Contemporary SociaI Issues Module 2 notes

notes

1. Module 2: Issues of migration, globalization and technology

2. Cultural psychology Cultural psychology is the study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members. The focus is on finding relationships between a culture and the psychological characteristics of people living in the culture, with the corresponding view that psychological processes derive from the interplay between the person and his or her culture ( Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Cultural psychologists tend to study cultures quite different from their own, are interested in natural (non-contrived) settings and situations, and focus on context (i.e., they are less likely to be interested in psychological principles independent of the context in which they arise) The methods of cultural psychologists are often ethnographic in nature —meaning they involve extensive observation and rich description of a culture

3. Kagitçibas and Berry (1989) defined cross-cultural psychology as the “study of similarities and differences in individual psychological and social functioning in various cultures and ethnic groups” Cross-cultural psychologists originally set out to seek universal principles that would apply across cultures Cross-cultural psychologists often collect data across multiple cultures, comparing and contrasting effects in an effort to produce knowledge about phenomena that are universal and those that are culture specific ( Triandis , 2000), and attempting to determine how different cultures influence behavior

4. Many cross-cultural psychologists choose to focus on one of two approaches: In the Etic approach , the researcher looks at the research field objectively from a distance and tries to find similarities and differences. Emic approach can be defined as the perspective in which the researcher gains the insider’s point of view . Cross-cultural psychologists also study something known as ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism refers to a tendency to use your own culture as the standard by which to judge and evaluate other cultures. In other words, taking an ethnocentric point of view means using your understanding of your own culture to gauge what is "normal." This can lead to biases and a tendency to view cultural differences as abnormal or in a negative light. It can also make it difficult to see how your own cultural background influences your behaviors.

5. Dynamics of cultural contact Culture refers to many characteristics of a group of people, including attitudes, behaviors, customs, and values that are transmitted from one generation to the next. We usually take our own culture for granted until some event makes us realize that our beliefs about the world and how to behave in it are not shared by every person. That event exposes us to another culture. Culture contact, or contact between peoples with different cultures, usually leads to change in both systems. The effects of culture contact are generally characterized under the rubric of acculturation , a term encompassing the changes in artifacts, customs, and beliefs that result from cross-cultural interaction. The acculturation process is influenced by: reason for migration, motivation, age, education, cultural distance, attitude of host culture, racism, generation, language, and social support. Voluntary acculturation , often referred to as incorporation or amalgamation, involves the free borrowing of traits or ideas from another culture. Forced acculturation can also occur, as when one group is conquered by another and must abide by the stronger group’s customs.

6. Acculturation stress experienced by NRIs and unskilled workers It is a challenge to move from one culture to another. In the new culture, we are exposed to new values, beliefs and behaviors and we are changed by them. Beliefs we hold are possibly not taken for granted anymore. Who we are may be questioned. What is important to us may not seem so important anymore. Our behaviors may change. We have emotional reactions to the cultural change. The stress that results from the cultural change is called acculturation stress . This stress can be positive (the person enjoys being in a new environment and looks forward to learning and adapting) and negative (the person is overwhelmed by all the changes). This form of stress also may be triggered by perceived feelings of inferiority, “otherness,” discrimination, language barriers, undocumented immigration status, or poverty. Acculturative stress contributes to mental health problems (e.g., depression, anxiety).

7. Globalization - After centuries of technological progress and advances in international cooperation, the world is more connected than ever. Globalization is a term used to describe the increasing connectedness and interdependence of world cultures and economies. Globalization is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information. The wide-ranging effects of globalization are complex and politically charged. As with major technological advances, globalization benefits society as a whole, while harming certain groups.

8. The process of acculturation When immigrating to a new country there can be dramatic changes in language, culture, food, institutions and religion which challenge the immigrant and he or she is required to interpret, accept or reject these changes. The process where groups or individuals with different cultural backgrounds come into first-hand contact by influencing each other's culture has been termed acculturation. Berry (1 990) distinguishes acculturation on the group level (ecological, cultural, social and institutional) from the individual level. At the individual level acculturation refers to psychological changes in behaviour and cognitions. According to Berry's ecological framework (Berry, 1 994), the individual and the context are interactive. People have adapted in an ecological context in both their biological and their cultural identity. In this adaptation, the individual responds to ecological influences which may result from direct contact with others or be mediated by other influences in the new context. Adaptation results in a new identity for the migrating person, and this defines a new ecological framework.

9. Berry (1990) has developed a two-dimensional model of acculturation in pluralistic societies with four different options that result from separate questions which are answered either positively or negatively: is it desirable to remain in one's heritage culture? And (2) is it desirable to maintain positive contact with other groups in the new society? When these two questions are posed simultaneously, a combination of four possible varieties of acculturation strategies results: The assimilation strategy implies that the individual rejects his or her original culture and seeks to become a member of the new culture. This strategy of developing a new cultural identity is captured by the idealized concept of the 'melting pot’; integration represents an option in which the individual wants both to maintain the original culture and also to learn about the new culture; separation implies that the individual wants to maintain his or her original culture and avoid the new culture;

10. (4) marginalization implies that the individual rejects both the original and the new culture. Of course, acculturation is not a unidirectional process. The integration strategy, for example, can only be pursued in societies which have favorable policy conditions and where certain social psychological preconditions are established such as a widespread acceptance of cultural diversity and low levels of ethnocentrism and discrimination. When individuals or groups want to pursue closer contact with the dominant culture, but are rejected by the latter, segregation or exclusion results.

11. Acculturation Strategies Acculturation strategies have been shown to have a significant relationship with positive adaptation . Adaptation, in terms of acculturation, is the long term ways in which can change their lives and settle down in a more or less satisfactory existence. It is more or less because adaptation can be arranged from very positive to very negative in the way of living in the new cultural setting. There are four specific acculturation strategies , with which an immigrant can choose to adapt according to John Berry (1997). These include: integration, marginalization, assimilation, and separation. The acculturation strategy, which is usually most successful for positive adaptation is integration. Marginalization is the least successful, and assimilation and separation are intermediate.

12. Integration Integration occurs when individuals are able to adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their culture of origin Although there are numerous interpretations on why in the integration style is the most adaptive, one notion is that it integrates many protective factors. The two main protective factors include a willingness for accommodation (e.g., having two social support systems, one for the host and original culture), and a flexibility in personality Integration leads to, and is often synonymous with biculturalism.

13. Marginalisation Marginalization occurs when individuals reject both their culture of origin and the dominant host culture. The definition of marginalization is the process of making a group or class of people less important or relegated to a secondary position. When one class of people is grouped together as second class citizens, this is an example of marginalization. Separation Separation also involves shedding of the host culture. S eparation occurs when individuals reject the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin. Separation is often facilitated by immigration to ethnic enclaves. People who value their heritage culture and do not want to learn about the new culture

14. Assimilation, in anthropology and sociology, the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnic heritage are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society. The process of assimilating involves taking on the traits of the dominant culture to such a degree that the assimilating group becomes socially indistinguishable from other members of the society. As such , assimilation is the most extreme form of acculturation . The forced assimilation of indigenous peoples was particularly common in the European colonial empires of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Forced assimilation is rarely successful, and it generally has enduring negative consequences for the recipient culture. Voluntary assimilation has also been prevalent in the historical record. One such case dates to the Spanish Inquisition of the late 14th and 15th centuries, when many Muslims and Jews responded to religious persecution by voluntarily converting to Roman Catholicism. Known as Moriscos and Marranos, respectively, they secretly continued to practice their original religions.

15. There are many studies which focus on the psychological correlates linked with the different strategies of acculturation. Those who feel marginalized or maintain a separation mode experience higher levels of conflict than those who seek integration and intermediate levels or those who want assimilation. In addition, those who integrate report higher levels of general well-being than assimilating individuals. Similarly, Third World immigrant youth in Norway (Sam & Berry, 1 995) and immigrants to Germany (Schmitz, 1 992) show that integration seems to be the most effective strategy in terms of health and well-being. Individual factors existing prior to migration such as age, gender and education and group factors such as cultural orientation may have profound influences on the degree of adaptation. Each of these factors is likely to moderate or affect the acculturation process (see Berry & Kim, 1 988). When acculturation begins early, the process is likely to be smoother than when relatively older persons move.

16. There is substantial evidence that migrant women have poorer mental health than migrant men. Distance between cultural orientations may have an influence; the greater the cultural differences, the less positive is the adaptation. Higher education and knowledge of the new language and culture appear to be associated with positive adaptation: related to education is one's place in the social and economic world. Social changes mean disrupted communities and loss of social support. A common experience for migrants is a combination of status loss and limited status mobility. An immigrant's 'entry status' in the host society is frequently lower than his or her 'departure status' in the society of origin

17. Unit 2: Relevance of cultural identity to self-concept Self-concept is an individual's knowledge of who he or she is. According to Carl Rogers, self-concept has three components: self-image self-esteem ideal self Self-concept is active, dynamic, and malleable. It can be influenced by social situations and even one's own motivation for seeking self-knowledge. Self-concept begins to develop in early childhood. This process continues throughout the lifespan. However, it is between early childhood and adolescence that self-concept experiences the most growth. Cultural identity is the identity or feeling of belonging to a group. It is part of a person's self-conception and self-perception and is related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class, generation, locality or any kind of social group that has its own distinct culture.

18. Cultural identity theory- Cultural identity refers to a person's sense of belonging to a particular culture or group. This process involves learning about and accepting traditions, heritage , language, religion, ancestry, aesthetics, thinking patterns, and social structures of a culture. Normally, people internalize the beliefs, values, norms, and social practices of their culture and identify themselves with that culture. The culture becomes a part of their self-concept . The theory suggests a relationship between inter-cultural competence and cultural identity. The theory deals with the study into how individuals use communicative processes to construct and negotiate their cultural group identities and relationships in particular contexts. According to the theory, culture is one of the many identities expressed in communication encounters. Cultural identity becomes evident through social comparison. 

19.  Speakers compare the status position of their own groups to those of other groups . An individual’s message during interaction will contain multiple cultural identities such as nationalist, racist, ethnic, class related, sex, gender based, political and religious. Because individuals enact multiple identities all voices within a group do not speak in the same way or have the same recognition by others . Early versions of the theory focused on an interpretative theoretical perspective (cultural identity processes were described not critiqued), social construction and individual discursive accounts of experience. Recent years have seen the shift to increased critical perspective–attention to contextual structure, ideologies and status hierarchy.

20. Properties of Cultural Identity According to Jane Collier and Milt Thomas , ethnography of communication and social construction define properties of cultural identity and how a member of a cultural group expresses their identity. Properties of cultural identity are: Avowal and Ascription Avowal and ascription show what constructs cultural identity. Avowal is the expression of views on cultural identity and self-identification with the group. Ascription is how people see and perceive you through a frame of reference like stereotyping . Modes of Expression There are several modes of expressions that explains someone’s culture. These modes of expression might be

21. last name festivals celebrated religious norms and beliefs, etc. People use these modes to affirm to a group and have shared identity. There can be in-group differences and out-group similarities too. 3. Individual, Relational and Communal Identity Individual, relational and communal identity are the components of cultural identity. They describe how an individual looks at himself and relates to any group . They also describes how interpersonal communication between members create an identity of a group. They build collective practices. 4. Enduring and Changing Aspects of Identity Some aspects of culture are less likely to change in a long time while some others change fast. It happens due to the need for change and irrelevancy of the cultural practices that make it inapplicable to group members.

22. 5. Affective, Cognitive and Behavioral Aspects People have emotional attachment with their culture. This creates a particular mindset relating to their culture. Their behavior depends on the way that their mind has been set. 6. Content and Relationship Levels People communicate to exchange messages. People interpret these messages based on their knowledge from past experiences. The experiences are formed according to their culture, the relationship and trust they share, etc. 7. Salience or Prominence People sometimes show their belonging to any culture and sometimes they don’t. The intensity of the connection shown in a particular situation reveals prominence and importance of their culture to others. People are likely to feel connected with their culture around people from different cultures.

23. Examples of Cultural Identity Theory An Asian who is living in America, meets another person from Asia, they will identify with each other. They know that they have come from similar culture, so they feel a sense of belongingness to each other. They feel closer as they share more similar cultural traits. People can also identify themselves with alternative cultural groups like groups of drug users. For those people, cultural identity is based on their interests, actions and drug use behavior. They share their culture and are comfortable with people belonging to it.

24. How Cross-Cultural Psychology Differs From Other Branches of Psychology? How is Cross-Culture Psychology Beneficial for Counselors? Cross-culture psychology research is extremely useful for counseling psychologists who work with diverse patients. For example, independence and assertiveness are considered to be highly desirable traits. Therefore, a counseling psychologist in America might encourage a timid patient with self-esteem issues to become more sociable and outspoken. However, harmoniously introverted behavior is considered to be model behavior in China, where students are commonly encouraged to listen more than they speak and sacrifice their self-interest in favor of the group. As a result, an American psychologist who encourages a young Chinese born patient to challenge unfair parental controls may face criticism for being ignorant and insensitive. In view of this, cross-culture research helps counseling psychologists better understand and help their patients.

25. UNIT 3 : MIGRATION Migration – the movement of a person from one location to another- can be understood to take many forms, including relatively permanent change of residence from one city or rural area to another, move from one neighbourhood to another within the same city (residential mobility), temporary moves. Migration Psychology- Study of individual behaviour with respect to movement across space. Internal migration- within defined social structure. External migration - people cross country boundaries. ( Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not natives or where they do not possess citizenship in order to settle or reside there)

26. Causes of migration- push (from place of origin) and pull factors (attraction to destination) These reasons can be put into two broad categories : ( i ) push factor , these cause people to leave their place of residence or origin; and (ii) pull factors , which attract the people from different places. Poverty alleviation/ employment opportunities Higher education- esp in UP, Bihar, Rajasthan, MP, Odisha Stability ( political conflict, wars) natural disasters( flood, storms, earthquakes, tsunamis) Prejudice, Marriage (for women- 70%, men 2.4%) Economic benefit (higher wages, more opportunities, flexible hours) 50% men interstate, 5% women interstate Higher living standard,(city life, better facilities and comfort)

27. Consequences of Migration Consequences can be observed in economic, social, cultural, political and demographic terms. Economic Consequences Demographic Consequences Migration leads to the redistribution of the population within a country. Rural urban migration is one of the important factors contributing to the population growth of cities. Age and skill selective out migration from the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic structure. Social Consequences Migrants act as agents of social change . The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning, girl’s education, etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them. Migration leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures. It has positive contribution such as evolution of composite culture and breaking through the narrow considerations and widens up the mental horizon of the people at large.

28. But it also has serious negative consequences such as anonymity, which creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals. Continued feeling of dejection may motivate people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse. Environmental Consequences Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure on the existing social and physical infrastructure in the urban areas. This ultimately leads to unplanned growth of urban settlement and formation of slums shanty colonies . Apart from this, due to over-exploitation of natural resources , cities are facing the acute problem of depletion of ground water, air pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.

29. Others Migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of women directly or indirectly . In the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as well mental pressure on the women. Migration of ‘women’ either for education or employment enhances their autonomy and role in the economy but also increases their vulnerability . If remittances are the major benefits of migration from the point of view of the source region, the loss of human resources particularly highly skilled people is the most serious cost. The market for advanced skills has become truly a global market and the most dynamic industrial economies are admitting and recruiting significant proportions of the highly trained professionals from poor regions. Consequently, the existing underdevelopment in the source region gets reinforced

30. Unit 4: Communication devices: The use and abuse of social networking/ technology. Its role in social life & politics: special reference to communal issues A communication device is a hardware device capable of transmitting an analog or digital signal over them telephone, other communication wire, or wirelessly. S ocial networking refers to  the use of internet-based social media sites to stay connected with friends, family, colleagues, or customers . Social networking can have a social purpose, a business purpose, or both, through sites like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Pinterest.

31. What is the purpose of social networking? Social networking fulfills the following four main objectives: Sharing.  Friends or family members who are geographically dispersed can connect remotely and share information, updates, photos and videos. Social networking also enables individuals to meet other people with similar interests or to expand their current social networks. Learning.  Social networks serve as great learning platforms. Consumers can instantly receive breaking news, get updates regarding friends and family, or learn about what's happening in their community. Interacting.  Social networking enhances user interactions by breaking the barriers of time and distance. With cloud-based video communication technologies such as WhatsApp or Instagram Live, people can talk face to face with anyone in the world. Marketing.  Companies may tap into social networking services to enhance brand awareness with the platform's users, improve customer retention and conversion rates, and promote brand and voice identity.

32. What are the different types of social networking? While there are various categories of social networking sites, the six most common types are the following: Social connections.  This is a type of social network where people stay in touch with friends, family members, acquaintances or brands through online profiles and updates, or find new friends through similar interests. Some examples are Facebook, Myspace and  Instagram . Professional connections . Geared toward professionals, these social networks are designed for business relationships. These sites can be used to make new professional contacts, enhance existing business connections and explore job opportunities, for example. They may include a general forum where professionals can connect with co-workers or offer an exclusive platform based on specific occupations or interest levels. Some examples are  LinkedIn , Microsoft  Yammer  and  Microsoft Viva . Sharing of multimedia.  Various social networks provide video- and photography-sharing services, including YouTube and Flickr. News or informational.  This type of social networking allow users to post news stories, informational or how-to content and can be general purpose or dedicated to a single topic.

33. These social networks include communities of people who are looking for answers to everyday problems and they have much in common with web forums. Fostering a sense of helping others, members provide answers to questions, conduct discussion forums or teach others how to perform various tasks and projects. Popular examples include  Reddit , Stack Overflow or Digg. Communication.  Here, social networks focus on allowing the user to communicate directly with each other in one-on-one or group chats. They have less focus on posts or updates and are like instant messaging apps. Some examples are  WhatsApp , WeChat and  Snapchat . Educational.  Educational social networks offer remote learning, enabling students and teachers to collaborate on school projects, conduct research, and interact through blogs and forums.  Google Classroom , LinkedIn Learning and ePals are popular examples.

34. Advantages Social networking allows individuals to make and stay in contact with family and friends that distance and lost connections would otherwise prohibit. People can also connect with unknown individuals who share the same interests and develop new relationships. Social networking also allows companies to connect with new and existing clients . They can use social media to create, promote, and increase brand awareness. Companies can capitalize on customer reviews and comments that promote products, services, and their brands. The more that customers post about a company, the more valuable the  brand authority can become. This can lead to greater sales and a higher ranking by search engines. Social networking can help establish a brand as legitimate, credible, and trustworthy . Companies may use social networking to demonstrate the quality of their customer service and enrich their relationships with consumers. For example, if a customer complains about a product or service on Twitter,  the company may address the issue immediately, apologize, and take action to make it right.

35. Disadvantages Social networking can facilitate the spread of misinformation about individuals and companies. Due to its online nature, falsehoods can spread like wildfire. This became increasingly prevalent after 2012. One study found that misinformation is 70% more likely than factual information to be shared on Twitter. The detrimental impact of misinformation can create a virtual headache for a company's   public relations   (PR) department. The anonymous aspect of newfound personal relationships requires caution. Building and maintaining a company profile takes hours each week. Costs add up quickly. Businesses need many followers before a social media marketing campaign starts generating a positive  return on investment   (ROI). For example, submitting a post to 15 followers does not have the same effect as submitting the post to 15,000 followers.

36. Mental health issues due to social media usage: One studied emotional effect of social media is ' Facebook depression ', which is a type of depression that affects adolescents who spend too much of their free time engaging with social media sites. This may lead to problems such as reclusiveness which can negatively damage one's health by creating feelings of loneliness and low self-esteem among young people.  Using a phone to look at social media before bed has become a popular trend among teenagers and this has led to a lack of sleep and inability to stay awake during school . Social media applications curate content that encourages users to keep scrolling to the point where they lose track of time. A 2017 study of almost 6,000 adolescent students showed that those who self-reported addiction-like symptoms of social media use were more likely to report low self-esteem and high levels of depressive symptoms .  In a different study conducted in 2007, those who used the most multiple social media platforms (7 to 11) had more than three times the risk of depression and anxiety than people who used the fewest (0 to 2).

37. A second emotional effect is  social media burnout , which is defined by Bo Han as ambivalence, emotional exhaustion, and  depersonalization . Ambivalence refers to a user's confusion about the benefits she can get from using a social media site . Emotional exhaustion refers to the stress a user has when using a social media site. Depersonalization refers to the emotional detachment from a social media site a user experiences. The three burnout factors can all negatively influence the user's social media continuance. This study provides an instrument to measure the burnout a user can experience when his or her social media "friends" are generating an overwhelming amount of useless information (e.g., "what I had for dinner", "where I am now").

38. A third emotional effect is the " fear of missing out " (FOMO), which is defined as the "pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent."  FOMO has been classified by some as a form of social  anxiety .  It is associated with checking updates on friends' activities on social media. Some speculate that checking updates on friends' activities on social media may be associated with negative influences on people's psychological health and well-being because it could contribute to negative mood and depressed feelings . Looking at friends' stories or posts on various social media applications can lead users to feel left out and become upset because they are not having as fun as others. This is a very common issue between teen users of certain apps and it continues to effect their personal well-being.