezIeratO tcO mezaS
tgazpCettOI mgaCO3 .cup tcO lk8 meOSI ep raSSOI l 9oNSSE ycOz tcO ogeCag2 ptateNz ep
tgazpCettez1 4ut ep IOpe1zatOI ap 8 9mezaSE ycOz a pOrNzIag2 ptateNz ep tgazpCettez13
Larc mgaCO pOzt tN tcO pOrNzIag2 ptateNz mgNC tcO ogeCag2 ptateNz cap a l 4et pOt tN –3
5cOz tcO ogeCag2 ptateNz ep mezepcOI azI gOaI2 mNg tcO pOrNzIag2 ptateNz tN gOpoNzIn
tcO l 4et ep pOt tN w3 .cO pOrNzIag2 ptateNz tcOz gOpoNzIp yetc a zuC4Og Nm mgaCOp ez
ycerc tcO 8 4et ep pOt tN –3 5cOz tcO pOrNzIag2 ptateNz pOzIp tcO Sapt mgaCOn et pOtp tcO
8 4et tN w3 .cOgOmNgOn tcO lk8 4et ep upOI tN IOtOgCezO ycOz Iata tgazpCeppeNz mgNC a
ptateNz ep mezepcOI3
.cO puoOg-epNg2 mNgCat Nm tcO rNztgNS meOSI ep gOrN1ze(OI mgNC tcO megpt tyN 4etp 4Oez1 w
azI –3 .cO zOBt tyN 4etp ezIeratO tcO t2oO Nm rNCCazI3 .cO mgaCOp Nm tcO puoOg-epNg2
mNgCat IN zNt ragg2 az ezmNgCateNz meOSI3 .cO2 agO upOI tN appept ez tcO tgazpmOg Nm
ezmNgCateNz ez tcat tcO2 rNzmegC tcO arrOotazrO Nm ogOrOIez1 mgaCOp ragg2ez1
ezmNgCateNzn rNz-O2 gOaI2 Ng 4up2 rNzIeteNzpn azI gOoNgt mgaCO zuC4Ogez1 OggNgp3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

UNIT 7

MEMORY ORGANIZATION

7.1 SpinmPgyepmom:yPg
7.2 SoevgipinmPg
7.2.1 LuSgovMgLwSg:yestgg
7.2.2 SpinmPguMMmpttgSosg
7.3 udAeheomPgipinmPg
7.3.1 SoEvp e:gMet1tg
7.3.2 SoEvp e:gxospg
7.4 ao:ypgipinmPg
7.4.1 /emp: gSossevEg
7.4.2 uttn:eo eTpgSossevEg
7.4.3 Dp kgottn:eo eTpgSossevEg
7.4.4 lem dohgipinmPg
7.4.5 uttn:eo eTpgipinmPg-oEpg oChpg
7.4.6 -oEpgLpsho:pipv g

g
Introduction

SpinmPg evg og :nisd pmg tPt pig :ovg Cpg MeTeMpMg ev ng +ng ioevg :hottpt9gmain storeg ovMg
secondary storeOgSoevgt nmpgetg ypgyeEygtsppMgipinmPgdtpMg ngynhMg ypgsmnEmoitgovMg
Mo og:dmmpv hPgevgdtpOgDp:nvMomPgt nmpgetg ypgipinmPgdtpMgrnmghnvEg pmigt nmoEpgnrgMo ocg
pOEOg og Met1g MmeTpOg xyetg tp: envg Met:dttptg ioevg t nmpg kg ypg vpA g Mpohtg +e yg tp:nvMomPg
t nmpOgg
g
anisd pmgipinmPgetgioMpgnrgogvdiCpmgnrgcellsg/nvpgspmgCe 0cgpo:ygnrg+ye:yg:ovgpAet gevg
+ngMet ev: gt o ptg:nmmptsnvMevEg ng ypgTohdpgnrgtnipgsyPte:ohgsmnspm POgaphhtgompgnr pvg
EmndspMg nEp ypmg ng rnmig +nmMtOg fo:yg :phhg yotg ovgaddressg +ye:yg ohhn+tg e g ng Cpg
dveGdphPgtsp:erepMOgg
/errpmpv g syPte:ohg smnspm eptg :ovg Cpg dtpMg ng t nmpg ypg evrnmio envOg xypg rnhhn+evEg ompg
:niinvhPgdtpMgip ynMtOgg
a fhp: me:ohg+e ygrppMCo:1g/pOEOgrheskrhnst0gg
a fhp: me:ohg+e ygt nmpMg:yomEpg/CotpMgnvg:oso:e ov:p0gg
a SoEvp e:g/pOEOgMet1gMmeTpt0gg
a D md: dmohg/pOEOg:niso: gMet1t0Ogg
g
anisd pmgipinmPg:ovg ohtngCpg:hottpMgo::nmMevEg ng ypgip ynMgnrgo::pttg ng ypg:phhtOg
Random access memorygetgommovEpMgtng yo g ypg eipg o1pvg ngmpoMgnmg+me pgovPg:phhgetg
ypgtoipcgmpEomMhpttgnrge tghn:o envOgSoevgipinmPgetgmovMniko::pttOgbn pgyn+pTpmcg yo g

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

kUIekI/pe/MoDtpeMnnIaaepIpt/1e4xPS6egaetikIoedaIDek te/IiI/etoy1ektekUIe/IMD2E/gkMHyIe
pMgoe pIpt/1e daIDe it/e aUt/ke kI/pe DMkMe akt/MlIbeSerial access memorye gae M//MolIDe ate
kUMkekUIekgpIekMTIoekteMnnIaaeMesM/kgndyM/enIyyegaeDIsIoDIokegaeDIsIoDIoketoekUIesU1agnMye
ytnMkgtoetiekUIenIyyOeMoDedadMyy1eDIsIoDaetoekUIestagkgtoetiekUIeyMakenIyyeMnnIaaIDbeRMsIe
D/g5IaeM/IeaI/gMyeMnnIaaeDI5gnIabee
e
-Ie nMoe Myate nyMaagi1e pIpt/1e Mnnt/Dgole kte EUIkUI/e t/e otke EIe nMoe ptDgi1e kUIe nIyye
ntokIokabeRead only memorye4x0S6egaepIpt/1eEUtaIentokIokaenMootkeHIeptDgigIDbeRUgae
pM1eIgkUI/eHIeaIpgntoDdnkt/epIpt/1Oet/eMe/IMD2toy1eDI5gnIeadnUeMaeMoet/DgoM/1etskgnMye
DgaTe 4c92x0S6be RUIe nt/Ie tie Me ntpsdkI/Qae tsI/Mkgole a1akIpe gae tikIoe akt/IDe goe
aIpgntoDdnkt/ex0Sbee

7.1 Memory Hierarchy

SIpt/1e8gI/M/nU1egaektetHkMgoekUIeUglUIakestaagHyIeMnnIaaeasIIDeEUgyIepgogpg(golekUIe
ktkMyentaketiekUIepIpt/1ea1akIpe
e
ctpsdkI/e a1akIpae MyEM1ae ntpHgoIe aI5I/Mye DgiiI/Ioke k1sIae tie kUIe pIpt/1e DI5gnIae
DgandaaIDe MHt5Ibe RUgae gae HInMdaIe otoIe MytoIe nMoe s/t 5gDIe Myye kUIe /IGdg/IDe
nUM/MnkI/gakgnabehDIMyy1entpsdkI/epIpt/1eaUtdyDeHIekUIeityytEgolbee
M6erI/1eiMakee
H6eapMyyee
n6ectoadpIeytEestEI/ee
D6extHdakeMoDeoto25tyMkgyIe4/IpIpHI/egkaentokIokaeI5IoeEUIoeaEgknUIDetii6ee
e) cUIMsee
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
Magnetic

tapes
Magnetic disk

I/O

processor
CPU
Main

memory
Cache

memory
Auxiliary memory
Register
Cache

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
3oit/kdoMkIy1ekUIaIeMgpaentoiygnkOeMoDeDgiiI/Iokek1sIaetiepIpt/1eDI5gnIetiiI/e
DgiiI/IokeHIoIigkaeMoDeD/MEHMnTabee
e
e
Internal CPU memory
RUgae gae 5I/1e iMakbe 8tEI5I/Oe gke gae HdyT1Oe IusIoag5IOe ntoadpIae Me ytke tie stEI/Oe MoDe kUIe
ntokIokaeM/IeytakeEUIoestEI/egae/Ipt5IDbee
e
Main store
xIyMkg5Iy1eiMakOeHdkeakgyyeHdyT1OeIusIoag5IeMoDe5tyMkgyIbee
e
Magnetic disk
RUIaIe nMoe akt/Ie yM/lIe GdMokgkIae tie DMkMe nUIMsy1e MoDe goe Me apMyye asMnIbe Fd/kUI/pt/IOe
kUIaIenMoeHIedaIDeit/esI/pMpIokDaIpg2sI/pMoIokeakt/MlIOeMaekUIeDMkMegaeotkeytakeEUIoe
stEI/egae/Ipt5IDbe8tEI5I/OekUIeMnnIaaekgpIegaepdnUeaytEI/ekUMoepMgoepIpt/1bee
e
Magnetic tape and optical storage
RUIaIe M/Ie HtkUe 5I/1e nUIMse MoDe nMoe akt/Ie UdlIe GdMokgkgIae tie DMkMe goe Me apMyye asMnIbe
R1sgnMyy1e kUI1e daIe /Ipt5MHyIe pIDgMOe MoDe ate M/Ie gDIMye it/e sI/pMoIoke akt/MlIe tie DMkMbe
8tEI5I/OeMnnIaaekgpIaeM/IeIuk/IpIy1eytolbee
e
1e ntpHgogole DgiiI/Ioke k1sIae tie pIpt/1e goe Me agolyIea1akIpOe kUIe DIagloI/e nMoe lIke kUIe
HIake tie Myye Et/yDae MoDe HdgyDe Me /IyMkg5Iy1e ytEe ntakea1akIpe EgkUe Me UglUe nMsMngk1e MoDe Me
asIIDeMyptakekUMketieMeUdlIepMgoepIpt/1bee

Semiconductor (main) Memory
Pyye tie kUIe pIpt/1e daIDe Mae pMgoe akt/Ie goe Me ptDI/oe ntpsdkI/e gae gpsyIpIokIDe Mae
aIpgntoDdnkt/aeiMH/gnMkIDetoeEMiI/aetieagygntobeWIpgntoDdnkt/epIpt/1egaeiMakeMoDeIMa1e
kte daIbe Rte idyigyye kUIe oIIDae tie ptDI/oe ntpsdkI/e a1akIpae gke gae HIntpgole gon/IMagoly1e
DIoaIe4pt/IeHgkaesI/enUgs6eMoDenUIMsbee
Pe aIpgntoDdnkt/e pIpt/1e nUgse ntoagakae tie Me yM/lIe odpHI/e tie nIyyae t/lMogaIDe gokte Moe
M//M1Oe MoDe kUIe ytlgne oInIaaM/1e kte MnnIaae Mo1e M//M1egoe kUIe nIyye IMagy1be WIpg2ntoDdnkt/e
pIpt/1epM1eHIenyMaaIDeMnnt/DgolektekUIepInUMogapeda IDeH1eIMnUenIyyekteakt/IeDMkMbee
e
RUIeagpsyIakek1sIetiepIpt/1egaenMyyIDestatic memorybehoeakMkgnepIpt/1eIMnUenIyyedaIaeMe
iygs2iytsepMDIei/tpeitd/et/eaguek/Moagakt/abeRUIeDMkMegoeIMnUenIyyegae/IpIpHI/IDedokgyekUIe
Main Memory
Magnetic Disk

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

stEI/egaeaEgknUIDetiibeWkMkgnepIpt/1egaeIMa1ektedaIeMoDe/IygMHyIOeHdkegae/IyMkg5Iy1eHdyT1Oe
aytEeMoDeIusIoag5Ibee
Stake ntpsdkI/e a1akIpae kUI/Iit/Ie daIedynamic memorye Mae kUIg/e pMgoe akt/Ibe 91oMpgne
pIpt/1e daIae Edake Me agolyIe k/Moagakt/e sI/e nIyyOe MoDegae kUI/Iit/Ie DIoaI/Oe iMakI/e MoDe
nUIMsI/be 3oit/kdoMkIy1e IMnUe nIyye l/MDdMyy1e it/lIkaekUIe DMkMe akt/IDe goe gkOe MoDe ate Iuk/Me
ng/ndgk/1epdakeHIedaIDektentokgodMyy1e/Ii/IaUekUIenIyyabee

Memory Organisation
RUgae aInkgtoe yttTae Mke UtEe kUIe 5M/gtdae ntpstoIokae tie Me ntpsdkI/Qae pMgoe pIpt/1e M/Ie
M//MolIDbee
Poen2HgkeMDD/IaaeHdaeMyytEaedaektedogGdIy1e/IiI/ektedsekte;
n
eDgiiI/IokepIpt/1eytnMkgtoabe
0ikIoekUIaIepIpt/1eytnMkgtoaeM/IegpMlgoIDeyMgDetdkegoeMentydpoOeTotEoeMaekUIeaddress
spacebe rM/gtdae /Ilgtoae tie kUIe MDD/Iaae asMnIe M/Ie kUIoe l/tdsIDe gokte HytnTae kte it/pe Me
memory mapbeRUIeHytnTaepM1e/IiI/ekteUM/DEM/Ie4gbIbesU1agnMyexPSeMoDex0SeDI5gnIa6Oet/e
kteytlgnMyeIokgkgIae4gbIbes/tl/MpaOeDMkMOeIknb6bee

Address Decoding
RUIeoIIDeit/epIpt/1eMDD/IaaeDIntDgoleM/gaIaei/tpekUIeiMnkekUMkekUIepMgoepIpt/1etieMe
ntpsdkI/ea1akIpegaeotkentok/dnkIDei/tpeMeagolyIentpstoIokeEUgnUedogGdIy1eMDD/IaaIae
IMnUestaagHyIepIpt/1eytnMkgtobee
hpMlgoIeMeagkdMkgtoeEUI/IekEte:SepIpt/1enUgsaeM/IentooInkIDekteMe<;2HgkeMDD/IaaeHdae
ktepMTIe;SetiepIpt/1eM5MgyMHyIbeAMnUepIpt/1enUgseEg yyeoIIDekEIok1eMDD/IaaeygoIaekte
dogGdIy1e gDIokgi1e IMnUe ytnMkgtoe goe gkbe hie kUIe MDD/Iaae ygoIae tie IMnUe pIpt/1e nUgse EI/Ie
agpsy1entooInkIDektekUIeig/akekEIok1ecG3eMDD/IaaeygoIaOekUIoeHtkUepIpt/1enUgsaeEtdyDe
HIeMnnIaaIDeagpdykMoItday1eEUIoI5I/ekUIecG3e/IiI//IDekteMo1eMDD/Iaabe-IepdakeigoDeMe
ak/MkIl1ekUMkeMyytEaedaektegoDg5gDdMyy1eMDD/IaaeIMnUepIpt/1enUgsbePaeIMnUepIpt/1enUgse
EgyyeUM5IeMoeIoMHyIegosdkOekUgaenMoe/Iy1etoeaIyInkg5Iy1eIoMHygolekUIetoIeEUgnUeEIeEMokekte
MnnIaabee
e
a) Partial Address Decoding
RUgae gae kUIe agpsyIake MoDe yIMake IusIoag5Ie it/pe tie MDD/Iaae DIntDgolbe hoe kUIe MHt5Ie
IuMpsyIOe EIe ntdyDe ntooInke kUIe nUgse aIyInke gosdke tietoIe pIpt/1e nUgse kte kUIe yMake cG3e
MDD/IaaeygoIOeMoDekUIenUgseaIyInkegosdketiekUIetkUI/ektekUIeaMpIeMDD/IaaeygoIeHdke5gMeMoe
go5I/kI/behoekUgaeEM1ekUIekEtenUgsaeEtdyDeoI5I/eHIeMnnIaaIDeagpdykMoItday1bee
e
8tEI5I/OekUgaegaeMe5I/1egoIiigngIokeanUIpIbeAyI5IoetiekUIeMDD/IaaeygoIaeM/IeotkedaIDOeMoDe
toIe tie kUIe kEte pIpt/1e nUgsae gae MyEM1ae aIyInkIDbe RUIe daMHyIe MDD/Iaae asMnIe tie kUIe
ntpsdkI/e UMae HIIoe /IDdnIDe i/tpe =me kte ;8be GM/kgMye MDD/Iaae DIntDgole gae daIDe goe apMyye
DIDgnMkIDea1akIpaeEUI/IeytEentakegaekUIeptakegpst/kMokeiMnkt/beRUIesIoMyk1esMgDegaekUMke
otkeMyyekUIeMDD/IaaeasMnIenMoeHIedaIDOeMoDeidkd/IeIusMoagtoeEgyyeHIeDgiigndykbee

Full Address Decoding
Pe ntpsdkI/e a1akIpe gae aMgDe kte UM5Ie idyye MDD/Iaae DIntDgole EUIoe IMnUe MDD/IaaMHyIe
ytnMkgtoe EgkUgoe Me pIpt/1e ntpstoIoke nt//IastoDae kte Me agolyIe MDD/Iaae toe kUIe cG3Qae

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

MDD/Iaae Hdabe RUMke gaOe I5I/1e MDD/Iaae ygoIe gae daIDe kte asIngi1e IMnUe sU1agnMye pIpt/1e
ytnMkgtoOekU/tdlUeMentpHgoMkgtoetieasIngi1goleMeDI5gnIeMoDeMeytnMkgtoeEgkUgoegkbee
e
FdyyeMDD/IaaeDIntDgolepMTIaekUIeptakeIiigngIokedaIetiekUIeM5MgyMHyIeMDD/IaaeasMnIOeHdke
gaetikIoegps/MnkgnMHyIektedaIeHInMdaIetiekUIeIunIaag5IeUM/DEM/IeoIIDIDektegpsyIpIokegkbe
RUgaegaesM/kgndyM/y1ek/dIeEUI/IeDI5gnIaeEgkUeMeapMyyeodpHI/etieMDD/IaaMHyIeytnMkgtoae4it/e
IuMpsyIepIpt/12pMssIDehD0eDI5gnIa6eM/IedaIDbee
e
b) Block Address Decoding
ytnTe MDD/Iaae DIntDgole gae Me ntps/tpgaIe HIkEIIoe sM/kgMye MDD/Iaae DIntDgole MoDe idyye
MDD/IaaeDIntDgolbeRUIepIpt/1easMnIegaeDg5gDIDegokteMeodpHI/etieHytnTabeFt/eIuMpsyIOe
goe Me a1akIpe EgkUe Me <;2Hgke MDD/Iaae HdaOe kUIe pIpt/1e asMnIe ntdyDe HIe Dg5gDIDe gokte =C?>e
HytnTaetie:SbeRUgaentdyDeHIegpsyIpIokIDedagoleagpsyIeDIntDgoleDI5gnIabee
e
SMo1e /IMye a1akIpae Ipsyt1e Me ntpHgoMkgtoe tie kUIe MHt5Ie DIntDgole kInUogGdIabe Ft/e
IuMpsyIOe aI5I/Mye apMyye DI5gnIae pM1e /IagDIe goe kUIeaMpIe HytnTe H1e dagole sM/kgMye MDD/Iaae
DIntDgoleEgkUgoekUMkeHytnTbee

Cache Memory
PykUtdlUeaIpgntoDdnkt/epIpt/1egaeiMakOek1sgnMyy1egkekMTIaeytolI/eit/ekUIecG3ekteMnnIaae
pMgoepIpt/1ekUMoekteIuIndkIeagpsyIegoak/dnkgtoabe-IenMoelIkeM/tdoDekUgaes/tHyIpeH1e
kMTgoleMD5MokMlIetielocality of referencebeR1sgnMyy1eEUIoeIuIndkgoleMes/tl/MpOepIpt/1e
MnnIaaIae t5I/e Me aUt/ke gokI/5Mye kIoDe kte HIe kte agpgyM/e pIpt/1e ytnMkgtoabe Stake ptDI/oe
ntpsdkI/ea1akIpaekUI/Iit/IedaIeMeapMyyeMptdoketie5I/1eiMakepIpt/1eHIkEIIoekUIecG3e
MoDepMgoepIpt/1OeTotEoeMae cacheepIpt/1be-UIoI5I/ekUIecG3eoIIDaekteMnnIaaepMgoe
pIpt/1OekUIenMnUIegaeig/akenUInTIDekteaIIegiekUIeDMkMegaeakt/IDekUI/IbehiegkegaOekUIoepMgoe
pIpt/1e oIIDe otke HIe MnnIaaIDbe hie gke gae otkOe kUIoe gkegae iIknUIDe i/tpe pMgoe pIpt/1e MoDe
syMnIDe goe kUIe nMnUIOe ktlIkUI/e EgkUe kUIe DMkMe oIM/H1Oe goe kUIe UtsIe kUMke kUgae Egyye Myate HIe
oIIDIDe attobe hoe kUgae EM1Oe MnnIaaIae kte pMgoe pIpt/1e nMoe HIe l/IMky1e /IDdnIDe 4k1sgnMyy1e
/IDdnIDekteyIaaekUMoe:C]6bee
-Ie UM5Ie My/IMD1e aIIoe kUMke cG3e pIpt/1e gae iMakI/e kUMoe pMgoe pIpt/1Oe Hdke gae 5I/1e
IusIoag5IOe MoDe kMTIae dse Me ytke tie /ttpe toe Me nUgse EUgnUe gae My/IMD1e ygTIy1e kte HIe iMg/y1e
DIoaIy1e sMnTIDbe SMo1e a1akIpae kUI/Iit/Ie daIe Me kEt2akMlIe nMnUIe DIagloOe dagole Me apMyye
Mptdoketieto2nUgsenMnUIepIpt/1OeMoDeMeyM/lI/eIukI/oMyenMnUIbee

7.2 Main Memory
• Pememory unitegaeMentyyInkgtoetieakt/MlIenIyyaektlIkUI/eEgkUeMaatngMkIDeng/ndgkae
ktek/MoaiI/egoit/pMkgtoegoeMoDetdketieakt/MlIe
• RUIepIpt/1eakt/IaeHgoM/1eDMkMegoel/tdsaetieHgkaenMyyIDeEt/Dae
• PeEt/DenMoe/Is/IaIokeMoegoak/dnkgtoentDIet/eMysUModpI/gnenUM/MnkI/ae
• AMnUeEt/DegoepIpt/1egaeMaagloIDeMoeMDD/Iaaei/tpeCekte;
k
e):OeEUI/IekegaekUIe
odpHI/etieMDD/IaaeygoIae
• PedecoderegoagDIekUIepIpt/1eMnnIskaeMoeMDD/IaaetsIoaekUIesMkUaeoIIDIDekte
aIyInkekUIeHgkaetiekUIeasIngigIDeEt/De

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

• xypg ipinmPg :oso:e Pg etg t o pMg otg ypg n ohg vdiCpmg nrg CP ptg yo g :ovg Cpg
t nmpMg
• Lprpmg ng ypgvdiCpmgnrgCP ptgdtevEgnvpgnrg ypgrnhhn+evEg
o 8g/1ehn0gIg;
10
∑
o Sg/ipEo0gIg;
20
∑
o -g/EeEo0ggIg;
30
∑
• >=8∑I∑;
10
cg;SgIg;
21
cgovMg=-gIg;
32
∑
• Rvgrandom-access memoryg /LuS0g ypg ipinmPg :phhtg :ovg Cpg o::pttpMg rnmg
evrnmio envgrmnigovPgMptempMgmovMnighn:o envg
• xypgsmn:pttgnrghn:o evEgog+nmMgevgipinmPgetg ypgtoipgovMgmpGdemptgovgpGdohg
oindv gnrg eipgvngio pmg+ypmpg ypg:phhtgompghn:o pMgsyPte:ohhPgevgipinmPg
• aniidve:o envg Cp +ppvg ipinmPg ovMg e tg pvTemnvipv g etg o:yepTpMg Teog Mo og
evsd govMgnd sd ghevptcgoMMmpttgtphp: envtghevptcgovMg:nv mnhghevptg
• xypgngMo ogevsd ghevptgsmnTeMpg ypgevrnmio envg ngCpgt nmpMgevgipinmPg
• xypgngMo ognd sd ghevptgtdsshPg ypgevrnmio envg:nievEgnd gnrgipinmPg
• xypgkgoMMmpttghevptgsmnTeMpgogCevomPgvdiCpmgnrgkgCe tg yo gtsp:erPgogtsp:ere:g
+nmMgnmghn:o envg
• xypg +ng:nv mnhghevptgtsp:erPg ypgMemp: envgnrg movtrpmg3gpe ypmgmpoMgnmg+me pg
∑
∑
• D pstg ngwriteg ngipinmP9g
o usshPg ypgCevomPgoMMmpttgnrg ypgMptempMg+nmMgev ng ypgoMMmpttghevptg
o usshPg ypgMo ogCe tg yo gompg ngCpgt nmpMgevgipinmPgnvg ypgMo oghevptg
o u: eTo pg ypg+me pgevsd g
• D pstg ngreadgrmnigipinmP9g
o usshPg ypgCevomPgoMMmpttgnrg ypgMptempMg+nmMgev ng ypgoMMmpttghevptg
o u: eTo pg ypgmpoMgevsd g
∑
• ugread-only memoryg /LwS0g etg og ipinmPg dve g yo g spmrnmitg ypg mpoMg
nspmo envgnvhPg3g ypmpgetgvng+me pg:osoCehe Pg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

• RUIeHgoM/1egoit/pMkgtoeakt/IDegoeMex0SegaesI/pMoIokeDd/golekUIeUM/DEM/Ie
s/tDdnkgtoe
• xPSegaeMelIoI/My2sd/staIeDI5gnIeEUtaIentokIokaenMoeHIeMykI/IDe
• RUIegoit/pMkgtoegoex0Seit/paekUIe/IGdg/IDegokI/ntooInkgtoesMkkI/oe
• x0Sae ntpIe EgkUe asIngMye gokI/oMye IyInk/togne idaIae kUMke nMoe HIe s/tl/MppIDe
it/eMeasIngignentoigld/Mkgtoe
• Poemeuenex0Se gaeMoeM//M1etie HgoM/1enIyyaet/lMog(IDe goktemeEt/Daetiene Hgkae
IMnUe
• Pex0SeUMaekeMDD/IaaeygoIaekteaIyInketoIetiemeEt/DaegoepIpt/1eMoDenetdksdke
ygoIaOetoIeit/eIMnUeHgketiekUIeEt/De
• SM1eUM5IetoIet/ept/IeIoMHyIegosdkaeit/eIusMoagtoe
• RUIetdksdkaeM/IeMeidonkgtoetietoy1ekUIes/IaIokegosdke4kUIeMDD/Iaa6OeategkegaeMe
ntpHgoMkgtoMyeng/ndgkentoak/dnkIDetieDIntDI/aeMoDe0xelMkIae

7.2.1 RAM and ROM Chips
e
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e
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RAM and ROM Chips
Typical RAM chip
R1sgnMyex0SenUgse
cUgseaIyInke:e
cUgseaIyInke;e
xIMDe
Write
A2HgkeMDD/Iaae
cW:e
cW;e
x9e
-xe
AD 7
:;BeueBe
e
xPSe
B2HgkeDMkMeHdae
CS1  CS2     RD    WR
    0        0        x        x
    0        1        x        x
    1        0        0        0
    1        0        0        1
    1        0        1        x
    1        1        x        x
Memory function
      Inhibit
      Inhibit
      Inhibit
      Write
      Read
      Inhibit

State of data bus

High-impedence

High-impedence

Input data to RAM

Output data from RAM

High-impedence

Chip select 1
Chip select 2
9-bit address
CS1
CS2
AD 9
512 x 8
ROM
8-bit data bus
High-impedence

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

• .ypvg dtpMg otg og ipinmPg dve cg e g t nmptg reApMg smnEmoitg yo g ompg vn g ng Cpg
oh pmpMgovMgrnmg oChptgnrg:nvt ov tg yo g+ehhgvn g:yovEpg
• .ypvg dtpMg evg ypg MpteEvg nrg :nv mnhg dve tg rnmg MeEe ohg :nisd pmtcg e g t nmptg
:nMpMgevrnmio envg yo gmpsmptpv tg ypgtpGdpv:pgnrgev pmvohg:nv mnhgTomeoChptg
ngpvoChpg ypgTomendtgnspmo envtg
• ug:nv mnhgdve g yo gd ehe2ptgogLwSgetg:ohhpMgogmicroprogrammed control unit∑
• xypgmpGdempMgso ytgioPgCpgsmnEmoiipMgevg ymppgMerrpmpv g+oPtg
• Mask programmingg etg Mnvpg CPg ypg tpie:nvMd: nmg :nisovPg CotpMg dsnvg og
md yg oChpgsmnTeMpMgCPg ypgiovdro: dmpmg
• Programmable read-only memoryg /-LwS0g etg inmpg p:nvnie:ohOg -LwSg dve tg
:nv oevgohhgrdtptgev o: govMgompgChn+vgCPgdtpmtg
• Erasable PROMg/f-LwS0g:ovgCpgoh pmpMgdtevEgogtsp:eohgdh moTenhp gheEy g
Electrical erasable PROMg/ff-LwS0g:ovgCpgpmotpMg+e ygphp: me:ohgteEvohtgg
∑
7.2.2 Memory Address Map

xypgMpteEvpmgnrgog:nisd pmgtPt pigidt g:oh:dho pg ypgoindv gnrgipinmPgmpGdempMgrnmg
ypg som e:dhomg osshe:o envg ovMg otteEvg e g ng pe ypmgLuSg nmg LuSOg xypg ev pm:nvvp: envg
Cp +ppvg ipinmPg ovMg smn:pttnmg etg ypvg pt oChetypMg rmnig 1vn+hpMEpg nrg ypg te2pg nrg
ipinmPg vppMpMg ovMg ypg Pspg nrg LuSg ovMg LwSg :yestg oToehoChpOg xypg oMMmpttevEg nrg
ipinmPg vppMpMg ovMg ypg Pspg nrg LuSg ovMg LwSg :yestg oToehoChpOg xypg oMMmpttevEg nrg
ipinmPg:ovg Cpgpt oChetypMg CPgipovtgnrgog oChpg yo gtsp:reptg ypgipinmPgotteEvpMg ng
po:yg :yesOg xypg oChpg :ohhpMg og ipinmPg oMMmpttg ioscg etg se: nmeohg mpsmptpv o envg nrg
otteEvpMgoMMmpttgtso:pgrnmgpo:yg:yesgevg ypgtPt piO∑
∑
xng Mpinvt mo pg +e yg som e:dhomg pAoishpcg ottdipg yo g og :nisd pmg tPt pig vppMtg @:;g
CP ptgnrgLuSgovMg@:;gCP ptgnrgLwSOgxypgLuSgovMgLwSg :yestg ngCpgdtpMgompgtsp:erepMg
evg reEg Oxypg ipinmPg oMMmpttg iosg rnmg myetg :nvreEdmo envg etg tyn+vg evg oChpg :;k:Og xypg
anisvpv g :nhndig tsp:ereptg +yp ypmg og LuSg nmg LwSg :yesg etg dtpMOg xypg ypAoMp:eiohg
tMMmpttg:nhndivgotteEvgogmovEpgnrgypAoMp:eiohgpGdeTohpv goMMmpttptgrnmgpo:yg:yesOgxypg
oMMmpttg Cdtg hevptg ompg het pMg evg ypg yemMg :nhdivOg uh yndEyg ypmpg ompg :>g hevptg evg ypg
oMMmpttg Cdtcg ypg oChpg tyn+tg nvhPg :Cg hevptg Cp:odtpg ypg n ypmg ompg :>g hevptg evg yetg
pAoishpg ovMg ompg ottdipMg ng Cpg 2pmnOg xypg tiohhg AOtg dvMpmg ypg oMMmpttg Cdtg hevptg
MpteEvo pg yntpg hevptg yo g idt g Cpg :nvvp: pMg ng ypg oMMmpttg hevptOxypg LwSg :yesg yotg
@:;gCP ptgovMgvppMtg?goMMmpttghevptOgxypgAOtgompgoh+oPptgotteEvpMg ng ypghn+gomMpmgCdtg
hevpt9ghevptg:g ymndEygAgrnmgLoigovMhevptg:g ymndEyg?grnmg ypgLwSOg
∑
∑
gganisnvpv g g zpAoMp:eiohg g g g oMMmpttgCdtg
g g g oMMmpttg
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ :C∑∑∑∑?∑∑∑∑∑B∑∑∑∑A∑∑∑∑∑∑∑>∑∑∑∑∑∑∑∑@∑∑∑=∑∑∑<∑∑ ;∑∑:∑∑∑
LuSg:gg g CCCCkCCA,g g Cg CgggCggggTggggggTggggggggTgggT ∑∑∑T∑∑T∑∑T∑
LuSg;gg g CCBCkCC,,g g Cg Cggg:g gTggggggTgggggggTgggTggg T∑∑T∑∑T∑∑∑
LuSg<gg g C:CCkC:A,g g Cg :gggCggggTgggggggTggggggTgggTg ∑∑T∑∑T∑∑T∑

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

LuSg=gg g C:BCkC:,,g g Cg :ggg:ggggTgggggggTggggggTgggTg ggTggTggTgg
LwSg g g C;CCkC<,,g g :g TgggTggggTggggggTggggggTgggTgggT ggTggTgg

7.3 Auxiliary Memory
xypg int g :niinvg odAeheomPg ipinmPg MpTe:ptg dtpMg evg :nisd pmg
tPt pitg ompg ioEvp e:g Met1tg ovMg osptOg w ypmg :nisnvpv tg dtpMcg
Cd g vn g otg rmpGdpv hPcg ompg ioEvp e:g Mmditcg ioEvp e:g CdCChpg
ipinmPcgovMgns e:ohgMet1tOg
g

7.3.1 Magnetic Disks

wrg ypgTomendtg PsptgnrgudAeheomPgD nmoEpcg ypg PsptgdtpMgint gnr pvgevTnhTpgtnipg Pspgnrg
magnetic diskOg xyptpg :nipg evg Tomendtg te2ptg ovMg io pmeohtcg otg +pgtyohhg tppOg xyetg
ip ynMgdtptgioEvp etig ngt nmpg ypgMo ognvgogioEvp e:gtdmro:pOgg

Advantages:  g
yeEyg t nmoEpg :oso:e Pgg
mpheoChpgg
EeTptgMemp: go::pttg ngMo ogg
ugdrivegtsevtg ypgMet1gTpmPgGde:1hPgdvMpmvpo ygogmpoMD+me pgypoMcg+ye:ygMnptg+yo ge tg
voipgtoPtOgR gmpoMtgMo ogrmnigogMet1govMg+me ptgMo og ngogMet1Ogg
Types of Magnetic Disks
/et1p  pgDg,hnssPg/et1
De2pt9gg
@_Rg
ggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggg
gggggggggggggggggggggggggggg<`Rgg
g
Nn yg te2ptg ompg ioMpg nrg iPhomg +e yg ovg nAeMpg :no evEOg xypg nAeMpg smnTeMptg ypg ioEvp e:g
Gdohe Pgrnmg ypgMet1OgxypgRrhnssPRgsom getg+yo getgevteMpg ypgMet1p  pg:nTpmtgkgogTpmPgrhnssPg
sep:pgnrgshot e:g/eOpOg ypgiPhom0gg
g
Other Removable Media:g
DpTpmohg n ypmg 1evMtg nrg mpinToChpg ioEvp e:g ipMeog ompg evg dtpcg td:yg otg ypg snsdhomg 4esg
Met1Og uhhg nrg yptpg yoTpg og id:yg yeEypmg :oso:e Pg yovg rhnssPg Met1tOg Dnipg 1evMtg nrg vp+g
:nisd pmtg:nipg+e ynd gogrhnssPgMet1gMmeTpgo gohhOg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

g
fo:yg Pspg nrg ipMeog mpGdemptg e tg n+vg MmeTpOg xypg MmeTptg ovMg Met1tg ompg id:yg inmpg
pAspvteTpg yovg rhnssPg MmeTptg ovMg Met1tcg Cd g ypvcg Pndg ompg Ep  evEg id:yg homEpmg
:oso:e eptOg
g
Hard Disks:g
g
xyptpg :nvtet g nrg :g nmg inmpg ip ohg sho  pmtg +ye:yg ompg tpohpMg
evteMpgog:otpOgxypgip ohgetgnvpg+ye:ygetgioEvp e:OgxypgyomMgMet1g
etgdtdohhPgevt ohhpMgevteMpg ypg:nisd pmQtg:otpcg yndEyg ypmpgompg
mpinToChpg ovMg :om meMEp PsptcohtnOgg
ggg
xp:yve:ohhPg ypgyomMg MmeTpg etg +yo g :nv mnhtg ypg in envg nrg ypg
yomMg Met1tg+ye:yg:nv oevg ypgMo oOgNd g int gspnshpgdtpgRyomMg
Met1Rg ovMg RyomMg MmeTpRg ev pm:yovEpoChPOg xypPg MnvQ gio1pg yo g
iet o1pgrnmgrhnssPgMet1tgovMgrhnssPgMmeTptOgR getg:hpompmg+e ygrhnsseptg yo g ypgMmeTpgovMg
ypgMet1gompgtpsomo pg yevEtOg
g
Physical Characteristics of Disks:
1. xypg t nmoEpg :oso:e Pg nrg og tevEhpg Met1g movEptg rmnig :CSNg ng :C-NOg ug Pse:ohg
:niipm:eohgMo oCotpgioPgmpGdempgydvMmpMtgnrgMet1tOgg
2. ,eEdmpg:CO;gtyn+tgoginTevEkypoMgMet1gip:yovetiOgg
o fo:ygMet1gplattergyotgogrho g:em:dhomgtyospOgR tg +ngtdmro:ptgompg:nTpmpMg
+e yg og ioEvp e:g io pmeohg ovMg evrnmio envg etg mp:nmMpMg nvg ypg tdmro:ptOg
xypgsho  pmgnrghard disksgompgioMpgrmnigmeEeMgip ohgnmgEhottcg+yehpgfloppy
disksgompgioMpgrmnigrhpAeChpgio pmeohOgg
o xypg Met1g tdmro:pg etg hnEe:ohhPg MeTeMpMg ev ngtrackscg +ye:yg ompg tdCMeTeMpMg
ev ngsectorsOgugtp: nmg/TomPevEgrmnig<;gCP ptg ng=C?>gCP ptcgdtdohhPg@:;g
CP pt0getg ypgtiohhpt gdve gnrgevrnmio envg yo g:ovgCpgmpoMgrmnignmg+me  pvg
ng Met1Og xypmpg ompg =k<;g tp: nmtg spmg mo:1g ovMg ;Ck:@CCg mo:1tg spmg Met1g
tdmro:pOgg
o xypgomig:ovgCpgsnte envpMgnTpmgovPgnvpgnrg ypg mo:1tOgg
o xypgsho  pmgetgtsdvgo gyeEygtsppMOgg
o xngmpoMgevrnmio envcg ypgomigetgsnte envpMgnTpmg ypg:nmmp: g mo:1Ogg
o .ypvg ypgMo og ngCpgo::pttpMgsottptgdvMpmg ypgypoMcg ypgmpoMgnmg+me pg
nspmo envgetgspmrnmipMOgg
3. ug Met1g Pse:ohhPg :nv oevtg idh eshpg sho  pmtg /tppg ,eEdmpg :CO;0Og xypg mpoMk+me pg
ypoMtgnrgohhg ypg mo:1tgompgindv pMgnvgogtevEhpgottpiChPg:ohhpMgogdisk armcgovMg
inTpg nEp ypmOgg
o Sdh eshpgMet1gomitgompginTpMgotgogdve gCPg ypgo: do nmOgg
o fo:ygomigyotg +ngypoMtcg ngmpoMgMet1tgoCnTpgovMgCphn+ge Ogg
o xypgtp gnrg mo:1tgnTpmg+ye:yg ypgypoMtgompghn:o pMgrnmitgog:PhevMpmOgg
o xyetg :PhevMpmg ynhMtg yo g Mo og yo g etg o::ptteChpg +e yevg ypg Met1g ho pv:Pg
eipOgg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

o R g etg :hpomhPg tpvteChpg ng t nmpg mpho pMg Mo og evg ypg toipg nmg oMEo:pv g
:PhevMpmtOgg
4. /et1g sho  pmtg movEpg rmnig :OBRg ng :=Rg evg Meoip pmcg ovMg @R:D=g ovMg <R:D;g Met1tg
Mnievo pg Mdpg ng ypg hn+pmg :nt g ovMg rot pmg tpp1g eipg yovg Mng homEpmg Met1tcg Pp g
ypPgsmnTeMpgyeEygt nmoEpg:oso:e POgg
5. ugdisk controllerg ev pmro:ptg Cp +ppvg ypg :nisd pmg tPt pig ovMg ypg o: dohg
yomM+ompg nrg ypg Met1g MmeTpOg R g o::ps tg :niiovMtg ngmD+g og tp: nmcg ovMg eve eo pg
o: envtOg /et1g :nv mnhhpmtg ohtng o  o:ygchecksumsg ng po:yg tp: nmg ng :yp:1g mpoMg
pmmnmOgg
6. Remapping of bad sectors9gRrgog:nv mnhhpmgMp p: tg yo gogtp: nmgetgMoioEpMg+ypvg
ypgMet1getgeve eohhPgrnmio  pMcgnmg+ypvgovgo  pis getgioMpg ng+me pg ypgtp: nmcge g
:ovghnEe:ohhPgiosg ypgtp: nmg ngogMerrpmpv gsyPte:ohghn:o envOgg
7. DaDRg /Small Computer System Interconnect0g etg :niinvhPg dtpMg ng :nvvp: g Met1tg
ng -atg ovMg +nm1t o envtOg Soevrmoipg ovMg tpmTpmg tPt pitg dtdohhPg yoTpg og rot pmg
ovMginmpgpAspvteTpgCdtg ng:nvvp: g ng ypgMet1tOgg
8. zpoMg:moty9g+yPg:odtpg ypgpv empgMet1groehevEg/F0Ogg
9. ugfixed dead diskgyotgogtpsomo pgypoMgrnmgpo:yg mo:1gkkgTpmPgiovPgypoMtcgTpmPg
pAspvteTpOgMultiple disk arms9g ohhn+g inmpg yovg nvpg mo:1g ng Cpg o::pttpMg o g og
eipOgNn yg+pmpgdtpMgevgyeEygspmrnmiov:pgioevrmoipgtPt pitgCd gompgmpho eTphPg
mompg nMoPOgg
Performance Measures of Disks
xypgioevgipotdmptgnrg ypgGdohe eptgnrgogMet1gompgcapacitycgaccess timecgdata transfer
ratecgovMgreliabilitycgg
g
1. access time9g ypg eipgrmnig+ypvgogmpoMgnmg+me pgmpGdpt getgettdpMg ng+ypvgMo og
movtrpmg CpEevtOg xng o::pttg Mo og nvg og EeTpvg tp: nmg nrg og Met1cg ypg omig remt g idt g
inTpgtng yo ge getgsnte envpMgnTpmg ypg:nmmp: g mo:1cgovMg ypvgidt g+oe grnmg ypg
tp: nmg ngosspomgdvMpmge gotg ypgMet1gmn o ptOgxypg eipgrnmgmpsnte envevEg ypgomig
etg :ohhpMg tpp1g eipcg ovMg e g ev:mpotptg +e yg ypg Met ov:pg ypg omig idt g inTpOg
xPse:ohgtpp1g eipgmovEpgrmnig;g ng<Cgiehhetp:nvMtOgg
Average seek timegetg ypgoTpmoEpgnrg ypgtpp1g eipcgipotdmpMgnTpmgogtpGdpv:pgnrg
/dvernmihPgMet meCd pM0gmovMnigmpGdpt tcgovMge getgoCnd gnvpg yemMgnrg ypg+nmt k
:otpgtpp1g eipOgg
wv:pg ypgtpp1gyotgn::dmmpMcg ypg eipgtspv g+oe evEgrnmg ypgtp: nmg ngCpgo::pttptg
ng osspomg dvMpmg ypg ypoMg etg :ohhpMg mn o envohg ho pv:Pg eipOg uTpmoEpg mn o envohg
ho pv:Pg eipg etg oCnd g yohrg nrg ypg eipg rnmg og rdhhg mn o envg nrg ypg Met1Og /xPse:ohg
mn o envohgtsppMtgnrgMet1tgmovEptgrmnig>Cg ng:;Cgmn o envtgspmgtp:nvM0Ogg
g
xypg o::pttg eipg etg ypvg ypg tdig nrg ypg tpp1g eipg ovMg ypg ho pv:Pg ovMg movEptg
rmnig:Cg ng=Cgiehhektp:Og
2. data transfer ratecg ypgmo pgo g+ye:ygMo og:ovgCpgmp mepTpMgrmnignmgt nmpMg ng ypg
Met1Og admmpv g Met1g tPt pitg tdssnm g movtrpmg mo pg rmnig :g ng @g ipEoCP ptg spmg
tp:nvMOgg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

3. reliabilityOepIMad/IDeH1ekUIemean time to failurebeRUIek1sgnMyepIMoekgpIekteiMgyd/Ie
tieDgaTaektDM1e/MolIaei/tpe<COCCCekteBCCOCCCeUtd/ae4MHtdke<b=ekte?:e1IM/a6bee
e
Optimization of Disk-Block Access

1. 9MkMegaek/MoaiI//IDeHIkEIIoeDgaTeMoDepMgoepIpt/1egoedogkaenMyyIDeHytnTabee
2. PeHytnTegaeMentokgldtdaeaIGdIonIetieH1kIaei/tpeMeagolyIek/MnTetietoIesyMkkI/bee
3.  ytnTeag(Iae/MolIei/tpe@:;eH1kIaekteaI5I/MyekUtdaMoDbee
4. RUIe ytEI/e yI5Iyae tie igyIe a1akIpe pMoMlI/e nt5I/ke HytnTe MDD/IaaIae gokte kUIe
UM/DEM/I2yI5Iyen1ygoDI/Oead/iMnIOeMoDeaInkt/eodpHI/bee
5. PnnIaae kte DMkMe toe DgaTe gaeaI5I/Mye t/DI/ae tie pMlogkdDIe aytEI/e kUMoe gae MnnIaae kte
DMkMe goe pMgoe pIpt/1be 0skgpg(Mkgtoe kInUogGdIae HIagDIae HdiiI/gole tie HytnTae goe
pMgoepIpt/1bee
o WnUIDdygol9e hieaI5I/Mye HytnTaei/tpe Me n1ygoDI/e oIIDekte HIe k/MoaiI//IDOe EIe
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elevator algorithmbee
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iMakI/ekUMoe/MoDtpeE/gkIabee
7.3.2   Magnetic Tape
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Information Organization on Magnetic Tapes
EOF
IRG
block 1           block  2
block
3
block 3
R1
R2    R3           R4
R5
R6
R1
R3
file i
EOF
Auxiliary Memory

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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7.4 Cache Memory
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Organization of Disk Hardware
Trac
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Moving Head Disk Fixed Head
Disk

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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array and logic
m words
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Associative Memory

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Main memory

Cache memory
CPU

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

7.4.4  Virtual Memory

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7.4.5 Associative memory Page Table Space

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POraupO Nm tcep pOoagateNzn tcO ogN1gaCCOg zOOIp tN 4O ayagO Nm NzS2 tcO SN1eraS

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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ogOpOzt ez tcO Caez COCNg2n tcO CaooOg pu4ptetutOp tcO oc2peraS oa1O mgaCO zuC4Og
mNg tcO SN1eraS zuC4Og 9KE3 Ym tcO CaooOg IOtOrtp tcat tcO oa1O gO/uOptOI ep zNt ogOpOzt
ez Caez COCNg2n a mauSt Nrrugp azI tcO oa1O Cupt 4O gOaI eztN a mgaCO ez Caez
COCNg2 mgNC pOrNzIag2 ptNga1O 9“n'E

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

7.4.5 Associative Memory and the Page Table

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.cO maptOpt pNSuteNz ep a pOt Nm IOIeratOI gO1eptOgp tN cNSI tcO oa1O ta4SO 4ut tcep COtcNI
ep eCogarteraS mNg Sag1O oa1O ta4SOp 4OraupO Nm tcO OBoOzpO3 Put FOOoez1 tcO oa1O ta4SO
ez Caez COCNg2 rNuSI raupO eztNSOga4SO IOSa2p 4OraupO O-Oz NzS2 NzO COCNg2 arrOpp
mNg tcO oa1O ta4SO ez-NS-Op a pSNyINyz Nm w–– oOgrOzt azI Sag1O oa1O ta4SOp raz gO/uegO
CNgO tcaz NzO COCNg2 arrOpp3 .cO pNSuteNz ep tN au1COzt tcO oa1O ta4SO yetc poOreaS
ce1cRpoOOI COCNg2 CaIO uo Nm appNreate-O gO1eptOgp Ng translation lookaside buffers
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aIIgOpp Nm tcO SN1eraS oa1O azI az arrOpp rNIO tN ezIeratO etp ogOpOzrO ez Caez COCNg23
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cet gateN 42 tcO arrOpp teCO upez1 appNreate-O COCNg2 azI aIIez1 9w R tcO cet gateNE
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ta4SO gO/uegOp az OBtga arrOpp tN Caez COCNg23E .cep tNtaS ep tcOz rNCoagOI tN tcO teCO
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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∑
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

















































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duC4Og Nm oa1O mauStp mNg 8Y8fk“b

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

UNIT 8

INTRODUCTION TO PARALLEL PROCESSING

Bb:ee GgsIygogolee
8.1.1 GM/MyyIyes/tnIaagole
8.1.2 GgsIygogolelIoI/MyentoagDI/Mkgtoe
8.1.3 P/gkUpIkgnesgsIygoIe
8.1.4 hoak/dnkgtoesgsIygoIe

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8.1 .1 Parallel Processing

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ntpsdkMkgtoMye asIIDe tie Me ntpsdkI/e a1akIpbe hoakIMDe tie s/tnIaagole IMnUe goak/dnkgtoe
aIGdIokgMyy1e Mae goe Me nto5IokgtoMye ntpsdkI/Oe Me sM/MyyIye s/tnIaagole a1akIpe gae MHyIe kte
sI/it/pentond//IokeDMkMes/tnIaagolekteMnUgI5IeiMakI/eIuIndkgtoekgpIbeFt/eIuMpsyIOeEUgyIe
Moe goak/dnkgtoe gae HIgole IuIndkIDe goe kUIe Pf3Oe kUIe oIuke goak/dnkgtoe nMoe HIe /IMDe i/tpe
pIpt/1beRUIea1akIpepM1eUM5IekEtet/ept/IePf3aeMoDeHI eMHyIekteIuIndkIekEtet/ept/Ie
goak/dnkgtoae Mke kUIe aMpIe kgpIbe Fd/kUI/pt/IOe kUIe a1akIpe pM1e UM5Ie kEte t/e pt/Ie
s/tnIaat/aetsI/Mkgolentond//Ioky1beRUIesd/staIetiesM/MyyIyes/tnIaagolegaekteasIIDedsekUIe
ntpsdkI/e s/tnIaagole nMsMHgygk1e MoDe gon/IMaIe gkae kU/tdlUsdkOe kUMke gaOe kUIe Mptdoke tie
s/tnIaagole kUMke nMoe HIe MnntpsygaUIDe Dd/gole Me lg5IoegokI/5Mye tie kgpIbe RUIe Mptdoke tie
gon/IMaIe EgkUe sM/MyyIye s/tnIaagolOe MoDe EgkUe gkOe kUIe ntake tie kUIe a1akIpe gon/IMaIabe
8tEI5I/Oe kInUotytlgnMye DI5IytspIokae UM5Ie /IDdnIDe UM/DEM/Ie ntakae kte kUIe stgoke EUI/Ie
sM/MyyIyes/tnIaagolekInUogGdIaeM/IeIntotpgnMyy1eiIMagHyIbe
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DgakgoldgaUe HIkEIIoe sM/MyyIye MoDe aI/gMye tsI/MkgtoaeH1e kUIe k1sIe tie /IlgakI/ae daIDbe WUgike
/IlgakI/ae tsI/MkIe goe aI/gMye iMaUgtoe toIe Hgke Mke Me kgpIOe EUgyIe /IlgakI/ae EgkUe sM/MyyIye ytMDe
tsI/MkIeEgkUeMyyekUIeHgkaetiekUIeEt/DeagpdykMoItday1OesM/MyyIyes/tnIaagoleMkeMeUglUI/eyI5Iye
tie ntpsyIugk1e nMHe HIe MnUgI5IDe H1e UM5Ie Me pdykgsygngk1e tie idonkgtoMye dogkae kUMke sI/it/pe
gDIokgnMye t/e DgiiI/Ioke tsI/Mkgtoae agpdykMoItday1be GM/MyyIye s/tnIaagole gae IakMHygaUIDe H1e
Dgak/gHdkgolekUIeDMkMeMptolekUIepdykgsyIeidonkgtoMyedogkabeFt/eIuMpsyIOekUIeM/gkUpIkgne
ytlgneMoDeaUgiketsI/MkgtoaenMoeHIeaIsM/MkIDegoktekU/IIedogkaeMoDekUIetsI/MoDaeDg5I/kIDe
kteIMnUedogkedoDI/ekUIeadsI/5gagtoetieMentok/tyedogkbe
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RUI/Ie M/Ie Me 5M/gIk1e tie EM1ae kUMke sM/MyyIye s/tnIaagole nMoe HIe nyMaagigIDbe hke nMHe HIe
ntoagDI/IDe i/tpe kUIe gokI/oMye t/lMog(Mkgtoe tie kUIe s/tnIaat/aOe i/tpe kUIe gokI/ntooInkgtoe
ak/dnkd/IeHIkEIIoes/tnIaat/aOet/ei/tpekUIeiytEetiegoit/pMkgtoekU/tdlUekUIea1akIpbe0oIe

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

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CPg ypg vdiCpmg nrg evt md: envtg ovMg Mo og e pitg yo g ompg iovesdho pMg teidh ovpndthPOg
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instruction streamOgxypgnspmo envtgspmrnmipMgnvg ypgMo ogevg ypgsmn:pttnmg:nvt e d pgog
Mo og t mpoiOg -omohhphg smn:pttevEg ioPg n::dmg evg ypg evt md: envg t mpoicg evg ypg Mo og
t mpoicg nmg evg Cn yOg ,hPvvOtg :hottere:o envg MeTeMptg:nisd pmtg ev ng rndmg ioEnmg Emndstg otg
rnhhn+t9g
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Sdh eshpgevt md: envgt mpoitcgtevEhpgMo ogt mpoig/SRD/0g
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smn:pttnmg dve cg ovMg og ipinmPg dve Og Rvt md: envtg ompg pAp:d pMg tpGdpv eohhPg ovMg ypg
tPt pig ioPg nmg ioPg vn g yoTpg ev pmvohg somohhphg smn:pttevEg :osoCehe eptOg -omohhphg
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ypg:nv mnhgdve gCd gnspmo pgnvgMerrpmpv ge pitgnrgMo oOgxypgtyompMgipinmPgdve gidt g
:nv oevg idh eshpg inMdhptg tng yo g e g :ovg :niidve:o pg +e yg ohhg ypg smn:pttnmtg
teidh ovpndthPOgSRD/gt md: dmpgetgnvhPgnrg ypnmp e:ohgev pmpt gtev:pgvngsmo: e:ohgtPt pig
yotgCppvg:nvt md: pMgdtevEg yetgnmEove2o envOgSRS/gnmEove2o envgmprpmtg ngog:nisd pmg
tPt pig:osoChpgnrgsmn:pttevEgtpTpmohgsmnEmoitgo g ypgtoipg eipOgSnt gidh esmn:pttnmg
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g
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dve g ovMg ypg Mo og smn:pttevEg dve Og R g pisyote2ptg ypg CpyoTenmohg :yomo: pmet e:tg nrg ypg
:nisd pmgtPt pigmo ypmg yovge tgnspmo envohgovMgt md: dmohgev pm:nvvp: envtOgwvpg Pspg
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+e yg:nisd o envtgevTnhTevEghomEpgTp: nmtgovMgio me:ptOgummoPgsmn:pttnmtg:nisd o envtg
nvghomEpgommoPtgnrgMo oOg

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8.1.2 Pipelining general consideration
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ntond//Ioky1e EgkUe Myye tkUI/e aIlpIokabe Pe sgsIygoIe nMoe HIe 5gadMyg(IDe Mae Me ntyyInkgtoe tie
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ntpsdkMkgtoe goe IMnUe aIlpIoke gae k/MoaiI//IDe kte kUIe oIuke aIlpIoke goe kUIe sgsIygoIbe RUIe
igoMye /Iadyke gae tHkMgoIDe MikI/e kUIe DMkMe UM5Ie sMaaIDe kU/tdlUe Myye aIlpIokabe RUIe oMpIe
vsgsIygoIwegpsygIaekUIeiytEetiegoit/pMkgtoeMoMytltdaekteMoegoDdak/gMyeMaaIpHy1eygoIbehkegae
nUM/MnkI/etiesgsIygoIaekUMkeaI5I/MyentpsdkMkgtoaenMoeHIegoes/tl/IaaegoeDgakgonkeaIlpIokae
Mke kUIe aMpIe kgpIbe RUIe t5I/yMssgole tie ntpsdkMkgtoae gae pMDIe staagHyIe H1e MaatngMkgole Me
/IlgakI/eEgkUeIMnUeaIlpIokegoekUIesgsIygoIbeRUIe/IlgakI/aes/t5gDIegatyMkgtoeHIkEIIoeIMnUe
aIlpIokeatekUMkeIMnUenMoetsI/MkIetoeDgakgonkeDMkMeagpdykMoItday1be
e
e
GI/UMsae kUIe agpsyIake EM1e tie 5gIEgole kUIe sgsIygoIe ak/dnkd/Ie gae kte gpMlgoIe kUMke IMnUe
aIlpIokentoagakaetieMoegosdke/IlgakI/eityytEIDeH1eMentpHgoMkgtoMyeng/ndgkFeRUIe/IlgakI/e
UtyDae kUIe DMkMe MoDe kUIe ntpHgoMkgtoMye ng/ndgke sI/it/pae kUIe adHe tsI/Mkgtoe goe kUIe
sM/kgndyM/e aIlpIokbe RUIe tdksdke tie kUIe ntpHgoMkgtoMye ng/ndgke goe Me lg5Ioe aIlpIoke gae
MssygIDektekUIegosdke/IlgakI/etiekUIeoIukeaIlpIokbePenytnTegaeMssygIDekteMyye/IlgakI/aeMikI/e
IotdlUe kgpIe UMae IyMsaIDe kte sI/it/pe Myye aIlpIoke Mnkg5gk1be hoe kUgae EM1e kUIe goit/pMkgtoe
iytEaekU/tdlUekUIesgsIygoIetoIeakIseMkeMekgpIbe
e
e RUIe sgsIygoIe t/lMog(Mkgtoe Egyye HIe DIptoak/MkIDe H1epIMoae tie Me agpsyIe IuMpsyIbe
WdsstaIe kUMke EIe EMoke kte sI/it/pe kUIe ntpHgoIDe pdykgsy1e MoDe MDDe tsI/Mkgtoe EgkUe Me
ak/IMpetieodpHI/abe
e e e e e
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UMaetoIet/ekEte/IlgakI/aeMoDeMentpHgoMkgtoMyeng/ndgkeMaeaUtEoe goeiglbe?b;bex:ekU/tdlUe
x@eM/Ie/IlgakI/aekUMke/InIg5IeoIEeDMkMeEgkUeI5I/1enytnTesdyaIbeRUIepdykgsygI/eMoDeMDDI/e
M/Ie ntpHgoMkgtoMye ng/ndgkabe RUIe adHe tsI/Mkgtoae sI/it/pIDe goe IMnUe aIlpIoke tie kUIe
sgsIygoIeM/IeMaeityytEa9e
x:ebeP
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x<ebex:e[ex;Oex=ebecOe e Sdykgsy1eMoDegosdkec
ge
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aUtEoegoeRMHyIe?2:beRUIeig/akenytnTesdyaIek/MoaiI/aeP
:eMoDe 1egoktex1eMoDex;beRUIeaIntoDe
nytnTesdyaIek/MoaiI/aekUIes/tDdnketiex:eMoDex;egoktex<eMoDec
1egoktex=beRUIeaMpIenytnTe
sdyaIe k/MoaiI/ae P
2e MoDe 2e gokte x:e MoDe x;bRUIe kUg/De nytnTe sdyaIe tsI/MkIae toe Myye kU/IIe

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

pO1COztp peCuStazONupS23 Yt oSarOp A3 azI P3 eztN Uw azI UGn tgazpmOgp tcO ogNIurt Nm
Uw azI UG eztN UKn tgazpmOgp :
2 eztN U“n azI oSarOp tcO puC Nm UK azI U“ eztN U'3 Yt
taFOp tcgOO rSNrF ouSpOp tN meSS uo tcO oeoO azI gOtgeO-O tcO megpt Nutout mgNC U'3 8gNC
tcOgO Nzn Oarc rSNrF ogNIurOp a zOy Nutout azI CN-Op tcO Iata NzO ptOo INyz tcO
oeoOSezO3 .cep caooOzp ap SNz1 ap zOy ezout Iata mSNy eztN tcO p2ptOC3 5cOz zN CNgO
ezout Iata agO a-aeSa4SOn tcO rSNrF Cupt rNztezuO uzteS tcO Sapt Nutout OCOg1Op Nut Nm
tcO oeoOSezO3

8e1ugO LBaCoSO Nm oeoOSezO ogNrOppez1

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.APML :NztOzt Nm UO1eptOgp ez leoOSezO LBaCoSO
___________________________________________________cccccccccc
:SNrF   TO1COzt w TO1COzt G TO1COzt K
luSpO               cccccccc          ccccccccccc ccccccccc
duC4Og Uw      UG UK U“     U'
w A w Bw R R         R
G A
G BG A1  [ Pw Cw             R
K A
K BK AG   *   B2 : 2 Aw [ Pw ; :w
“ A “ B“ A3  [    P3 : 3 A G [ P2 ; :2
' A
' B' A4  [    P4 : 4 A 3 [ P3 ; :3
” A
” B6 A 5  [    P5 : 5 A 4 [ P4 ; :4
v A
v B7 A 6  [    P” C” A5 [ P5 ; :5
Ai
R1
Multiplier
Bi
R2
R3
Bi
R4
Adder
R5

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Bi i !i !i i s Aiii[iii 7i e Ai A>i[i 6iHie>i
?i i !i !i i iiiiii!iii i i!i s 7i[i 7iHie7i
i
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8.1.3 Arithmetic pipeline
s)DlmowlD(i -DrwADtw9i -DrwADtwi E)DlmowlD(i ftDlNi E)wifNfEAA i dvftCi Dti )w) i mD1m!NrwwCi
(vorflw)N%i bmw i E)wi fNwCi lvi DorAwowtli dAvElDt1!rvDtli vrw)ElDvtNQi ofAlDrAD(ElDvti vdi
dDjwC!rvDtli tfo&w)NQi EtCi NDoDAE)i (vorflElDvtNi wt(vftlw)wCi Dti N(DwtlDdD(i r)v&AwoN%i si
rDrwADtwi ofAlDrADw)i DNi wNNwtlDEAA i Eti E))E i ofAlDrADw)i ENi CwN()D&wCi Dti ,D1%i :C!:CQi +Dlmi
Nrw(DEAi ECCw)Ni CwND1twCi lvi oDtDoD2wi lmwi (E)) i r)vrE1ElDvti lDowi lm)vf1mi lmwi rE)lDEAi
r)vCf(lN%i ,AvElDt1!rvDtli vrw)ElDvtNi E)wi wENDA i Cw(vorvNwCi Dtlvi Nf&i vrw)ElDvtNi ENi
CwovtNl)ElwCiDti"w(%i:C!@%i'wi+DAAitv+iNmv+iEtiwjEorAwivdiEirDrwADtwiftDlidv)idAvElDt1!
rvDtliECCDlDvtiEtCiNf&l)E(lDvt%
i
bmwiDtrflNilvilmwidAvElDt1!rvDtliECCw)irDrwADtwiE)wil+vitv)oEAD2wCidAvElDt1!rvDtli&DtE) i
tfo&w)N%i
TiIisiTi;
a
i
WiIi iTi;
b
i
i
siEtCi iE)wil+vid)E(lDvtNilmEli)wr)wNwtlNilmwioEtlDNNENiEtCiEiEtCi&iE)wilmwiwjrvtwtlN%i
bmwi dAvElDt1!rvDtli ECCDlDvti EtCi Nf&l)E(lDvti (Eti &wirw)dv)owCi Dti dvf)i Nw1owtlNQi ENi
Nmv+ti Dti ,D1%i ?!>%i bmwi )w1DNlw)Ni AE&wAwCi 3i E)wi rAE(wCi &wl+wwti lmwi Nw1owtlNi lvi Nlv)wi
Dtlw)owCDElwi)wNfAlN%ibmwiNf&ivrw)ElDvtNilmEliE)wirw)dv)owCiDtilmwidvf)iNw1owtlNiE)w9i
1. evorE)wilmwiwjrvtwtlN%i
2. sAD1tilmwioEtlDNNEN%i
3. sCCiv)iNf&l)E(lilmwioEtlDNNENi
4. nv)oEAD2wilmwi)wNfAl%i
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bmDNi dvAAv+Ni lmwi r)v(wCf)wi vflADtwCi Dti lmwi dAv+(mE)li vdi ,D1%i :C!:@i &fli +Dlmi Nvowi
)E)DElDvtNi lmEli E)wi fNwCi lvi )wCf(wi lmwi wjw(flDvti lDowi vdi lmwi Nf&i vrw)ElDvtN%i bmwi
wjrvtwtlNiE)wi (vorE)wCi& iNf&l)E(lDt1ilmwoilviCwlw)oDtwilmwD)i CDddw)wt(w%ibmwiAE)1w)i
wjrvtwtli DNi (mvNwti ENi lmwi wjrvtwtli vdi lmwi )wNfAl%i bmwi wjrvtwtli CDddw)wt(wi Cwlw)oDtwNi
mv+ioEt ilDowNilmwioEtlDNNEiENNv(DElwCi+DlmilmwiNoEAAw)iwjrvtwtliofNli&wiNmDdlwCilvi
lmwi)D1ml%ibmDNir)v(wCf)wNiEtCiEAD1towtlivdilmwil+vioEtlDNNEN%i7liNmvfACi&witvlwCilmEli
lmwiNmDdliofNli&wiCwND1twCiENiEi(vo&DtElDvtEAi(D)(fDlilvi)wCf(wilmwiNmDdlilDow%ibmwil+vi
oEtlDNNENiE)wiECCwCiv)iNf&l)E(lwCiDtiNw1owtli<%ibmwi)wNfAliDNitv)oEAD2wCiDtiNw1owtli=%i
'mwtiEtiv)w)dAv+iv((f)NQilmwioEtlDNNEivdilmwiNfoiv)iCDddw)wt(wiDNiNmDdlwCi)D1mliEtCilmwi
wjrvtwtli Dt()wowtlwCi & i vtw%i 7di Eti ftCw)dAv+i v((f)NQi lmwi tfo&w)i vdi AwECDt1i 2w)vNi Dti
lmwioEtlDNNEiCwlw)oDtwNilmwitfo&w)ivdiAwdliNmDdlNiDtilmwioEtlDNNEiEtCilmwitfo&w)ilmEli
ofNli&wiNf&l)E(lwCid)voilmwiwjrvtwtl%i
i

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.cO mNSSNyez1 zuCOgeraS OBaCoSO Ca2 rSagem2 tcO pu4 NoOgateNzp oOgmNgCOI ez Oarc
pO1COzt3 8Ng peCoSeret2n yO upO IOreCaS zuC4Ogpn aStcNu1c 8e13 XR” gOmOgp tN 4ezag2
zuC4Ogp3 :NzpeIOg tcO tyN zNgCaSe(OI mSNatez1RoNezt zuC4Ogpb
T I –3X'–“ T w–
3

W I –3xG–– T w–
2

.cO tyN OBoNzOztp agO pu4tgartOI ez tcO megpt pO1COzt tN N4taez K ) G I w3 .cO Sag1Og
OBoNzOzt K ep rcNpOz ap tcO OBoNzOzt Nm tcO gOpuSt3 .cO zOBt pO1COzt pcemtp tcO
Cazteppa Nm W tN tcO ge1ct tN N4taez
T I –3X'–“ T w–
3

W I –3–xG– T w–
3

.cep aSe1zp tcO tyN Cazteppap uzIOg tcO paCO OBoNzOzt3 .cO aIIeteNz Nm tcO tyN
Cazteppap ez pO1COzt K ogNrOIugOp tcO puC
0 I w3–KG“ T w–
K

LBoNzOztp sazteppap

6emmOgOzrO

R R
Compare
Exponents
By subtraction
R
Choose exponent
R
Adjust
Exponent
Align mantissas
R
Add or subtract
Mantissas
R
Normalize
Result

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e13 leoOSezO mNg mSNatez1 oNezt aIIeteNz azI pu4tgarteNz

.cO puC ep aIZuptOI 42 zNgCaSe(ez1 tcO gOpuSt pN tcat et cap a mgarteNz yetc a zNz(OgN
megpt Ie1et3 .cep ep INzO 42 pcemtez1 tcO Cazteppa NzrO tN tcO ge1ct azI ezrgOCOztez1 tcO
OBoNzOzt 42 NzO tN N4taez tcO zNgCaSe(OI puC3
0 I –3w–KG“ T w–
4

.cO rNCoagatNgn pcemtOgn aIIOg pu4tgarteNzn ezrgOCOztOgn azI IOrgOCOztOI ez tcO
mSNatez1 oNezt oeoOSezO agO eCoSOCOztOI yetc rNC4ezateNzaS regruetp3 TuooNpO tcat tcO
teCO IOSa2p Nm tcO mNug pO1COztp agO t
1 I ”–zpn t2 I v–zpn t3 I w––zpn t4 I x–zpn azI tcO
eztOgmarO gO1eptOg ca-O a IOSa2 Nm t
g I w–zp3 .cO rSNrF regrSO ep rcNpOz tN 4O tp I t3 ; tr I
ww–zp3 Az O/ue-aSOzt zN oeoOSezO mSNatez1 oNezt aIIOg pu4tgartNg yeSS ca-O a IOSa2 teCO
t
z =t1; t2 ; t3 ; t4 ; tr I KG– zp3 Yz tcep rapO tcO oeoOSezOI aIIOg cap a poOOIuo Nm
KG–kww– I G3X N-Og tcO zNzoeoOSezOI aIIOg3

8.1.4 Instruction pipeline

YzptgurteNz leoOSezOb leoOSezO ogNrOppez1 raz Nrrug zNt NzS2 ez tcO Iata ptgOaC 4ut ez
tcO ezptgurteNz ptgOaC ap yOSS3 Az ezptgurteNz oeoOSezO gOaIp rNzpOrute-O ezptgurteNzp
mgNC COCNg2 yceSO ogO-eNup ezptgurteNzp agO 4Oez1 OBOrutOI ez NtcOg pO1COztp3 .cep
raupO tcO ezptgurteNzp mOtrc azI OBOrutO ocapOp tN N-OgSao azI oOgmNgC peCuStazONup
NoOgateNzp3 fzO oNppe4SO Ie1gOppeNz appNreatOI yetc purc a prcOCO ep tcat az
ezptgurteNz Ca2 raupO a 4gazrc Nut Nm pO/uOzrO3 Yz tcat rapO tcO oeoOSezO Cupt 4O
OCoteOI azI aSS tcO ezptgurteNzp tcat ca-O 4OOz gOaI mgNC COCNg2 amtOg tcO 4gazrc
ezptgurteNz Cupt 4O IepragIOI3

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

evtNDCw)iEi(vorflw)i+DlmiEtiDtNl)f(lDvtidwl(mi ftDliEtCiEtiDtNl)f(lDvti wjw(flDvti ftDli
CwND1twCi lvi r)v)DCwi Ei l+v!Nw1owtli rDrwADtw%i bmwi DtNl)f(lDvti dwl(mi Nw1owtli (Eti &wi
DorAwowtlwCi & i owEtNi vdi Ei dD)Nl!DtQi dD)Nl!vfli /,7,#0i &fddw)%i bmDNi DNi Ei l rwi vdi ftDli lmEli
dv)oNiEiGfwfwi)Elmw)ilmEtiEiNlE(1%i'mwtw)w)ilmwiwjw(flDvtiftDliDNitvlifNDt1iowov) Qi
lmwi (vtl)vAi Dt()wowtlNi lmwi r)v1)Eoi (vftlw)i EtCi fNwNi DlNi ECC)wNNi )EAfwi lvi )wECi
(vtNw(flD)wi DtNl)f(lDvtNi dv)oi owov) %i bmwi DtNl)f(lDvtNi E)wi DtNw)lwCi Dtlvi lmwi ,7,#i
&fddw)i Nvi lmEli lmw i (Eti &wi wjw(flwCi vti Ei dD)Nl!DtQidD)Nl!vfli &ENDN%i bmfNi Eti DtNl)f(lDvti
Nl)wEoi(Eti&wirAE(wCiDtiEiGfwfwQi+EDlDt1idv)iCw(vCDt1iEtCir)v(wNNDt1i& ilmwiwjw(flDvti
Nw1owtl%i bmwi DtNl)f(lDvti Nl)wEoi GfwfDt1i ow(mEtDNoi r)v)DCwNi Eti wddD(Dwtli +E i dv)i
)wCf(Dt1ilmwiE)w)E1wiE((wNNilDowilviowov) idv)i)wECDt1iDtNl)f(lDvtN%i'mwtw)w)ilmw)wiDNi
NrE(wiDtilmwi,7,#i&fddw)Qilmwi(vtl)vAiftDliDtDlDElwNilmwitwjliDtNl)f(lDvtidwl(mirmENw%ibmwi
&fddw)i E(lNi ENi Ei Gfwfwi dv)oi +mD(mi (vtl)vAi lmwti wjl)E(lNi lmwi DtNl)f(lDvtNi dv)i lmwi
wjw(flDvtiftDl%i
i i
i evorflw)Ni +Dlmi (vorAwji DtNl)f(lDvtNi )wGfD)wi vlmw)irmENwNi Dti ECCDlDvti lvi lmwi
dwl(miEtCiwjw(flwilvir)v(wNNiEtiDtNl)f(lDvti+DlmilmwidvAAv+Dt1iNwGfwt(wivdiNlwrN%i
i
1. ,wl(milmwiDtNl)f(lDvtid)voiowov) %i
2. (w(vCwilmwiDtNl)f(lDvt%i
3. eEA(fAElwilmwiwddw(lD)wiECC)wNN%i
4. ,wl(milmwivrw)EtCNid)voiowov) %ii
5. kjw(flwilmwiDtNl)f(lDvt%i
6. "lv)wilmwi)wNfAliDtilmwir)vrw)irAE(w%i
i
i
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bmw)wi E)wi (w)lEDti CDddD(fAlDwNi lmEli +DAAi r)w)wtli lmwi DtNl)f(lDvti rDrwADtwi d)voi
vrw)ElDt1iEliDlNioEjDofoi)Elw%i(Dddw)wtliNw1owtlNioE ilE1wiCDddw)wtlilDowNilvivrw)Elwi
vti lmwi Dt(voDt1i Dtdv)oElDvt%i "vowi Nw1owtlNi E)wi N1DrrwCi dv)i (w)lEDti vrw)ElDvtN%i ,v)i
wjEorAwQi Ei )w1DNlw)i ovCwi DtNl)f(lDvti CvwNi tvli twwCiEti wddw(lD)wi ECC)wNNi (EA(fAElDvt%i
b+vi v)i ov)wi Nw1owtlNi oE i )wGfD)wi owov) i E((wNNi Eli lmwi NEowi lDowQi (EfNDt1i vtwi
Nw1owtlilvi+EDliftlDAiEtvlmw)iDNidDtDNmwCi+DlmilmwiCOCNg23 sOCNg2 arrOpp rNzmSertp agO
NvowlDowNi)wNvA)wCi& ifNDt1il+viowov) i&fNwNidv)iE((wNNDt1iDtNl)f(lDvtNiEtCiCElEiDti
NwrE)Elwi ovCfAwN%i 7ti lmDNi +E Qi Eti DtNl)f(lDvti +v)CiEtCi Ei CElEi +v)Ci (Eti &wi )wECi
NDofAlEtwvfNA id)voil+viCDddw)wtliovCfAwN%i
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bmwi CwND1ti vdi Eti DtNl)f(lDvti rDrwADtwi +DAAi &wi ovNliwddD(Dwtli Ddi lmwi DtNl)f(lDvti ( (Awi DNi
CD)DCwCi Dtlvi Nw1owtlNi vdi wGfEAi Cf)ElDvt%i bmwi lDowi lmEli wE(mi Nlwri lE1wNi lvi dfAdDAAi DlNi
dft(lDvtiCwrwtCNivtilmwiDtNl)f(lDvtiEtCilmwi+E iDliDN%i
i

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

UNIT 9

VECTOR PROCESSING

9.1 uw(lv)ivrw)ElDvtNi
9.2 satgeB CuSteoSerateNz
9.3 sOCNg2 eztOgSOa-ez1

9.1 Vector operations

bmw)wiE)wi(w)lEDti(vorflElDvtEAir)v&AwoNilmEli(Etitvli&wi)wNvA)wCi& iEiE)wi&w vtCilmwi
(ErE&DADlDwNivdiEi(vt)wtlDvtEAi(vorflw)ivtilmwi&ENDNivdilmwidE(lilmElilmw i)wGfD)wiEi)ENli
tfo&w)ivdi(vorflElDvtNilmEli+DAAilE1wiEi(vt)wtlDvtEAi(vorflw)iCE Niv)iw)wti+ww1Nilvi
(vorAwlw%i 7ti oEt i N(Dwt(wi EtCi wt1Dtww)Dt1i ErrAD(ElDvtNQi lmwi r)v&AwoNi (Eti &wi
dv)ofAElwCiDtilw)oNivdi)w(lv)NiEtCioEl)D(wNilmElilwtCilmwoNwA)wNilvi)w(lv)ir)v(wNNDt1%i
evorflw)Ni +Dlmi )w(lv)i r)v(wNNDt1i (ErE&DADlDwNi E)wi )w) i of(mi )wGfD)wCi Dti Nrw(DEAD2wCi
ErrAD(ElDvtN%ibmwidvAAv+Dt1iE)wi)wr)wNwtlElD)wiErrAD(ElDvtiE)wENi+mw)wi)w(lv)ir)v(wNNDt1i
DNivdilmwiflovNliDorv)lEt(w9i
• $vt1!)Et1wi+wElmw)idv)w(ENlDt1i
• -wl)vAwfoiwjrAv)ElDvtNi
• "wDNoD(iCElEiEtEA NDNi
• sOIeraS Iea1zNpep
• sw)vC tEoD(NiEtCiNrE(widAD1mliNDofAElDvtNi
• s)lDdD(DEAiDtlwAAD1wt(wiEtCiwjrw)liN NlwoNi
• saooez1 tcO cuCaz 1OzNCO
• 7oE1wir)v(wNNDt1i
∑
uw(lv)i EtCi rE)EAAwAi r)v(wNNDt1i lw(mtDGfwNi NmvfACi &wi ErrADwCi lvi E(mDw)wi )wNfAli vdi mD1mi
rw)dv)oEt(wiDti(ENwivdiftE)EDAE&DADl ivdi(vorAwji(vorflw)NilviNrwwCifrilmwiwjw(flDvti
lDowivdiDtNl)f(lDvtN%iiii
saz2 preOztemer ogN4SOCp gO/uegO agetcCOter NoOgatevtNi vti AE)1wi E))E Ni vdi tfo&w)N%i
bmwNwi tfo&w)Ni E)wi fNfEAA i dv)ofAElwCi ENi )w(lv)Ni EtCi oEl)D(wNi vdi )wAElDt1i rvDtli
tfo&w)N%i bvi wjEoDtwi lmwi CDddw)wt(wi &wl+wwti Ei (vt)wtlDvtEAi N(EAE)i r)v(wNNv)i EtCi Ei
)w(lv)ir)v(wNNv)Qi(vtNDCw)ilmwidvAAv+Dt1i,v)lEti(viAvvr9i
i (#ii;Cii7iIi:Qi:CCi
i ;C9iei/70iIi /70iHisi/70i
∑
bmDNiDNiEir)v1)Eoidv)iECCDt1il+vi)w(lv)NisiEtCi ivdiAwt1lmi:CCir)vCf(wNiEi)w(lv)ie%i
bmDNiDNiDorAwowtlwCiDtioE(mDtwiAEt1fE1wi& ilmwidvAAv+Dt1iNwGfwt(wivdiivrw)ElDvtN9i
i i 7tDlDEAD2wi7iIiCi
i ;Cii 3wECisi/70i
i i 3wECi i/70i

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

g g D nmpgag/R0gIgu/R0gHNg/R0g
g g Rv:mpipv gRgIgRgH:g
g g RrgRgZg:CCgEng ng;Cg:nv evdpg
xyetg:nvt e d ptgogsmnEmoighnnsg yo gmpo:yptgogsoemgnrgnspmo envtgrmnigommoPtgugovMgNg
ovMgspmrnmigogrhno evEgsnev goMMe envOgxypghnnsg:nv mnhgTomeoChpgetg ypvgdsMo pMgovMg ypg
t pstgmpspo g:CCg eiptOg
ug:nisd pmg:osoChpgnrgTp: nmgsmn:pttevEgpheievo ptg ypgnTpmypoMtg ottn:eo pMg+e yg ypg
eipg e g o1ptg ng rp :yg ovMg pAp:d pg ypg evt md: envgevg ypg smnEmoig hnnsOg R g ohhn+tg
nspmo envtg ngCpgtsp:erepMg+e ygogtevEhpgTp: nmgevt md: envtgnrg ypgrnmig
ag/:9:CC0gIgug/:9g:CC0gHNg/:9g:CC0g
∑
xypg Tp: nmg evt md: envtg ev:hdMpg ypg eve eohg oMMmpttg nrg ypg nspmovMtcg ypg hpvE yg nrg ypg
Tp: nmtg ovMg ypg nspmo envg ng Cpg spmrnmipMcg ohhg evg nvpg :nisnte pg evt md: envOg xypg
oMMe envgetgMnvpg+e ygogsesphevpMgrhno evEgsnev goMMpmOgugsntteChpgevt md: envgrnmio grnmg
ogTp: nmgevt md: envtgetgtyn+vg,eEdmpg@O:=Og
∑
∑
ggwspmo envg
gggggganMpg
∑
∑
Notpg
oMMmpttg
tndm:pg:g
∑
∑
Notpg
oMMmpttg
tndm:pg;g
∑
∑
NotpgoMMmpttg
Mpt evo envg
∑
∑
lp: nmg
IpvE yg
,eEdmpg@O:=g
∑
xyetg etg pttpv eohhPg og ymppg oMMmpttg evt md: envg +e yg ymppg rephMtg tsp:erPevEg ypg Cotpg
oMMmpttgnrg ypgnspmovMtgovMgovgoMMe envohgrephMg yo gEeTptg ypghpvE ygnrg ypgMo oge pitgevg
ypgTp: nmtOg
Example

9.2 Matrix Multiplication
∑
So meAgidh eshe:o envgetgnvpgnrg ypgint g:nisd o envohgev pvteTpgnspmo envtgspmrnmipMg
evg:nisd pmtg+e ygTp: nmgsmn:pttnmtOgxypgidh eshe:o envgnrg +ngvgAgvgio me:ptg:nvtet tg
nrgv
2
gevvpmgsmnMd: tgnmgv
3
gidh eshPkoMMgnspmo envtOguvgvgAgigio meAgnrgvdiCpmtgyotgvg
mn+tgovMgig:nhdivtgovMgioPgCpg:nvteMpmpMgotg:nvt e d evEgogtp gnrgvgmn+gTp: nmtgnmgog
tp gnrgig:nhdivgTp: nmtOganvteMpmcgrnmgpAoishpcg ypgidh eshe:o envgnrg +ng<gAg<gio me:ptg
ugovMgNOg
∑
xypgsmnMd: gio meAgagetgog<gAg<gio meAg+yntpgphpipv tgompgmpho pMg ng ypgphpipv tgnrgug
ovMgNgCPg ypgevvpmgsmnMd: 9g
kj
3
1k
ikij
baC∑
=
×=∑
∑

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8Ng OBaCoSOn tcO zuC4Og ez tcO megpt gNy azI megpt rNSuCz Nm CatgeB : ep raSruSatOI 42
SOttez1 e I wn Z I wn tN N4taez
C
11 I a11 411 ; a12 421 ; a13 431
.cep gO/uegOp tcgOO CuSteoSerateNzp azI 9amtOg ezeteaSe(ez1 r
11 tN –E tcgOO aIIeteNzp3 .cO
tNtaS zuC4Og Nm CuSteoSerateNzp Ng aIIeteNzp gO/uegOI tN rNCoutO tcO CatgeB ogNIurt ep
X B KI Gv3 Ym yO rNzpeIOg tcO SezFOI CuSteoS2RaII NoOgateNz r I a B 4 ap a ruCuSate-O
NoOgateNzn tcO ogNIurt Nm tyN z B z CatgerOp gO/uegOp z
2
CuSteoS2RaII NoOgateNzp3 .cO
rNCoutateNz rNzpeptp Nm z
2
ezzOg ogNIurtpn yetc Oarc ezzOg ogNIurt gO/uegez1 z
CuSteoS2RaII NoOgateNzpn appuCez1 tcat r ep ezeteaSe(OI tN (OgN 4OmNgO rNCoutez1 Oarc
OSOCOzt ez tcO ogNIurt CatgeB3
Yz 1OzOgaSn tcO ezzOg ogNIurt rNzpeptp Nm tcO puC Nm F ogNIurt tOgCp Nm tcO mNgC
: I A
1B1 ; A2 P2 ; A3 ; P3 ; A4 ; P4 ; a ; Ak Pk
Yz a t2oeraS aooSerateNz F Ca2 4O O/uaS tN w–– Ng O-Oz w–––3 .cO ezzOg ogNIurt
raSruSateNz Nz a oeoOSezO -OrtNg ogNrOppNg ep pcNyz ez 8e13 '3w'3 .cO -aSuOp Nm A azI P
agO OetcOg ez COCNg2 Ng ez ogNrOppNg gO1eptOgp3 .cO mSNatez1RoNezt CuSteoSeOg oeoOSezO azI
tcO mSNatez1RoNezt aIIOg oeoOSezO agO appuCOI tN ca-O mNug pO1COztp Oarc3 ASS pO1COzt
gO1eptOgp ez tcO CuSteoSeOg azI aIIOg agO ezeteaSe(OI tN –3 .cOgOmNgOn tcO Nutout Nm tcO
aIIOg ep – mNg tcO megpt Oe1ct r2rSOp uzteS 4Ntc oeoOp agO muSS3 A
i azI Pi oaegp agO 4gNu1ct
ez azIRCuSteoSeOI at a gatO Nm NzO oaeg oOg r2rSO3 AmtOg tcO megpt mNug r2rSOpn tcO ogNIurtp
4O1ez tN 4O aIIOI tN tcO Nutout Nm tcO aIIOg3 6ugez1 tcO zOBt mNug r2rSOp – ep aIIOI tN
tcO ogNIurtp OztOgez1 tcO aIIOg oeoOSezO3 At tcO OzI Nm tcO Oe1ctc r2rSOn tcO megpt mNug
ogNIurtp A
1 P1 tcgNu1c A4 P4 agO ez tcO mNug aIIOg pO1COztpn azI tcO zOBt mNug
ogNIurtpn A
5B5 tcgNu1c A8 L8 agO ez tcO CuSteoSeOg pO1COztp3 At tcO 4O1ezzez1 Nm tcO
zeztc r2rSOn tcO Nutout Nm tcO aIIOg ep A
1B1 azI tcO Nutout Nm tcO CuSteoSeOg ep A5 P53
.cup tcO zeztc r2rSO ptagtp tcO aIIeteNz A
1 P1 ; A5 P' ez tcO aIIOg oeoOSezO3 .cO tOztc
r2rSO ptagtp tcO aIIeteNz A
2 P2 ; A6 P6n azI pN Nz3 .cep oattOgz 4gOaFp INyz tcO
puCCateNz eztN mNug pOrteNzp ap mNSSNypb

8e1ugO '3w'b leoOSezO mNg raSruSatez1 az ezzOg ogNIurt

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

9.3 Memory interleaving

Interleaving etg ovg oMTov:pMg p:yveGdpg dtpMg CPg yeEykpvMg in ypmCnomMtD:yestp tg ng
eismnTpg ipinmPg spmrnmiov:pOg SpinmPg ev pmhpoTevEg ev:mpotptg CovM+eM yg CPg ohhn+evEg
teidh ovpndtg o::pttg ng inmpg yovg nvpg :ydv1g nrg ipinmPOg xyetg eismnTptg spmrnmiov:pg
Cp:odtpg ypg smn:pttnmg :ovg movtrpmg inmpg evrnmio envg nDrmnig ipinmPg evg ypg toipg
oindv g nrg eipcg ovMg yphstg ohhpTeo pg ypg smn:pttnmkipinmPg Cn hpvp:1g yo g etg og ioEnmg
heie evEgro: nmgevgnTpmohhgspmrnmiov:pOg
g
Rv pmhpoTevEg +nm1tg CPg MeTeMevEg ypg tPt pig ipinmPg ev ng idh eshpg Chn:1tOg xypg int g
:niinvgvdiCpmtgompg +ngnmgrndmcg:ohhpMgtwo-waygnmgfour-waygev pmhpoTevEcgmptsp: eTphPOg
fo:yg Chn:1g nrg ipinmPg etg o::pttpMg dtevEg Merrpmpv g tp tg nrg :nv mnhg hevptcg +ye:yg ompg
ipmEpMg nEp ypmgnvg ypgipinmPgCdtOg.ypvgogmpoMgnmg+me pgetgCpEdvg ngnvpgChn:1cgogmpoMg
nmg+me pg ngn ypmgChn:1tg:ovgCpgnTpmhosspMg+e yg ypgremt gnvpOgxypginmpgChn:1tcg ypginmpg
yo gnTpmhossevEg:ovgCpgMnvpOgutgovgovohnEPcg:nvteMpmgpo evEgogsho pgnrgrnnMg+e ygogrnm1Og
x+nk+oPg ev pmhpoTevEg +ndhMg ipovg MeTeMevEg ypg rnnMg nv ng +ng sho ptg ovMg po evEg +e yg
Cn ygyovMtcgdtevEg +ngrnm1tOg/,ndmk+oPgev pmhpoTevEg+ndhMgmpGdempg +nginmpgyovMtOg9d0g0g
LpipiCpmg yo gypmpg ypgsmn:pttnmgetgMnevEg ypgRpo evERgovMge getgid:ygrot pmg yovg ypg
rnm1tg/ipinmP0gRrppMevERge g/dvhe1pgogspmtnvcg+yntpgyovMtgompgEpvpmohhPgrot pmO0g
g
Rvg nmMpmg ng Ep g ypg Cpt g spmrnmiov:pg rmnig yetg Pspg nrg ipinmPg tPt picg :nvtp:d eTpg
ipinmPg oMMmpttptg ompg tsmpoMg nTpmg ypg Merrpmpv g Chn:1tg nrg ipinmPOg Rvg n ypmg +nmMtcg erg
Pndg yoTpg =g Chn:1tg nrg ev pmhpoTpMg ipinmPcg ypg tPt pig MnptvQ g rehhg ypg remt g Chn:1cg ovMg
ypvg ypgtp:nvMgovMgtngnvOgR gdtptgohhg=gChn:1tcgtsmpoMevEg ypgipinmPgomndvMgtng yo g
ypgev pmhpoTevEg:ovgCpgpAshne pMOg
Rv pmhpoTevEg etg ovg oMTov:pMg p:yveGdpg yo g etg vn g EpvpmohhPg tdssnm pMg CPg int g -ag
in ypmCnomMtcg int g he1phPg Mdpg ng :nt Og R g etg int g yphsrdhg nvg yeEykpvMg tPt pitcg
ptsp:eohhPg tpmTpmtcg yo g yoTpg ng smn:pttg og Empo g Mpohg nrg evrnmio envg Gde:1hPOg xypg
Rv phg
wmenvg:yestp getgnvpg yo gMnptgtdssnm gipinmPgev pmhpoTevEOg
g

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

UNIT 10

MULTIPROCESSORS

e
e
10.1 cUM/MnkI/gakgnaetiepdykgs/tnIaat/ae
10.2 hokI/ntooInkgtoeak/dnkd/Ie
10.2.1 RgpI2aUM/IDentpptoeHdae
10.2.2 Sdykg2st/kepIpt/1e
10.2.3 c/taaHM/eaEgknUe
10.2.4 SdykgakMlIeaEgknUgoleoIkEt/Te
10.2.5 81sI/ndHIegokI/ntooInkgtoe
10.3 hokI/es/tnIaat/eM/Hgk/Mkgtoe
10.4 cMnUIentUI/IonIe
e
10.1 Introduction to MULTIPROCESSORS

cUM/MnkI/gakgnae tie Sdykgs/tnIaat/a9e Pe pdykgs/tnIaat/ae a1akIpe gae Moe gokI/ntooInkgtoe tie
kEtet/ept/IecG3aeEgkUepIpt/1eMoDegosdk2tdksdkeIGdgs pIokbeRUIekI/pevs/tnIaat/wegoe
multiprocessor nMoe pIMoe IgkUI/e Me nIok/Mye s/tnIaagole dogke 4cG36e t/eMoe gosdk2tdksdke
s/tnIaat/e4h0G6bee
e
e ctpsdkI/aeM/IegokI/ntooInkIDeEgkUeIMnUetkUI/eH1epI MoaetientppdognMkgtoeygoIae
kte it/pe Mecomputer networkbe RUIe oIkEt/Te ntoagakae tie aI5I/Mye Mdktotptdae ntpsdkI/ae
kUMke pM1e t/e pM1e otke ntppdognMkIe EgkUe IMnUe tkUI/be Pepdykgs/tnIaat/e a1akIpe gae
ntok/tyyIDeH1etoIetsI/Mkgolea1akIpekUMkes/t5gDIaegokI/MnkgtoeHIkEIIoes/tnIaat/aeMoDeMyye
kUIentpstoIokaetiekUIea1akIpenttsI/MkIegoekUIeatydkgtoetieMes/tHyIpbe
e
e Sdykgs/tnIaagolegps/t5IaekUIe/IygMHgygk1etiekUIea1akIpeatekUMkeMeiMgyd/Iet/eI//t/egoe
toIesM/keUMaeMeygpgkIDeIiiInketoekUIe/IaketiekUIea1akIpbehieMeiMdykenMdaIaetoIes/tnIaat/ekte
iMgyOe Me aIntoDe s/tnIaat/e nMoe HIe MaagloIDe kte sI/it/pe kUIe idonkgtoae tie kUIe DgaMHyIDe
s/tnIaat/beRUIea1akIpeMaeMeEUtyIenMoentokgodIekteidonkgtoent//Inky1eEgkUesI/UMsaeatpIe
ytaaegoeIiigngIon1be
e
e RUIeHIoIigkeDI/g5IDei/tpeMepdykgs/tnIaat/aet/lMog( MkgtoegaeMoegps/t5IDea1akIpe
sI/it/pMonIbeRUIea1akIpeDI/g5IaegkaeUglUesI/it/pMonIei/tpekUIeiMnkekUMkentpsdkMkgtoae
nMoes/tnIIDegoesM/MyyIyegoetoIetiekEteEM1abe
1. SdykgsyIegoDIsIoDIokeEtHaenMoeHIepMDIektetsI/MkIegoesM/MyyIyb
2. PeagolyIeEtHenMoeHIesM/kgkgtoIDegoktepdykgsyIesM/MyyIyekMaTab
e

10.2. Interconnection Structures:
e

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

RUIe ntpstoIokae kUMke it/pe Me pdykgs/tnIaat/ae a1akIpe M/Ie cG3aOe h0Gae ntooInkIDe kte
gosdk2tdksdke DI5gnIaOe MoDe Me pIpt/1e dogke kUMke pM1e HIe sM/kgkgtoIDe gokte Me odpHI/e tie
aIsM/MkIe ptDdyIabe RUIe gokI/ntooInkgtoe HIkEIIoe kUIe ntpstoIokae nMoe UM5Ie DgiiI/Ioke
sU1agnMyentoigld/MkgtoaOeDIsIoDgoletoekUIeodpHI/etiek/MoaiI/esMkUaekUMkeM/IeM5MgyMHyIe
HIkEIIoe kUIe s/tnIaat/ae MoDe pIpt/1e goe Me aUM/IDe pIpt/1e a1akIpe t/e Mptole kUIe
s/tnIaagole IyIpIokae goe Me yttaIy1e ntdsyIDe a1akIpbe RUI/Ie M/Ie aI5I/Mye sU1agnMye it/pae
M5MgyMHyIe it/e IakMHygaUgole Moe gokI/ntooInkgtoe oIkEt/Tbe WtpIe tie kUIaIe anUIpIae M/Ie
s/IaIokIDegoekUgaeaInkgto9e
1. RgpI2aUM/IDentpptoeHdae
2. Sdykgst/kepIpt/1
3. c/taaHM/eaEgknU
4. SdykgakMlIeaEgknUgoleoIkEt/T
5. 81sI/ndHIea1akIp
e
e
10.2.1 Time-shared Common Bus: ee
e
Pe ntppto2Hdae pdykgs/tnIaat/e a1akIpe ntoagakae tie Me odpHI/e tie s/tnIaat/ae ntooInkIDe
kU/tdlUe Me ntpptoe sMkUe kte Me pIpt/1e dogkbe Pe kgpI2aUM/IDe ntpptoe Hdae it/e ig5Ie
s/tnIaat/aegaeaUtEoegoeiglbe:<2:be0oy1etoIes/tnIaat/enMoentppdognMkIeEgkUekUIepIpt/1e
t/e MotkUI/e s/tnIaat/e Mke Mo1e lg5Ioe kgpIbe R/MoaiI/e tsI/Mkgtoae M/Ie ntoDdnkIDe H1e kUIe
s/tnIaat/e kUMke gae goe ntok/tye tie kUIe Hdae Mke kUIe kgpIbe Po1e tkUI/e s/tnIaat/e EgaUgole kte
gogkgMkIeMek/MoaiI/epdakeig/akeDIkI/pgoIekUIeM5MgyMHgygk1eakMkdaetiekUIeHdaOeMoDetoy1eMikI/e
kUIeHdaeHIntpIaeM5MgyMHyIenMoekUIes/tnIaat/eMDD/IaaekUIeDIakgoMkgtoedogkektegogkgMkIekUIe
k/MoaiI/be Pe ntppMoDe gae gaadIDe kte goit/pe kUIe DIakgoMkgtoe dogke EUMke tsI/Mkgtoe gae kte HIe
sI/it/pIDbe RUIe /InIg5gole dogke /Intlog(Iae gkae MDD/Iaae goe kUIe Hdae MoDe /IastoDae kte kUIe
ntok/tye agloMyae i/tpe kUIe aIoDI/Oe MikI/e EUgnUe kUIe k/MoaiI/e gae gogkgMkIDbe RUIe a1akIpe pM1e
IuUgHgke k/MoaiI/e ntoiygnkae agonIe toIe ntpptoe Hdae gaeaUM/IDe H1e Myye s/tnIaat/abe RUIaIe
ntoiygnkae pdake HIe /Iaty5IDe H1e gont/st/Mkgole Me Hdae ntok/tyyI/e kUMke IakMHygaUIae s/gt/gkgIae
MptolekUIe/IGdIakgoledogkabe
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
Fgld/Ie:<2:eRgpI2aUM/IDentpptoeHdaet/lMog(Mkgtobe
Memory unit
CPU 1 IOP 2 CPU 2 CPU 3 IOP 1

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

A pez1SO rNCCNzR4up p2ptOC ep gOptgertOI tN NzO tgazpmOg at a teCO3 .cep COazp
tcat ycOz NzO ogNrOppNg ep rNCCuzeratez1 yetc tcO COCNg2n aSS NtcOg ogNrOppNgp agO
OetcOg 4up2 yetc eztOgzaS NoOgateNzp Ng Cupt 4O eISO yaetez1 mNg tcO 4up3 Ap a
rNzpO/uOzrOn tcO tNtaS N-OgaSS tgazpmOg gatO yetcez tcO p2ptOC ep SeCetOI 42 tcO poOOI Nm
tcO pez1SO oatc3 .cO ogNrOppNgp ez tcO p2ptOC raz 4O FOot 4up2 CNgO NmtOz tcgNu1c tcO
eCoSOCOztateNz Nm tyN Ng CNgO ezIOoOzIOzt 4upOp tN oOgCet CuSteoSO peCuStazONup 4up
tgazpmOgp3 7NyO-Ogn tcep ezrgOapOp tcO p2ptOC rNpt azI rNCoSOBet23

A CNgO OrNzNCeraS eCoSOCOztateNz Nm a IuaS 4up ptgurtugO ep IOoertOI ez 8e13
7OgO yO ca-O a zuC4Og Nm SNraS 4upOp Oarc rNzzOrtOI tN etp Nyz SNraS COCNg2 azI tN
NzO Ng CNgO ogNrOppNgp3 Larc SNraS 4up Ca2 4O rNzzOrtOI tN a :lVn az Yfln Ng az2
rNC4ezateNz Nm ogNrOppNgp3 A p2ptOC 4up rNztgNSSOg SezFp Oarc SNraS 4up tN a rNCCNz
p2ptOC 4up3 .cO Ykf IO-erOp rNzzOrtOI tN tcO SNraS Yfln ap yOSS ap tcO SNraS COCNg2n
agO a-aeSa4SO tN tcO SNraS ogNrOppNg3 .cO COCNg2 rNzzOrtOI tN tcO rNCCNz p2ptOC 4up
ep pcagOI 42 aSS ogNrOppNgp3 Ym az Yfl ep rNzzOrtOI IegOrtS2 tN tcO p2ptOC 4upn tcO Ykf
IO-erOp attarcOI tN et Ca2 4O IOpe1zOI ap a rarcO COCNg2 attarcOI tN tcO :lV 9pOO TOr3
wGR”E3 Yz tcep ya2n tcO a-Oga1O arrOpp teCO Nm tcO SNraS COCNg2 raz 4O CaIO tN
aoogNarc tcO r2rSO teCO Nm tcO :lV tN ycerc et ep attarcOI3

System
bus
controller
CPU   IOP Local
memory
Common
share
memory
System
bus
controller CPU   IOP Local
memory
System
bus
controller
CPU   Local
memory
Local Bus Local Bus
Local Bus
System Bus

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

10.2.2 Multi-port Memory:

A CuSteoNgt COCNg2 p2ptOC OCoSN2p pOoagatO 4upOp 4OtyOOz Oarc COCNg2 CNIuSO azI
Oarc :lV3 .cep ep pcNyz ez 8e13 wKRK mNg mNug :lVp azI mNug COCNg2 CNIuSOp 9sspE3
Larc ogNrOppNg 4up ep rNzzOrtOI tN Oarc COCNg2 CNIu SO3 A ogNrOppNg 4up rNzpeptp Nm
tcO aIIgOppn Iata azI rNztgNS SezOp gO/uegOI tN rNCCuzeratO yetc COCNg23 .cO COCNg2
CNIuSO ep paeI tN ca-O mNug oNgtp azI Oarc oNgt arrNCCNIatOp NzO Nm tcO 4upOp3 .cO
CNIuSO Cupt ca-O eztOgzaS rNztgNS SN1er tN IOtOgCezO ycerc oNgt yeSS ca-O arrOpp tN
COCNg2 at az2 1e-Oz teCO3 sOCNg2 arrOpp rNzmSertp agO gOpNS-OI 42 appe1zez1 meBOI
ogeNgeteOp tN Oarc COCNg2 oNgt3 .cO ogeNget2 mNg COCNg2 arrOpp appNreatOI yetc Oarc
ogNrOppNg Ca2 4O Opta4SepcOI 42 tcO oc2peraS oNgt oNpeteNz tcat etp 4up NrruoeOp ez Oarc
CNIuSO3 .cup :lV w yeSS ca-O ogeNget2 N-Og :lV Gn :lV G yeSS ca-O ogeNget2 N-Og :lV Kn
azI :lV “ yeSS ca-O tcO SNyOpt ogeNget23

.cO aI-azta1O Nm tcO CuSteoNgt COCNg2 Ng1aze(ateNz ep tcO ce1c tgazpmOg gatO
tcat raz 4O arceO-OI 4OraupO Nm tcO CuSteoSO oatcp 4OtyOOz ogNrOppNgp azI COCNg23
.cO IepaI-azta1O ep tcat et gO/uegOp OBoOzpe-O COCNg2 rNztgNS SN1er azI a Sag1O zuC4Og
Nm ra4SOp azI rNzzOrtNgp3 Ap a rNzpO/uOzrOn tcep eztOgrNzzOrteNz ptgurtugO ep upuaSS2
aoogNogeatO mNg p2ptOCp yetc a pCaSS zuC4Og Nm ogNrOppNgp3

CPU 1
MM 1 MM 2 MM 3 MM 4
CPU 2
CPU 3
CPU 4
Memory Modules

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO wKRK suSteoNgt COCNg2 Ng1aze(ateNz3

10.2.3 Crossbar Switch

.cO rgNpp4ag pyetrc Ng1aze(ateNz rNzpeptp Nm a zuC4Og Nm rgNpp ogeztp tcat agO oSarOI at
eztOgpOrteNzp 4OtyOOz ogNrOppNg 4upOp azI COCNg2 CNIuSO oatcp3 8e1ugO pcNyp a
rgNpp4ag pyetrc eztOgrNzzOrteNz 4OtyOOz mNug :lVp azI mNug COCNg2 CNIuSOp3 .cO
pCaSS p/uagO ez Oarc rgNpp oNezt ep a pyetrc tcat IOtOgCezOp tcO oatc mgNC a ogNrOppNg
tN a COCNg2 CNIuSO3 Larc pyetrc oNezt cap rNztgNS SN1er tN pOt uo tcO tgazpmOg oatc
4OtyOOz a ogNrOppNg azI COCNg23 Yt OBaCezOp tcO aIIgOpp tcat ep oSarOI ez tcO 4up tN
IOtOgCezO ycOtcOg etp oagteruSag CNIuSO ep 4Oez1 aIIgOppOI3 Yt aSpN gOpNS-Op CuSteoSO
gO/uOptp mNg arrOpp tN tcO paCO COCNg2 CNIuSO Nz a ogOIOtOgCezOI ogeNget2 4apep3

8e1ugO pcNyp tcO muzrteNzaS IOpe1z Nm a rgNpp4ag pyetrc rNzzOrtOI tN NzO
COCNg2 CNIuSO3 .cO regruet rNzpeptp Nm CuSteoSOBOp tcat pOSOrt tcO Iatan aIIgOppn azI
rNztgNS mgNC NzO :lV mNg rNCCuzerateNz yetc tcO COCNg2 CNIuSO3 lgeNget2 SO-OSp agO
Opta4SepcOI 42 tcO ag4etgateNz SN1er tN pOSOrt NzO :lV ycOz tyN Ng CNgO :lVp attOCot
tN arrOpp tcO paCO COCNg23 .cO CuSteoSOBOp agO rNztgNSSOI yetc tcO 4ezag2 rNIO tcat ep
1OzOgatOI 42 a ogeNget2 OzrNIOg yetcez tcO ag4etgateNz SN1er3

A rgNpp4ag pyetrc Ng1aze(ateNz puooNgtp peCuStazON up tgazpmOgp mgNC aSS
COCNg2 CNIuSOp 4OraupO tcOgO ep a pOoagatO oatc appNreatOI yetc Oarc CNIuSO3
7NyO-Ogn tcO cagIyagO gO/uegOI tN eCoSOCOzt tcO pyetrc rNuSI 4O /uetO Sag1O azI
rNCoSOB3

MM 1 MM 2 MM 3 MM 4
CPU 1
CPU 2
CPU 3
Memory Modules

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO wKR“ :gNpp4ag Tyetrc

8e1ugO PSNrF Iea1gaC Nm rgNpp4ag pyetrc

10.2.4 Multistage Switching Network:
.cO 4aper rNCoNzOzt Nm a CuStepta1O zOtyNgF ep a tyNRezoutn tyNRNutout eztOgrcaz1O
pyetrc3 Ap pcNyz ez me13 tcO G T G pyetrc cap tyN ezoutpn Sa4OSOI A azI Pn azI tyN
Nutoutpn Sa4OSOI – azI w3 .cOgO agO rNztgNS pe1zaSp 9zNt pcNyzE appNreatOI yetc tcO
pyetrc tcat Opta4Sepc tcO eztOgrNzzOrteNz 4OtyOOz tcO ezout azI Nutout tOgCezaSp3 .cO
pyetrc cap tcO raoa4eSet2 Nm rNzzOrtez1 ezout A tN OetcOg Nm tcO Nutoutp3 .OgCezaS P Nm
tcO pyetrc 4Oca-Op ez a peCeSag mapceNz3 .cO pyetrc aSpN cap tcO raoa4eSet2 tN ag4etgatO
4OtyOOz rNzmSertez1 gO/uOptp3 Ym ezoutp A azI P 4Ntc gO/uOpt tcO paCO Nutout tOgCezaSn
NzS2 NzO Nm tcOC yeSS 4O rNzzOrtOIK tcO NtcOg yeSS 4O 4SNrFOI3

Vpez1 tcO G T G pyetrc ap a 4ueSIez1 4SNrFn et ep oNppe4SO tN 4ueSI a CuStepta1O
zOtyNgF tN rNztgNS tcO rNCCuzerateNz 4OtyOOz a zuC4Og Nm pNugrO azI IOptezateNzp3

Memory
Module
Data
Address
Read/Write
Memory
Enabled

Multiplexes
and
arbitration
logic
Data, address, and control
from CPU 1
Data, address, and control
from CPU 2
Data, address, and control
from CPU 3
Data, address, and control
from CPU 4

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

000
001
0
1
0
1
010
011
100
101
0
1
110
111
0
1
P1
P2
0
1
0
1
.N pOO cNy tcep ep INzOn rNzpeIOg tcO 4ezag2 tgOO pcNyz 8e13 wKRv3 .cO tyN ogNrOppNgp
P
1 azI l2 agO rNzzOrtOI tcgNu1c pyetrcOp tN Oe1ct COCNg2 CNI uSOp CagFOI ez 4ezag2
mgNC ––– tcgNu1c www3 .cO oatc mgNC pNugrO tN a IOptezateNz ep IOtOgCezOI mgNC tcO
4ezag2 4etp Nm tcO IOptezateNz zuC4Og3 .cO megpt 4et Nm tcO IOptezateNz zuC4Og
IOtOgCezOp tcO pyetrc Nutout ez tcO megpt SO-OS3 .cO pOrNzI 4et poOremeOp tcO Nutout Nm tcO
pyetrc ez tcO pOrNzI SO-OSn azI tcegI 4et poOremeOp tcO Nutout Nm tcO pyetrc ez tcO tcegI
SO-OS3 8Ng OBaCoSOn tN rNzzOrt l
1 tN COCNg2 w–wn et ep zOrOppag2 tN mNgC a oatc mgNC l 1
tN Nutout w ez tcO megpt SO-OS pyetrcn Nutout – ez tcO pOrNzIRSO-OS pyetrcn azI Nutout w ez
tcO tcegIRSO-OS pyetrc3 Yt ep rSOag tcat OetcOg lw Ng lG raz 4O rNzzOrtOI tN az2 NzO Nm tcO
Oe1ct COCNgeOp3 :Ogtaez gO/uOpt oattOgzpn cNyO-Ogn razzNt 4O patepmeOI peCuStazONupS23
8Ng OBaCoSOn em lw ep rNzzOrtOI tN NzO Nm tcO IOptezateNzp ––– tcgNu1c –wwnlG raz 4O
rNzzOrtOI tN NzS2 NzO Nm tcO IOptezateNzp w–– tcgNu1c www3

saz2 IemmOgOzt tNoNSN1eOp ca-O 4OOz ogNoNpOI mNg CuStepta1O pyetrcez1 zOtyNgFp
tN rNztgNS ogNrOppNgRCOCNg2 rNCCuzerateNz ez a te1ctS2 rNuoSOI CuSteogNrOppNg p2ptOC
Ng tN rNztgNS tcO rNCCuzerateNz 4OtyOOz tcO ogNrOppez1 OSOCOztp ez a SNNpOS2 rNuoSOI
p2ptOC3 fzO purc tNoNSN12 ep tcO NCO1aRpyetrcez1 zOtyNgF pcNyz ez 8e13 wKRx3 Yz tcep
rNzme1ugateNzn tcOgO ep OBartS2 NzO oatc mgNC Oarc pNugrO tN az2 oagteruSag IOptezateNz3
TNCO gO/uOpt oattOgzpn cNyO-Ogn razzNt 4O rNzzOrtOI peCuStazONupS23 8Ng OBaCoSOn
az2 tyN pNugrOp razzNt 4O rNzzOrtOI peCuStazONupS2 tN IOptezateNzp ––– azI ––w3

8e1ugO foOgateNz Nm G T G eztOgrcaz1O pyetrc3

8e1ugO Pezag2 tgOO yetc G T G pyetrcOp3

A
B
0
1
A
B
0
1
A connected to 0 A connected to 1
A
B
0
1
B connected to 0
0
1
B
A
B connected to 1

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

A oagteruSag gO/uOpt ep ezeteatOI ez tcO pyetrcez1 zOtyNgF 42 tcO pNugrOn ycerc
pOzIp a KR 4et oattOgz gOogOpOztez1 tcO IOptezateNz zuC4Og3 Ap tcO 4ezag2 oattOgz
CN-Op tcgNu1c tcO zOtyNgFn Oarc SO-OS OBaCezOp a IemmOgOzt 4et tN IOtOgCezO tcO G T G
pyetrc pOttez13 MO-OS w ezpoOrtp tcO CNpt pe1zemerazt 4etn SO-OS G ezpoOrtp tcO
CeIISO 4etn azI SO-OS K ezpoOrtp tcO SOapt pe1zemerazt 4et3 5cOz tcO gO/uOpt agge-Op Nz
OetcOg ezout Nm tcO G T G pyetrcn et ep gNutOI tN tcO uooOg Nutout em tcO poOremeOI 4et ep –
Ng tN tcO SNyOg Nutout em tcO 4et ep w3

Yz a te1ctS2 rNuoSOI CuSteogNrOppNg p2ptOCn tcO pNugrO ep a ogNrOppNg azI tcO
IOptezateNz ep a COCNg2 CNIuSO3 .cO megpt oapp tcgNu1c tcO zOtyNgF pOtp uo tcO oatc3
TurrOOIez1 oappOp agO upOI tN tgazpmOg tcO aIIgOpp eztN COCNg2 azI tcOz tgazpmOg tcO
Iata ez OetcOg IegOrteNzn IOoOzIez1 Nz ycOtcOg tcO gO/uOpt ep a gOaI Ng a ygetO3 Yz a
SNNpOS2 rNuoSOI CuSteogNrOppNg p2ptOCn 4Ntc tcO pNugrO azI IOptezateNz agO ogNrOppez1
OSOCOztp3 AmtOg tcO oatc ep Opta4SepcOIn tcO pNugrO ogNrOppNg tgazpmOgp a COppa1O tN tcO
IOptezateNz ogNrOppNg3

10.2.5 Hypercube Interconnection

0
1
4
2
3
5
6
7
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.cO c2oOgru4O Ng 4ezag2 z ) ru4O CuSteogNrOppNg ptgurtugO ep a SNNpOS2 rNuoSOI
p2ptOC rNCoNpOI Nm d I G
n
ogNrOppNg eztOgrNzzOrtOI ez az zR IeCOzpeNzaS 4ezag2 ru4O3
Larc ogNrOppNg mNgCp a zNIO Nm tcO ru4O3 AStcNu1c et ep ruptNCag2 tN gOmOg tN Oarc zNIO
ap ca-ez1 a ogNrOppNgn ez OmmOrt et rNztaezp zNt NzS2 a :lV 4ut aSpN SNraS COCNg2 azI
Ykf eztOgmarO3 Larc ogNrOppNg cap IegOrt rNCCuzerateNz oatcp tN z NtcOg zOe1c4Ng
ogNrOppNgp3 .cOpO oatcp rNggOpoNzI tN tcO OI1Op Nm tcO ru4O3 .cOgO agO G
z
Ieptezrt zR 4et
4ezag2 aIIgOppOp tcat raz 4O appe1zOI tN tcO ogNrOppNgp3 Larc ogNrOppNg aIIgOpp IemmOgp
mgNC tcat Nm Oarc Nm etp z zOe1c4Ngp 42 OBartS2 NzO 4et oNpeteNz3

8e1ugO wKRX pcNyp tcO c2oOgru4O ptgurtugO mNg z I wnGn azI K3 A NzORru4O
ptgurtugO cap z I w azI GW I G3 Yt rNztaezp tyN ogNrOppNg eztOgrNzzOrtOI 42 a pez1SO
oatc3 A tyNRru4O ptgurtugO cap zI G azI GW I “3 Yt rNztaezp mNug zNIOp eztOgrNzzOrtOI
ap a p/uagO3 A tcgOOR ru4O ptgurtugO cap Oe1ct zNIOp eztOgrNzzOrtOI ap a ru4O3 Az z )
ru4O ptgurtugO cap GW zNIOp yetc a ogNrOppNg gOpeIez1 ez Oarc zNIO3 Larc zNIO ep
appe1zOI a 4ezag2 aIIgOpp ez purc a ya2 tcat tcO aIIgOppOp Nm tyN zOe1c4Ngp IemmOg ez
OBartS2 NzO 4et oNpeteNz3 8Ng OBaCoSOn tcO tcgOO zOe1c4Ngp Nm tcO zNIO yetc aIIgOpp w––
ez a tcgOO ) ru4O ptgurtugO agO –––n ww–nazI w–w Oarc Nm tcOpO 4ezag2 zuC4Ogp IemmOgp
mgNC aIIgOpp w–– 42 NzO 4et -aSuO3

UNutez1 COppa1O tcgNu1c az zRru4O ptgurtugO Ca2 taFO mgNC NzO tN z SezFp
mgNC a pNugrO zNIO tN a IOptezateNz zNIO3 8Ng OBaCoSOn ez a tcgOOR ru4O ptgurtugOn zNIO
tN a IOptezateNz zNIO3 8Ng OBaCoSOn ez a tcgOOR ru4O ptgurtugOn zNIO ––– raz
rNCCuzeratO IegOrtS2 yetc zNIO ––w3 Yt Cupt rgNpp at SOapt tyN SezFp tN rNCCuzeratO
yetc –ww 9mgNC ––– tN ––w tN –ww Ng mgNC ––– tN –w– tN –wwE3 Yt ep zOrOppag2 tN 1N
tcgNu1c at SOapt tcgOO SezFp tN rNCCuzeratO mgNC zNIO ––– tN zNIO www3 A gNutez1
ogNrOIugO raz 4O IO-OSNoOI 42 rNCoutez1 tcO OBrSupe-O )fU Nm tcO pNugrO zNIO aIIgOpp
yetc tcO IOptezateNz zNIO aIIgOpp3 .cO gOpuStez1 4ezag2 -aSuO yeSS ca-O w 4etp
rNggOpoNzIez1 tN tcO aBOp Nz ycerc tcO tyN zNIOp IemmOg3 .cO COppa1O ep tcOz pOzt
aSNz1 az2 NzO Nm tcO aBOp3 8Ng OBaCoSOn ez a tcgOOR ru4O ptgurtugOn a COppa1O at –w–
1Nez1 tN ––w ogNIurOp az OBrSupe-OR fU Nm tcO tyNRaIIgOpp O/uaS tN –ww3 .cO COppa1O
raz 4O pOzt aSNz1 tcO pOrNzI aBep tN ––– azI tcOz tcgNu1c tcO tcegI aBep tN ––w3

0
1 00
01
00
00
010
111
110
011
00
1
One-cube Two-cube
Three-cube

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

e
e
e
e
e
e
Pe /Is/IaIokMkg5Ie tie kUIe U1sI/ndHIe M/nUgkInkd/Ie gae kUIe hokIye hsane ntpsdkI/e
ntpsyIubehkentoagakaetie:;Be4oeIeA6epgn/tntpsdkI/aentooInkIDekU/tdlUentppdognMkgtoe
nUMooIyabe AMnUe otDIe ntoagakae tie cG3Oe Me iytMkgol2stgoke s/tnIaat/Oe ytnMye pIpt/1Oe MoDe
aI/gMye ntppdognMkgtoe gokI/iMnIe dogkabe RUIe goDg5gDdMye otDIae tsI/MkIe goDIsIoDIoky1e toe
DMkMeakt/IDegoeytnMyepIpt/1eMnnt/Dgolekte/IagDIokes/tl/MpabeRUIeDMkMeMoDes/tl/Mpaekte
IMnUeotDIentpIekU/tdlUeMepIaaMlI2esMaagolea1akIpei/ tpetkUI/eotDIaet/ei/tpeMendHIe
pMoMlI/be PssygnMkgtoe s/tl/Mpe M/Ie DI5IytsIDe MoDe ntpsygIDe toe kUIe ndHIe pMoMlI/e MoDe
kUIoe DtEoytMDe kte kUIe goDg5gDdMye otDIabe ctpsdkMkgtoae M/Ie Dgak/gHdkIDe kU/tdlUe kUIe
a1akIpeMoDeIuIndkIDentond//Ioky1be
e
e
10.3 Interprocessor Arbitration

ctpsdkI/ea1akIpaentokMgoeMeodpHI/etieHdaIaeMke5M/gt daeyI5IyaekteiMngygkMkIekUIe
k/MoaiI/e tie goit/pMkgtoe HIkEIIoe ntpstoIokabe RUIe cG3e ntokMgoae Me odpHI/e tie gokI/oMye
HdaIaeit/ek/MoaiI//golegoit/pMkgtoeHIkEIIoes/tnIaat/e/IlgakI/aeMoDePf3bePepIpt/1eHdae
ntoagakaetieygoIaeit/ek/MoaiI//goleDMkMOeMDD/IaaOeMoDe/IMDDE/gkIegoit/pMkgtobePoehD0eHdae
gae daIDe kte k/MoaiI/e goit/pMkgtoe kte MoDe i/tpe gosdke MoDe tdksdke DI5gnIabe Pe Hdae kUMke
ntooInkae pMEt/e ntpstoIokae goe Me pdykgs/tnIaat/e a1akIpOe adnUe Mae cG3aOe h0GaOe MoDe
pIpt/1OegaenMyyIDeMea1akIpeHdabeRUIesU1agnMyeng/ndgkaetieMea1akIpeHdaeM/IentokMgoIDegoe
Me odpHI/e tie gDIokgnMye s/gokIDe ng/ndgke HtM/Dabe AMnUeHtM/De goe kUIe a1akIpe HIytolae kte Me
sM/kgndyM/e ptDdyIbe RUIe HtM/De ntoagakae kte ng/ndgkae ntooInkIDe goe sM/MyyIye kU/tdlUe
ntooInkt/abe AMnUe sgoe tie IMnUe ng/ndgke ntooInkt/e gae ntooInkIDe H1e Me Eg/Ie kte kUIe
nt//IastoDgole sgoe tie Myye tkUI/e ntooInkt/ae goe tkUI/eHtM/Dabe RUdae Mo1e HtM/De nMoe HIe
sydllIDegokteMeaytkegoekUIeHMnTesyMoIekUMkeit/paekUIea1akIpeHdabee
e
RUIe s/tnIaat/ae goe Me aUM/IDe pIpt/1e pdykgs/tnIaat/e a1akIpe /IGdIake MnnIaae kte
ntpptoe pIpt/1e t/e tkUI/e ntpptoe /Iatd/nIae kU/tdlUe kUIe a1akIpe Hdabe hie ote tkUI/e
s/tnIaat/e gae nd//Ioky1e dkgyg(Mkgtoe kUIe HdaOe kUIe /IGdIakgole s/tnIaat/e pM1e HIe l/MokIDe
MnnIaaegppIDgMkIy1be8tEI5I/OekUIe/IGdIakgoles/tnIaat/epdakeEMgkegieMotkUI/es/tnIaat/e
gae nd//Ioky1e dkgyg(gole kUIe a1akIpe Hdabe Fd/kUI/pt/IOe tkUI/e s/tnIaat/ae pM1e /IGdIake kUIe
a1akIpe Hdae Mke kUIe aMpIe kgpIbe P/Hgk/Mkgtoe pdake kUIoeHIe sI/it/pIDe kte /Iaty5Ie kUgae
pdykgsyIentokIokgtoeit/ekUIeaUM/IDe/Iatd/nIabeRUIeM/Hgk/MkgtoeytlgneEtdyDeHIesM/ketiekUIe
a1akIpeHdaentok/tyyI/esyMnIDeHIkEIIoekUIeytnMyeHdaeMoDekUIea1akIpeHdaeMaeaUtEoegoeiglbe
:<e)e;be
ee
10.4 Cache Coherence
e
000
000 100
101

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

.cO ogeCag2 aI-azta1O Nm rarcO ep etp a4eSet2 tN gOIurO tcO a-Oga1O arrOpp teCO ez
uzeogNrOppNgp3 5cOz tcO ogNrOppNg mezIp a yNgI ez rarcO Iugez1 a gOaI NoOgateNzn tcO
Caez COCNg2 ep zNt ez-NS-OI ez tcO tgazpmOg3 Ym tcO NoOgateNz ep tN ygetOn tcOgO agO tyN
rNCCNzS2 upOI ogNrOIugOp tN uoIatO COCNg23 Yz tcO y getO ) tcgNu1c oNSer2n 4Ntc rarcO
azI Caez COCNg2 agO uoIatOI yetc O-Og2 ygetO NoOgateNz3 Yz tcO ygetOR4arF oNSer2n NzS2
tcO rarcO ep uoIatOI azI tcO SNrateNz ep CagFOI pN tcat et raz 4O rNoeOI SatOg eztN Caez
COCNg23

Yz a pcagOI COCNg2 CuSteogNrOppNg p2ptOCn aSS tcO ogNrOppNgp pcagO a rNCCNz
COCNg23 Yz aIIeteNzn Oarc ogNrOppNg Ca2 ca-O a SNraS COCNg2n oagt Ng aSS Nm ycerc Ca2
4O a rarcO3 .cO rNCoOSSez1 gOapNz mNg ca-ez1 pOoagatO rarcOp mNg Oarc ogNrOppNg ep tN
gOIurO tcO a-Oga1O arrOpp teCO ez Oarc ogNrOppNg3 .cO paCO ezmNgCateNz Ca2 gOpeIO ez a
zuC4Og Nm rNoeOp ez pNCO rarcOp azI Caez COCNg23 .N OzpugO tcO a4eSet2 Nm tcO p2ptOC
tN OBOrutO COCNg2 NoOgateNzp rNggOrtS2n tcO CuSteoSO rNoeOp Cupt 4O FOot eIOzteraS3 .cep
gO/uegOCOzt eCoNpOp a rarcO rNcOgOzrO ogN4SOC3 A CO CNg2 prcOCO ep rNcOgOzt em tcO
-aSuO gOtugzOI Nz a SNaI ezptgurteNz ep aSya2p tcO -aSuO 1e-Oz 42 tcO rarcO rNcOgOzrO
ogN4SOCn rarcez1 razzNt 4O upOI ez 4up ) NgeOztOI CuSteogNrOppNgp yetc tyN Ng CNgO
ogNrOppNgp3

Conditions for incoherence
:arcO rNcOgOzrO ogN4SOCp OBept ez CuSteogNrOppNgp yetc oge-atO rarcOp 4OraupO
Nm tcO zOOI tN pcagO yget a4SO Iata3 UOaI ) NzS2 Iata raz pamOS2 4O gOoSeratOI yetcNut
rarcO rNcOgOzrO OzmNgrOCOzt COrcazepCp3 .N eSSuptgatO tcO ogN4SOC rNzpeIOg tcO tcgOO
) ogNrOppNg rNzme1ugateNz yetc oge-atO rarcOp pcNyz ez 8e13 wK ) wG3 TNCOteCO Iugez1
tcO NoOgateNz az OSOCOzt T mgNC Caez COCNg2 ep SNaIOI eztN tcO tcgOO ogNrOppNgpn lwn
lG azI lK3Ap a rNzpO/uOzrOn et ep aSpN rNoeOI eztN tcO oge-atO rarcOp Nm tcO tcgOO
ogNrOppNgp3 8Ng peCoSeret2n yO appuCO ap tcat T rNztaezp tcO -aSuO Nm 'G3 .cO SNaI Nz T
tN tcO tcgOO ogNrOppNgp gOpuStp ez rNzpeptOzt rNoeOI ez tcO rarcOp azI Caez COCNg23

Ym NzO Nm tcO ogNrOppNg oOgmNgCp a ptNgO tN Tn tcO rNoeOp Nm T ez tcO rarcOp
4OrNCO ezrNzpeptOzt3 A SNaI 42 tcO NtcOg ogNrOppNgp yeSS zNt gOtugz tcO SatOpt -aSuO3
6OoOzIez1 Nz tcO COCNg2 uoIatO oNSer2 upOI ez tcO rarcOn tcO Caez COCNg2 Ca2 aSpN
4O ezrNzpeptOzt yetc gOpoOrt tN tcO rarcO3 .cep ep pcNyz ez me13 wKRwK3 A ptNgO tN T 9Nm
tcO -aSuO Nm wG–E eztN tcO rarcO Nm ogNrOppNg l
w uoIatOp COCNg2 tN tcO zOy -aSuO ez a
ygetO ) tcgNu1c oNSer23 A ygetOR tcgNu1c oNSer2 Caeztaezp rNzpeptOzr2 4OtyOOz COCNg2
azI tcO Nge1ezatez1 rarcOn 4ut tcO NtcOg rarcOp agO ezrNzpeptOzt pezrO tcO2 pteSS cNSI tcO
NSI -aSuO3 Yz a ygetO ) 4arF oNSer2n Caez COCNg2 ep zNt uoIatOI at tcO teCO Nm tcO ptNgO3
.cO rNoeOp ez tcO NtcOg tyN rarcOp azI Caez COCNg2 ep ezrNzpeptOzt3 sOCNg2 ep
uoIatOI O-OztuaSS2 ycOz tcO CNIemeOI Iata ez tcO rarcO agO rNoeOI 4arF eztN COCNg23

AzNtcOg rNzme1ugateNz tcat Ca2 raupO rNzpeptOzr2 ogN4SOCp ep a IegOrt COCNg2
arrOpp 96sAE arte-et2 ez rNzZuzrteNz yetc az Yfl rNzzOrtOI tN tcO p2ptOC 4up3 Yz tcO
rapO Nm ezoutn tcO 6sA Ca2 CNIem2 SNrateNzp ez Caez COCNg2 tcat aSpN gOpeIO ez rarcO
yetcNut uoIatez1 tcO rarcO3 6ugez1 a 6sA Nutoutn COCNg2 SNrateNzp Ca2 4O gOaI

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

Cprnmpg ypPgompgdsMo pMgrmnig ypg:o:ypg+ypvgdtevEg ypg+me pgCo:1gsnhe:POgRDwg3gCotpMg
ipinmPg ev:nypmpv:pg:ovg CpgnTpmkg:nipgCPgio1evEg ypgRw-gog som e:esov gevg ypg:o:ypg
:nypmpv gtnhd envg yo getgoMns pMgevg ypgtPt piOgg

Solutions to the Cache Coherence Problem
lomendtg t:ypiptg yoTpg Cppvg smnsntpMg ng tnhTpg ypg :o:ypg :nypmpv:pg smnChpig evg
tyompMg ipinmPg idh esmn:pttnmtOg .pg Met:dttg tnipg nrg yptpg t:ypiptg CmeprhPg ypmpOg Dppg
mprpmpv:ptg<govMg:CgrmnginmpgMp oehpMgMet:dttenvtOgg
g
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tyompMg:o:ypgipinmPgottn:eo pMg+e ygioevgipinmPOgfT pmPgMo ogo::pttgetgioMpg ng ypg
tyompMg :o:ypOg xyetg ip ynMg Tenho ptg ypg smev:eshpg nrg :hntpvpttg nrg a-.g ng :o:ypg ovMg
ev:mpotptg ypgoTpmoEpgipinmPgo::pttg eipOgRvgprrp: tcg yetgt:ypipgtnhTptg ypgsmnChpigCPg
oTneMevEge Ogg
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smn:pttnmOgwvpgt:ypipg yo gyotgCppvgdtpMgohhn+tgnvhPgvnvktyompMgovMgmpoMgnvhPgMo og
ngCpgt nmpMgevg:o:yptOgDd:yge pitgompg:ohhpMg:o:ypoChpOgDyompMg+me oChpgMo ogompgvnvk
:o:ypoChpOg xypg :nisehpmg idt g oEg Mo og otg pe ypmg :o:ypoChpg nmg vnvk:o:ypoChpcg ovMg ypg
tPt pigyomM+ompgio1ptgtdmpg yo gnvhPg:o:ypoChpgMo o gompgt nmpMgevg:o:yptOgxypgvnvk
:o:ypoChpgMo ogmpioevgipinmPOgxyetgip ynMgmpt me: tg ypg PspgnrgMo ogt nmpMgevg:o:yptg
ovMgev mnMd:ptgovgpA mogtnr +ompgnTpmypoMg yo gioPgMpEmoMpgspmrnmiov:pOgg
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yo gpishnPtgogcentralized global table evge tg:nisehpmOgxypgt o dtgnrgipinmPgChn:1tgetg
t nmpMg evg ypg :pv mohg EhnCohg oChpOg fo:yg Chn:1g etg eMpv erepMgread-onlyg /Lw0g nmgread and
writeg /L.0Og uhhg :o:yptg :ovg yoTpg :nseptg nrg Chn:1g eMpv erepMg otg LwOg wvhPg nvpg :o:ypg :ovg
yoTpg og :nsPg nrg ovg L.g Chn:1Og xydtg erg ypg Mo og ompg dsMo pMg evg ypg :o:ypg +e yg ovg L.g
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tnr +ompg ovMg yomM+ompg nmg CPg ipovtg nrg yomM+ompknvhPgt:ypiptOg xypg +ng ip ynMtg
ipv envpMg smpTendthPg dtpg tnr +ompkCotpMg smn:pMdmptg yo g mpGdempg ypg oCehe Pg ng oEg
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:o:yptg o  o:ypMg ng ypg Cdtg :nvt ov hPg inve nmg ypg vp +nm1g rnmg sntteChpg +me pg
nspmo envtOg/pspvMevEgnvg ypgip ynMgdtpMcg ypPgidt g ypvgpe ypmgdsMo pgnmgevToheMo pg
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o: envg etg mprpmmpMg ng otg ogsnoopy cache controller.g xyetg etg Cote:ohhPg og yomM+ompg dve g
MpteEvpMg ng ioev oevg og Cdtk+o :yevEg ip:yovetig nTpmgohhg ypg :o:yptg o  o:ypMg ng ypg
CdtOg
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Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

iageNup prcOCOp ca-O 4OOz ogNoNpOI tN pNS-O tcO rarcO rNcOgOzrO ogN4SOC 42 COazp Nm
pzNNo2 rarcO ogNtNrNS3 .cO peCoSOpt COtcNI ep tN aINot ygetORtcgNu1c oNSer2 azI upO
tcO mNSSNyez1 ogNrOIugO3 ASS tcO pzNNo2 rNztgNSSOgp yatrc tcO 4up mNg COCNg2 ptNgO
NoOgateNzp3 5cOz a yNgI ez a rarcO ep uoIatOI 42 ygetez1 eztN etn tcO rNggOpoNzIez1
SNrateNz ez Caez COCNg2 ep aSpN uoIatOI3 .cO SNraS pzNNo2 rNztgNSSOgp ez aSS NtcOg
rarcOp rcOrF tcO COCNg2 tN IOtOgCezO em tcO2 ca-O a rNo2 Nm tcO yNgI tcat cap 4OOz
N-OgygettOz3 Ym a rNo2 aSgOaI2 OBeptp ez a gOCNtO rarcOn tcat SNrateNz ep CagFOI ez-aSeI3
POraupO aSS rarcOp pzNNo Nz aSS 4up ygetOpn ycOzO-Og a yNgI ep ygettOzn tcO zOt OmmOrt ep
tN uoIatO et ez tcO Nge1ezaS rarcO azI Caez COCNg2 azI gOCN-O et mgNC aSS NtcOg rarcOp3
Ym aS pNCO mutugO teCO a ogNrOppNg arrOppOp tcO ez-aSeI etOC mgNC etp rarcOn tcO gOpoNzpO
ep O/ue-aSOzt tN a rarcO Ceppn azI tcO uoIatOI etOC ep tgazpmOggOI mgNC Caez COCNg23
Yz tcep ya2n ezrNzpeptOzt -OgpeNzp agO ogO-OztOI3

X = 52
X = 52 X = 52 X = 52
P1 P3 P2
Caches
Processors
Bus
Main Memory

Paper Name: Computer Organization and Architecture

8e1ugO :arcO rNzme1ugateNzp amtOg a ptNgO tN T 42 ogNrOppNg l 13

9aE 5etc ygetORtcgNu1c rarcO oNSer2

X =120
X = 120 X = 52 X = 52
P1 P3 P2
Caches
Processors
Bus
Main Memory
X = 52
X = 120 X = 52 X = 52
P1 P3 P2
Caches
Processors
Bus
Main Memory

Computer organisation -morris mano

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