Concepts in poultry feeding

The objective of a defined feeding management program is to supply a range of balanced diets that satisfy the nutrient requirements at all stages of development & that optimize efficiency and profitability without compromising bird welfare or the environment.

1. Concepts in poultry feeding procedures

2. Types of rearing chickens Intensive Semi-intensive Extensive

3. Feeding management Objective The objective of a defined feeding management program is to supply a range of balanced diets that satisfy the nutrient requirements at all stages of development & that optimize efficiency and profitability without compromising bird welfare or the environment .

4. In Nutrition, the Three Most Expensive Nutrients are: 1.Energy 2.Amino Acids (protein) 3.Available Phosphorus

5. Nutrients in feed

6. Energy Expressed as calorie (cal) or joule. One kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.184 kilojoules ( kj ) kj = 0.239 kcal Requirements are expressed in terms of Metabolizable Energy

7. Protein Plays imp. Role in Body structural functions Transportation of nutrients and oxygen Catalyst in chemical reactions (enzymes) Immuno -competence (antibodies) Chemical regulation (hormones) Blood clotting, vision Growth and production Regulating acid-base balance

8. Amino acids Amino acids are the building blocks 22 amino acids are in nature and build all plants and animals Plants synthesize all the AA Animals synthesize only 12, remaining 10 need to be provided in diet and are essential

9. Amino acids Essential Synthesised from limited sources Readily synthesized Arginine Tyrosine Alanine Histidine Cystine Aspartic acid Isoleucine Hydroxylysine Aspargine Leucine Glutamic acid Lysine Glutamine Methionine Hydroxyproline Phenylalanine Glycine Threonine Serine Tryptophan Proline Valine

10. Limiting Amino Acids Normally deficient in practical diets Methionine – 1 st limiting AA in broilers Threonine – 3 rd limiting AA for broilers & 1 st Limiting AA in starting egg-type pullets. Critical Amino Acids Normally deficient & necessary for protein synthesis initiation Lysine, methionine , meth+cystine , tryptophan, threonine , arginine , isoleucine

11. Protein Ideal protein concept - precision protein nutrition to minimize the loss of N Digestible amino acid values – permits higher levels of cheaper, alternative protein sources decrease nitrogen excretion by the bird

12. Energy sources Protein sources Mineral supplements Vitamin supplements Feed additives

13. Energy supplements Constitute 60-70% of feed Play an imp. role in cost effective feed formulation and providing bulk. Divided into high energy and low energy supplements High energy suppl. Maize, wheat, broken rice, sorghum, fats and oils Low energy suppl. Pearl millet, finger millet & other small millets, rice polish or bran, DORB, wheat bran, molasses, tapioca flour, etc . Maize – most popular, can be replaced partially or even completely

14. Nutrients from different cereal sources Ingredient Energy (Kcal /kg) Protein (%) Linoleic acid(%) Maize 3312 8.6 2.17 M.Gluten 3237 40 0.88 Gluten feed 2839 10 Jowar 3103 10.4 0.97 Bajra 3200 105 0.74 Ragi 2998 6.4 - Korra 2917 9.3 0.84 1.0

15. Soyabean meal (excellent protein source, only meth. is deficient, trypsin inhibitors) Undercooking – urease test Overcooking – solubility in 2% KOH (>85% undercooking, <70% overcooking) Mustard meal Glucosinalates , erucic acid, goitrogen Maize gluten meal Byproduct, good protein content and quality (deficient in lysine) Cotton seed meal Gossypol (1%, of which free gossypol will be 0.1%) Protein sources

16. Ground nut meal Aflatoxin prone, good CP content Sesame meal Good in meth., deficient in lysine, high phytates Sunflower meal Low in ME, deficient in lysine, threonine Pelleting improves Palm kernel meal Low in CP (15-18%), poor AA dig., high in fibre , low ME, enzymes may help Others – guar meal, karanja cake, mahua cake, ambadi cake etc.

17. SFC Guar meal GNC SBM

18. Animal proteins Meat meal & meat cum bone meal (for every 1 ton meat produced for human consumption, 300kg discarded, out of which 200kg is converted to meal) CP – 50%, Ca 8%, P 4% Fish & fish meal Hatchery by product meal Poultry by product meal

19. DL methionine 100 L-lysine 100 L-lysine HCl 79 L- arginine 100 L- arginine HCl 83 L-tryptophan 100 L- threonine 100 Glycine 100 Methionine hydroxy analogue* 88 * α keto acid – converted to active aa by transamination – NH2 added Potency of synthetic amino acids

20. Minerals S upplemented as ready-made mineral mixture or through specific mineral supplements Mineral mixture is available commercially or can be compounded Specific mineral supplements are also added. C alcium carbonate/oyster shell/ stone grit/ marble chips are used as sources of Ca DCP or MCP - source of Ca and Av.P Common salt - source of sodium and chlorine Trace minerals (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Se, I and sometimes Cr) - trace mineral premix Organic trace minerals

21. Vitamins Supplemented either through premixes or through individual vitamins Two types of premixes in the market Vit . A, D 3 , K and riboflavin (B 2 ) - 5.0 to 15 g /q B-complex, vit . E and vit . C - 7.5-25 g/q Choline chl. (100, 60 or 50% premix)

22. Feed Additives Aimed at preventing/minimizing the infectious agents’ loads, preventing mycotoxins , augmenting nutrient digestibility etc. Antibiotic compounds Probiotics (live bacterial and yeast strains ) Prebiotics ( galacto-oligo-saccharides , fructo-oligo-saccharides , mannan-oligo-saccharides , lactose derivatives etc.)

23. Feed Enzymes Improve nutrient utilization Non-starch polysaccharidases ( cellulases , pectinases , hemicellulases , arabinoxylanases and beta glucanases ) release nutrients trapped in high fibrous diets Protease, amylase Microbial phytase - increases availability of phytate -bound P, Ca, Zn, Cu, CP and amino acids.

24. Coccidiostat Toxin binders or adsorbents activated charcoal, bentonites , zeolites , diatomaceous earth, glucomannan , live yeast, etc. Antioxidants, liver tonics, immunostimulants etc.

25. Nutrient Requirements NRC, 1994, BIS 1992 NRC std . may not be appropriate - management practices, genetic makeup, environmental temp., metabolic and behavioral characteristics, feedstuff qualities and dietary variables

26. ME REQUIREMENT FOR BROILERS ( Leeson and Summers, 2001) NEm = 83 x b.wt. 0.75 MEm = NEm (82% of ME is NE) 0.82 MEa = MEm x 0.5 ME growth = (Targeted wt. gain x 0.18 * x 4.0 ** ) + (Targeted wt. gain x 0.15 # x 9.0 $ ) * 18% CP ** 4 kcal/g # 15% fat $ 9 kcal/g ME required, kcal/day = MEm + MEa + ME growth / no. of days in the period

27. Example Body wt. of bird at start = 0.25 kg Metabolic wt. (W 0.75 ) = 0.354 kg Wt gain anticipated = 120g Period in which the gain is anticipated = 7 days MEm = 83 x 0.354 = 35.8 0.82 MEa = MEm x 0.5 = 35.8 x 0.5 = 17.9 MEgrowth = (120 x 0.18 x 4.0) + (120 x 0.15 x 9.0) = 86 + 162 = 248 MEgrowth /day = 248/7 = 35.4 ME required/day = 35.8 + 17.9 + 35.4 = 89.1 kcal

28. Protein reqt . Growth Body tissue contain 18% CP Dietary protein utilization is 61% Daily gain (g) x 0.18 0.61 Maintenance Endogenous N loss is 250mg/kg body wt. 250 x 6.25 = 1600mg protein/kg b wt./day 1.6g = 2.6g 0.61

29. Feathers 7% of body wt. CP content – 82% 0.07 x daily gain in Bwt (g) x 0.82 0.61 Total protein reqt . = growth + maint . + feathers

30. Feeding program for broiler 1.Maximum growth and feed conversion 2.Reduced cost formulation 3.Maximizing meat production Cobb (2003) Separate feeding Male and female are grown separately There is different requirement between sex especially amino acids Increase profitability

31. Early Feeding Early access to feed: •Stimulation of intestinal motility ( Noy and Sklan , 1998) •Increased body and organ growth •Improved livability •Immune function (Dibner et al., 1998) •Carcass yields ( Noy and Sklan , 1999) Early feed deprivation: •Shorter villi and microvilli ( Uni , 1999) •Reduced muscle growth (Vieira and Moran, 1999) •Reduced lymphocyte colonization (Dibner et al., 1998; Bar Shira et al, 2005)

32. Potential Benefits of Enzyme Supplementation Increase feed efficiency •Decrease gut maintenance cost •Reduction in endogenous flow and enzyme production •Improve performance •Improve litter quality •Improve bird uniformity •May also lead to reductions in pathogenic microflora and improvements in bird health and welfare •Decrease production costs!!!

33. Layers Reared in 3 phases viz. starter (0-8 weeks of age), grower (8-20 weeks of age) and layer (20 weeks or above) Pre-lay phase (17/18 – 20 weeks) Laying Phase I – 20-42 wks (Increase in body size, egg prodn . & egg wt.) Phase II – 42-72 wks (Minimal wt. gain, egg prodn . decreases)

34. A laying hen showing 90% egg prodn . requires 16-18 g of protein and 285 to 290 kcal ME per day. Meeting Ca requirement is imp. – Ca is increased to about 2% of diet at onset of prodn . WL hens producing 90% eggs require daily about 3.8 to 4.2 g of calcium.

35. Protein Requirement for Layers Maintenance 2.8g/kg^0.75 3.69 Gain 1g/day 0.17 Egg mass 51.3g/day 6.57 Feathers 0.12 Total 9.77 Protein requirement 17.41g/d (Dig coeff 0.70, BV 0.85) B.Wt 1.35kgs HD egg 95% Egg Wt 54g

36. Changing Scenario:- Nutrient Requirements of Layers (Phase1 Leeson 2009) (2.5) (Mcal/kg) (2.84) (2.8) (2.89)

37. Comparison of the feed cost /egg over income Year Average Egg cost ` . Average Feed cost ` /kg Feed cost Paise/egg Percentage of feed cost/egg income Aug-2004 1.3 5.85 73.1 56 Aug-2009 2.09 11.87 148.4 73 Aug-2010 2.41 14.05 175.6 73 Aug-2012 2.86 20.12 2.52 0.88

38. Ideal Amino Acid Recommendations for laying hens Source mg/d Jais et al.,1995 Leeson and Summers 2005 Rostagno, 2005 Bregendahl et al.,2008 Coon and Zang 1999 Namakkal digestible total digestible digestible digestible digestible Lysine 100 100 100 100 100 100 Methionine 44 51 50 47 49 50 M+C -- 88 91 94 81 93 Threonine 74 80 66 77 73 76 Tryptophan 16 21 23 22 20 23 Arginine 82 103 100 -- 130 120 Iso leucine 76 79 83 79 86 76 Valine 64 89 90 93 102 105 Dig lys =670 to 690mg/d

39. Backyard poultry – Feeding strategies Scavenging Nursery rearing Intensive upto 6-8 wks Subsequently Semi-scavenging Intensive farming

40. Rural poultry – nursery rearing Chicks under rural poultry with improved varieties have no nursing mother Need supplementary heating and protection Nursery rearing till 6-8 wks under confinement ideal To be fed balanced feed

41. Backyard poultry – Feeding strategies Fallen cereal grains, grass seeds, oilseeds, insects, earthworms, green tender leaves/grasses, small fishes, snails, aquatic weeds, etc. Occasionally home-grown concentrates like cereal grains, rice polish, rice bran, wheat bran, thrashed fishes/snails and kitchen waste/garbage Availability of feeds however varies, and depends upon season, number of birds in an area and cropping pattern of that area. Feed availability is more during rainy season and rabi season after harvesting of crops. Scavenging (family / backyard poultry) – low inputs

42. Birds are allowed to scavenge along with provision of supplementary feeds Semi-intensive production

43. Intensive production system More or less similar to commercial production system

44. Supplementary Feeding

45. Feed Formulation Mathematical calculation to prepare a balanced ration Points to be considered Requirement of nutrients Nutrient composition Maximum effective/safe levels of inclusion Availability and cost

46. Requirement of nutrients Metabolizable energy Protein and amino acids (lysine, methionine , methionine + cysteine , threonine ) Calcium, available P Electrolyte balance (sodium, chlorine) Trace min. Zn, Mn , Fe, Cu, Se Vitamins - A, D 3 , E, riboflavin etc.

47. Methods of feed formulation Algebric equation used when two mixtures are to be combined for arriving at required nutrient concentration - cereal and protein concentrates Pearson square Simple procedure originally devised to blend milk products to a known fat percentage, and can be used for diet formulation too

48. Hit and trial method Traditional way of feed formulation and still widely used by professionals Amount of feed ingredients is changed so as to arrive at required nutrient levels in the feed For this, the ingredients are arbitrarily altered and the nutrient concentration is calculated, which is continued till the desired nutrient level is achieved. Computer applications - MS Excel Ex.2

49. Least cost formulation Is a feed formula that is both nutritionally-complete (within limits) and with a minimum ingredient cost (within limits) Linear-programming Numerous computer software - Ecomix , Winfeed , Myfeed , FeedMu , Feedsoft , Autofeed , Optimix etc.

50. Conclusions Understand the nutritional needs of bird Intensive system – balanced diet with low cost materials Reduce cost of broiler feed and feeding •Nutrients, Formulation, Precise Feeding •Control environments to reduce stress & diseases Recommendations: 1.Adopt new technology 2.Benchmark to the leading broiler 3.Always improve Efficiency

51. Conclusions The nutrient requirements have to be regularly updated for precision and economical feeding The additive effects of the additive’s should be quantified in terms of nutrient values to help in formulation The efficiency of the digestion is being constantly targeted and upgraded The metabolism which is the major waster should be targeted hence future works should be at the cellular level