Content Analysis as a Research Method.pptx

This slide discusses one of the research methods that can be used in qualitative research, the content analysis.

1. CONTENT ANALYSIS AS A RESEARCH METHOD Wan Farah Wani Wan Fakhruddin Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Kuala Lumpur

2. Things to Consider Ask yourself: What do you expect to learn from your research? What form would you like your result to take? Method Selection Heavily influenced by your research question – provides direction and focus in shaping data collection and analysis procedures

3. What is a Document? Document defined Refers to ‘social facts’ which are produced, shared and used in socially organised ways (Atkinson & Coffey, 1997:47) 01 Purpose Examines and interprets data to elicit meaning, gain understanding, develop empirical knowledge (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) 03 Document Analysis Reviews and evaluates documents in a systematic procedure (Bowen, 2009) 02 Types Public records (books, newspapers, magazines) Personal documents (web contents, social media posts, diaries, speeches) Physical evidence (photographs, films) (O’Leary, 2014) 04

4. Rationale? 01 Triangulation Triangulation – ‘the combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon’ (Denzin, 1970:291) Often used in combination with other qualitative research methods. 03 Aim To reduce the impact of potential biases that may exist - can be guarded through triangulation 02 Expectation To draw upon multiple sources (at least two) of evidence – to seek convergence and corroboration through use of different data sources and methods 04 Other Sources Interviews, participant / non-participant observation, physical artefacts (Yin, 1994)

5. Functions of Document Material Facilitate tracking change and development Compare documents to identify changes – to observe possible developments Verify findings / corroborate evidence If evidence is contradictory, further investigation is needed If the findings converge, trustworthiness (credibility) of findings increases Establish background and context Provide background information and historical insight – use data to contextualise data collected from other sources 1 Suggest additional questions to be asked Help to generate new questions / observe situations 2 Provide supplementary data Insights / information derived from documents act as valuable additions to a knowledge base 3 4 5

6. Skimming (Superficial examination) 1 Reading (Thorough examination) 2 Interpreting 3 Content Analysis Thematic Analysis Process of Analysing Documents Combines elements of

7. Six Questions that MUST be addressed in Content Analysis W hich data are analysed? How are the data defined? What are the uses from which they are drawn? What is the context relative to which the data are analysed? What are the boundaries of the analysis? What is to be measured?

8. Content Analysis Who says what, to whom, why, to what extent and with what effect? (Laswell, 1948) Types of content: Manifest – Visible, countable components of the message Latent – Meaning that lies behind the manifest content * Require interpretation but vary in depth and level of abstraction ( Graneheim and Lundman , 2004)

9. Types of Text Written text Oral text Iconic text Audio-visual text Hypertexts Book, papers, newspapers Speech and theatrical performance Drawings, paintings, and icons TV programmes, movies and videos Texts found on the Internet

10. Qualitative and Quantitative Content Analysis Qualitative Focus on counting and measuring Quantitative Focus on interpreting and understanding In both types, you categorise or ‘code’ words, themes and concepts within the texts and analyse results

11. Goals of Content Analysis Revealing differences in communication in different contexts Analysing the consequences of communication content - flow of information or audience responses Finding correlations and patterns in how concepts are communicated 1 Understanding the intentions of an individual, group or institution 2 Identifying propaganda and bias in communication 3 4 5

12. Possible Usage Substantive Form Refers to content What is being said in the message Refers to formal features of a text How it is being said Content Analysis of Advertisement The way in which the benefits of a product are described (substantive features) The way advertisement makes use of headings, different font sizes, placement of graphics, etc. (form features)

13. Uses of Content Analysis Make inferences about the antecedents of a communication Describe and make inferences about characteristics of a communication Make inferences about the effects of a communication

14. Uses of Content Analysis by Purpose, Communication Element and Question Purpose Element Question Use Make inferences about the antecedents of communications Source Who? Author ship analysis Encoding process Why? Analyse traits of individuals Infer cultural aspects & change Provide evaluative evidence

15. Uses of Content Analysis by Purpose, Communication Element and Question Purpose Element Question Use Describe & make inferences about the characteristics of communications Channel How? Analyse techniques of persuasion Analyse style Message What? Describe trends in communication content Relate known characteristics of sources to messages they produce Compare communication content to standards Recipient To whom? Relate known characteristics of audiences to messages produced for them Describe patterns of communication

16. Uses of Content Analysis by Purpose, Communication Element and Question Purpose Element Question Use Make inferences about the consequences of communications Decoding process With what effect? Measure readability Analyse the flow of information Assess responses to communications

17. Questions to Ask How many documents should I look at? Not a matter of quantity, but the quality of documents and evidence they contain 01 What do I do if documents are incomplete? P repare to search for additional, related documents to fill the gap in the data and issues being investigated 02 What is document analysis really about? It is not about lining up excerpts from printed material to convey researcher’s ideas, but a process of evaluating documents to produce empirical knowledge and develop understanding 03 What should I strive for? Objectivity and sensitivity – maintain a balance between both 04

18. Checklist for Analyst to Improve Trustworthiness of Content Analysis Study ( Elo et al., 2014) Phase of Content Analysis Questions to Check Preparation phase Data Collection Method How do I collect the most suitable data for my content analysis? Is this method the best available method to answer the target research question? Should I use either descriptive or semi-structured questions? Self-awareness: What are my skills as a researcher? How do I pre-test my data collection method? Sampling Strategy What is the best sampling method for my study? Who are the best informants for my study? What criteria should be used to select the participants? Is my sample appropriate? Is my data well saturated? Selecting Unit of Analysis What is the unit of analysis? Is the unit of analysis too narrow or too broad?

19. Checklist for Analyst to Improve Trustworthiness of Content Analysis Study ( Elo et al., 2014) Phase of Content Analysis Questions to Check Organisation Phase Categorisation and Abstraction How should the concepts or categories be created? Is there still too many concepts? Is there any overlap between categories? Interpretation What is the degree of interpretation in the analysis? How do I ensure that the data accurately represent the information that the participants provided? Representativeness How do I check the trustworthiness of the analysis process? How do I check the representativeness of the data as a whole?

20. Checklist for Analyst to Improve Trustworthiness of Content Analysis Study ( Elo et al., 2014) Phase of Content Analysis Questions to Check Reporting phase Reporting results Are the results reported systematically and logically? How are connections between the data and results reported? Is the content and structure of concepts presented in a clear and understandable way? Can the reader evaluate the transferability of the results (are the data, sampling method, and participants described in a detailed manner? Are quotations used systematically? How well do the categories cover the data? Are there similarities within and differences between categories? Is scientific language used to convey the results? Reporting analysis process Is there a full description of the analysis process? Is the trustworthiness of the content analysis discussed based on some criteria?

21. Advantages of Document Analysis Stability Stable – researcher’s presence does not affect what is being studied (Merriam, 1998) Exactness Feasible research process Inclusion of exact names, references, details of events Availability D ocuments are often in the public domain – obtainable without author’s permission Coverage Provide wide coverage – cover a long span of time, many events and settings (Yin, 1994) Cost-effective L ess costly compared to other methods – evaluate content and quality of documents Lack of obstrutiveness & reactivity Documents are unaffected by research process – counters concerns on reflexivity inherent in other research methods Efficiency L ess time-consuming – requires data selection , not data collection

22. Potential Limitations Insufficient detail Produced independent of a research agenda – insufficient detail to answer RQ Low retrievability Sometimes not retrievable or difficult – access may be prohibited Biased selectivity Likely to be aligned with policies / procedures / agendas – may also reflect emphasis of particular organisational unit (HR)

23. Further Reading Krippendorff , K. (2004) Content analysis: An Introduction to its methodology ISBN 978-0-7619-1544-7 Hodder, I. (1994) The interpretation of documents and material lecture ISBN 978-0761926870 Neuendorf , K. (2017) The content analysis guidebook ISBN 978-1-4129-7947-4 Holsti , O.R. (1969) Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities Berelson , B. (1952) Content analysis in communication research Roberts, C.W. (1997) Text analysis for the social sciences: Methods for drawing inferences from texts and transcripts ISBN 978-0805817348

24. Programmes Offered at FSSH Kuala Lumpur Doctor of Philosophy Master of Philosophy Doctor of Philosophy (TESL) Master in Education (TESL) Taught course, Mixed mode, Full research