Cytology and genetics notes

Cytology & genetics introduction notes

1. y bl

{ao tt

Dank 4 log”

x

4
ond Gens

2. History of Genchics and. cyto gender Y

weljenelin is a branch of science sbich deals at
ofsemblenca eth re parents amd. progeny ound Sierra
belueen Hae.’ Indinduals auilin a Species,
oBranch of, science, thal deals wit inheritance amd
Vanahm .

X lnhembence is defined an Hu transfer of gene tal
control a perticulos baut ov a character Prom
parent lo progeny .

* Gene is a seguant & own which codes for polypeptide
chain

PME u 4 Parctional
Charäches or trail

.
A Ang, morphologial , pio Heel ox phaysio logicah

ve bno as draractes ov trait .

quid which deleominer We

essing
NT Nae

exprosios or forms
Nor

À Vamiation which cam be en ameng Hu member
A ea à due be te von in the gene.

3. * Cupo qenebies
ao branch op soma 4

Stucke amd funckion of chromasomf

tic deab «ith

A 5 N It
* The concept Ln living, organ m ail onqinak #3

Lom (ing. owganism Was nol acer pled! ull
M canis Thay. think Yaak ing ange com ql
originale eyem Fram non thing ong. especially foam
Organ male “is % moin os Theory %
Spontaneous _gonssalvin

Aristotle (324-322 60), 644 caro Mak net only
À Micro organ, even small Flies Com ontginale Fam
i von Wing AMA » all
Redt (1eaı- 1694°), 5 Mook Fresh meat ed

de do not allowed any howe’
2 Spallanzani (1499-1499) te siton it Ñ

“No new hou flies are
© AI the inseck BR emerged Prom ma : Oh

Pot de novo. Ella allowed PEE on tt
originate itself. ‘news Dow flies emargrd

SES Pam la meat

hd a
y,

4. %

yaa

12
0)

Spallanzanı ie
rt rae ca baled > Ag pk —> Oboe er
oe dalle peonitng O ot tp
(Bean). CD ne ai ine y
wee Nb organi
Aur was Loiled. Hooked engines

bani have no “tapaily lo gene Wang on
Even, conlinued >100 yeu
Lows Pasteur (1822-1875)
dndall (1820-1893)

lou pasteus : (Father of min bielogy À. nay
F beled
closed) ab. tdprile tollen on bollle neck vessel "TI

Reproduction in Animas
u ig knawn (rom once shes

- he eg of bind Le vole tn «eproductán! was also

known

" "Bat Me eng of mammals ® unknonn kill
tre! mention of light Miewoscop 1673
de Graal 3 He sulenbist Ano fclinlif'ed small
vesselela on mammalian Overy. amd, said Hat
à ay mommals. amd ho oaud the fot

5. Bho 2 uit à
volh parbronb haut Led roger
dut by. wual obsavalion.
Maya fram Sally amd Swammerdam am
Holamd , Indepndutily tdmbfied egos of dues
ln 1644 Leeuuembook amd Hamm (dank
Bpurm in many. omimala
In 1686 he said Mal Gperm & having a. sole y
Rpoduckion , but te seul was not able bo
Cxplainisnole, of quem in aynoducion
By the ond ot 144 conluay Ure aole oF ego amd
;

pam in remduchin co tut Hey tle

Wi mnbaitone cdas dobakd.

fienot deuthd ¿nto À groups }
I Gey + Apo à fabufo buscity ndenf

% > rubi tag agent
Culist

AGO ane har,

6. o. ten twig. egy end cpom face sith each elos
amd both have equal role in. lunbeutance

Re prduchin lants
a iss
le Knownly or Wine nan from 100 Be
Babylonians and Assenian
Une, poliinaked dak. palm, from pollen Collect
ed fom male parent to female parent plant . oc
found thak We allen Dave effet on Folie
t
lil (ns
Keffeck- om pollen on Welt flat u called Karin. effec
le esas Greco thio found thak We men is Hoa
male Sex orgom
A And Camenariaus dore ung exp. in make
Only Gam when Uae, oP polls Falten on chromate
Surfare We seed sch baker place
1% Mod waged of plant mies Gen by
| Camarauans in maire

Bab nis deliver thok Hants so HE. ES

A Sal menschen

7. Themes Lan chal 1 proc At
daybn'tsahidoy plot.

Sweet william Y. Carnation

th wes knaun ce fair child mue -

NY

hen Linneaus and hoelreules ‚adstnn,
Podud no op ashhetal gra,
Uh M Arist in 198.23 ho ct hdi Ga
the pollen entes ob the ovary. omd in 1889
Sra sbuger fussin Yu He ag ond. Pollen ig
take place .

Preformaken
Aber Ws miermop inenledl 4ombody
Be Ese, pinata
Speo called — H amuncules — Culielaly axel
Aa
Anna colch oral shee. Prat > spare
ehe 23 Dh sud nf vas Su presen Se
The umégpl is Hat lue mint but Ahle

19 all het pag 9 Balmady 4
pa 3 le human beings ave pelo

8. = in Me male gomas
nd Hae. development of Me individuo, note only the
foul of Was pre formed structure - amd Hud &
known 08 Preformakıco Ha,
But lakes nobody ¿abipred Homunculus

"eo TERA).

When Be deselaprant of embrjo wor CE |
& ceden ek diffevent exgoms duvelgped Fran
7 genes Emobmyonie bisews md à Hour
as . eproumests :
had 1k ecos wolff whe ES gare Hs concept
hut be Said mak we organ onigunoked by

de nora by some wal force
sea

Enppleraclain es gun by Van Bars be said
bar arg anigipale by ev process kun as .
differentrakon and vo Vitel Pre Y oat on it.
tae FP passboonce of aan dharackra/Lama kom.
a hema
Sans Guale charach. wbueh aynırdin Oma
pra "© Cobasiled’ fo tne next gerurakion |

9. Rn
Chava which à nat present ponent bub Hb
ln Hae perttculere individual due. © cvicrado]

yr Mussle part — Progen

Charles Damuin , suppotte
Ad he said thal intentara oF aqured
Y Me one of the reasons "Vaniakiow 1b the

ln ine suey
le, PAL onan In om vndwerdual à hewtig
of Het jodunduada

¿of Lomankitm

ven small ¡dembical copies
dk hiso cord sommes / Pangenss nu,
>
avd tad gemmulis à pasted tol Qormakes
bom all Ue sors . wham be Gemmabı fax
bg 2, geemmulss trom bot Gord g ill
ent logía
When a modified genmendo à ile
germale, las. progpay will ab have ave maleta
Chatler dawin jo As Grok. | origin of Species +
fre Hreong of anlukn, onde Choong ul
Wick à vrmore Species ce owelued (rom Hie
parental species Pme ae fs

10. eg Sean on vatiahion J

i sud à

Present in Ab speules

Ausina roto
5 ghd al setechan most
E E satin

ana | 141207
mi

a.

Wheeman 1 an Shiong opponenk of bese laws
[acquired character and pangenesis). fo prove bak
he do" ay experiment. dle cub be ail of mice for

22 generahion- We observed Unak all Me nen mice

a Pogenies lhe weve having tails. Lo He proxd tak
YF he aus of acquired. haracher & bue if He
x Pres does nik have tail
Mie ah eut tal wrest wok produced gemmules
Then be. prowd lab if lav OF ang à bue
TF page
Leryn And he aid tat whole body, hos 2 type of
= tissue Somalo plasm and germplasm,
Les The Issues in somaloplam b necessary fos e
we Sbrukusal and functunal belawiowm of individual,

{

| but dees wol parhiipake in sexual: 7e pro duchin -

11. oe

710 chat eye Chanel Wa takes wi
mure bo mt inher le rent genu
plasm (onsits of gamates ad + omg

a Ura
basis for fepioduclión : Gerrmplasen benz

wrteman.

In cas days iL wv belteved far
Matenal is in ne form of liquid. especially An
form es bbod amd Uns concept soul vs
by Une dog of mienscope - Ik U Jansson ¿EA |
anason who gave a mitwoscope 40 wos king and
Leuwemboek does tonsiderable change. in Hee tels
OF Mio ape + Robe hak identified Ces Pash. |

Robes nook > a look a Secbièm of cost cette and dos
andes Mbocope Ve adhered, ome Cmpartm
like Shuctwe and he Called ik as cell

In 1824 ib um Duhochet —> All Hissues ar

1 le. up of tells and they One it together
\ ihn vikal force -

12. 1838 — Schleiden — After Sladging Hoe bisiuer, said
Hnat tre tissue ars made up of cells

Schleiden amd Suan. Lell todo
> Cell formo Une Sbruchwal omd. Panckional vit of
all (ving, trans Jacluding plans and animals

> es Nageli > pells are aus. rom pre exil
cells
> Wirdhe combined. 2 Concepts que Hue Leary
Cell lineage How

> ll aay Leuwen höck who identified Nucleus fer
bno IA time in RBC bub he es unable to distinguish
Ik as “pudlews
> Robert brown named bas vuclewr

> lar - Mischel developed a. Lechmigue lo isolale

audeva From Uae cell: Later he also olaled.
nucleo probe in and nuclein .
Present name of nucleía is Nuclere acid:

Altman ho called Nuckin os Mudere acid:

13. - = 2 Type of NA > DNA nd ann,
5 Felgen 2 Type ice oa 1
= Herring Cold the kam mitosis

that longiludral alinziin of emomosom take
And he established a relation between chromahin
ard nucle acid .

> And ib was Shrasbonge who Said ak dina
el digsón [gamate formation) Pre chromato
D reduced to half

ET In 1905 Kanes

le OF oe ds
ey Waldeyes

Menu

amd Morte bermed ta
@ Meusis A
= who coined Une Un Fe roman
enhfied x

D well as
Cape Ski, wa
Cell dinsım, lb ar.

14. Lao;
> Bovert said ek We chwmgsene play am important
mole in development amd be genes are tocated in
‘Chhomosorne

> Button and Boveri — Apomañanal hong Of ‘elie

> Yom ths pe nuvo branch of science developed hich
deals arith Ehe genes omd emomasome ' Cylogunelits.

Aereline > Single IP pollinaled. plant
Homozygous
lobreed) > Selfing ef Continuous, Cos poltinaltor-

Johavson > Pare line huso,
Coined Me em Gene, «jene type amd phenolype

Ace line Da Ange homo ya» self pollinated plant

amd any varitisn «vith in the pareline dh due to
emiomnental. hatos and ¡Eb mob inhaited lo the

hext generation -
Bakeson - coined We term qenebies

Vale - Gave the concept of multiple factor

Cpolygenes)) ,

15. branch of Yen bes

ain leds lo Me another
ie, gjuanti kakve genebies

S Eat moon who gare iowelkance paltean

4
while colowed eye In prsspaylla E
He gave liokage map . Map a que on & elnormasang 5
> Beddle and Talum > One que one enzyme ,

concepts

gen gue Codes fora particulas enzyme |
2 Aveny Mac Led amd Me Casty — DNA as
gensbi matewal |

> Double ‘Val model > Watson amd sky

+
Wilkins bel parse

> Molecular genebes

DH
Me Cling identified a abnermal que in male

Colecl Jumping gone | Dissonahin / trans passan /
“walling ge Ca que Wok Ban age is posilion

ha homme)

> Niven beg = cqenebe cda => ple

16. Pa of

ae

alze

en

64 différent codoms are codo far all ammoauıda .

|
> Open (upt — Tarso amd Monod.

me Panchan OF Abuctusal gure à controlled by
3 diffrent gene À, Regutaks , operator amd poster
> Benzer gave 3 dif. units for gerebic oganizakion
Cisbron — Smallest coding, «nik | Punch gens
Maton - Smallet nil In mh mutahèi com &

takes place
in ai ecombinakèn

Recon - Smnalled mit
Can lakes place

=> Ocha - oho ior

> Kanbeg = # »

invitw synthesis of- RNA
of DNA E

> Hagomind Khorana — ye arlificual gene
> alanyl transfer gene

17. à (Chromasons BR.
‚Chiomapme À defined ax condenad 1

buche ido cam be tained

24
5% ¿denbified by Sasbasger ty 1815
Named by Waldıyar 7
call
+ elromosome à having A trend. Uke stuctune Calle
Cmomonemala à
. Coiling ond supercoiling of Hese chromonemata vil 1
give Me Tod shaped structure for chrmasomie E

amd unuinding of is chnmonemaka Ferulk m
Ahead. like stuckuse — Cin inteaprase)
* Number of chromasonte present in a vegetabive Cell à
Called Somakic chwmasme Number» desi as 24)
+ Cie, 2 ses of chromosome is present)
' » One seh of chromosome D Same us lab of another

HEE chiamaome ond known as Vromologous
chromosome

No- of commasume present un à Jamale à known os
Gamatic chromosome number
which will be Y, Unak of Somatic ctrromasome Number.
designated as an.

18. + Morphelogg of corasome

Dusting metapnase , chromasome appeaed as divided. into
2 tongitudnal Structure amd this ts known as Chiomalid

chomatids

|
* One chnmatid pwdued by the división of another
Chiomakidl. am Go Het 2 chremakd» ase called sister
chromabids

. momaik of homolegeus chromosome 02e kneun as
nen süler chromatids -

- dromakäs ore believed as bu Abwehuscl amd fanckeral
nit oP chyomaserne ‚lach con nok divide into finther
Subunits uithouk affecting Me seructusal. amd
Functional. Akai of chivas ome

Ceabromese: Point where chromatids ane Joined togéêtus

> Appeas as Combrichim M microscope Vence it

19. à Prepare 5, abso known as pire wil
avs spindle Gbres one ger attached to i

DNA present in Gohomere 15 known a) Sar Day.

© Hals Posihn of centromere à fixed an each Speer

"6 40 Atk vay ty indiveluals of Same satin
el ón tdenifeatin )

"nah OF both sole. of: cenbemene is kam au
|
Oma

longer cama omd shorter ass
Metacenlae .
© Both amy an almost equa size
Le, 7 @rbromese in conbre
Y shaped V
Submetacenhie
© Cenbome fille bit way from centre

Aerea 4
‘Conlromese 6 bovwisds the Telomene

Corbin mere jy Preseab xn tebomen regen 3
bl a

20. x ; a
LE if only, one. Cevkomnere à prose known

4monocentromere

X Poly, aœnbomeze
> howe more thom me contromas
peri cantvomasio región. com be “dont in
Polylembomanit. Inpmasame Spire lo bres
| Albached Le

h
X Hao umbrommure met

| Spindle Fibres Com attach to on

'
4 portion of.chromasag
va | de dbobane, mum

ton bomen,
Position of combromero um which prrèll hb, |
| Fong lo altach 5 not Grud
Felomere +
Cap of comesume or chromakid à known as
telomus
Ub prevent Heo shek vig Of chrmareme amb gs
Wlegnba, to dmamodyome — ( Proice Stabılily)
4 $4 emp toms F Aga appecuy exten ain inbeg re
Han of telomene Lakes place .

21. Bavodory covsrricion
oo
Cousbrtion aha om

The region bebwern RL
Known ap sakellile

Sabellike Ammaame| sar nmmaene ke)
C have 2° enr bicttén on sakel
Chrornomnere

Small bead like Struckuae present un nomas
D known as chomomer

x classificadión
> Based on Stewning capassty nn wi

Plain stair
chavenasomes man)

> Helevochnornabic
Euchromatic - Chmomasemne ulnich

kes more stain
+ nyomasome oido ka

take les stain

constitutive Facultative
nis segun Temain, The reg mal
heberochwmakie Some hkmes
Gndihion always Tevest back to
Kuchromakie

eg

22. —
sailing

Normally emomasame divides: in Iongitudnal plane -

puk due to tome OO Huet dinde in kransierse/
horizontal plane whith result un a dromassime with

bah asar Simillas , such arre moron one known ad

lsockromasame.

Rlgtene] Gaink clrromarome

> Many read togelhes
> Hk ademtifred dm Salvaayı glamds of Diplenaus
> Balbiam , 1% adentified, pgbene Amomasım.
in Sabivary glemd ot desophyla-
> do 4 ó alo town à Sabivany gland doramasane

¡rio nee

23. il y a
Numb of dhvornasome Copies are produc |
À pin of chromasome. but it will nob get
ted into different nucleus. cel división is ar :
din pmphene condition. Aker a nube of
chromasome -veplicakion A nuclear merbrane uil
be dsme in ordes bo accomodate all bes copies

Such nucleus i's Known as destitution nucleus

E
| amd such cen division is Anoum as encon
|

. 4

4 Endomitans 15 defined @> mesbriching te
duiision to piophase omd, keeping all Ihe chrom
| Abgelver with the help of A Single cenlomere

pe Stacking of this cho masa
x € above Hw othes a
Komn as band

And the quite agen of tte bond gt els
PAE or balbant 5 ings ashe coud due &
i L An oiling of dmomabels. And Aus puff epee

24. some
wi,
‘i

te

ed
We

again extend. lo certain loops . Ads place
Cloops and putts), where. RNA sugntnesrs takes place

Lamp brush dmomasome

? Oocgle of Some amveskifrales amd “animals
exupt th mammals

.

+ Large chromarome ‘which rave a number of

Chibmomere on ik. Kach chvomo mere | ail] \
|

Grm loop to either side. gia a Lago bush

Appeanamce |

— a}

14

he loops have lui omd Eck regu amd

Ar thin requin is the ke for Ran Synthesis

Accessory. cmomasame

ón addikin to He main Comas

Inside am agan,
Xnolun hice?

How aill be a additimal | chromasonte

bs 6 at Super Namomiy chasmasone * '

25. Majo ae Prof bp ena

Within a a

Covent of DNA et A.
A fhe cals ofc perras. Prditelul 1 dose
B same, expt in gamle, Bowe fp dhremasena it iia
Be ex!
Only u wr on à presen in à pd le
Yepetahwe

7037 donk code for ang. protec E

Esa lan 4
10% of cromosoma tomb is having RNA- such RNAS

4% known ar dmmoiomdl RNA. Tres Help an

ausselakeng DNA wit pokins by chnmolin

Fibres,

Prteuis
Hoslones ard Non hshns ave 2 typeot pote

y

26. duslors 2 uihdr ile ARE Prachins © such 0

Wy, Hoa, 136, Ha and Hy
ine

Kanyokype + Morphaegg of ebiornaromt Cappeoura )

Size , shape , posite ankamen. Secordasy

satellite.
To represent ct da clovorronemne. ill Massanged «a
dosend ing. manner of size . Tha larges ome fowasds N

the left exbrenae amd shot one towards ight
an expal plane Y

enbreme amd all He cenbromae IN
Me dagraromabi vepresentatian of th to kamajobyos MM

Of Amor à kneun a» Ldeïo gram

bell division

o
> Meioss

Mit ts
eguatinal división.
homotgpie divin (sap bape
Somatic cel divin

TE y
o DE €

Sates phase ip Sloe

Division Mibsis |

L
E
|

en

27. ea, wg
pigeons ‘tne material Dun

& synthostied
4
NS pu plants

A te materials fos omasg4 mil
en quus ode syolhasisad) .
fos cell dwsion
Chromatin rebilarn << Gti
Diva in duplicaked condilim g-
Appeesed as domain yebicolao

Divsian
| LZ > eqhoplasmic
Nuclear
ctokinuis
Karyekinesis

Y
Propheue > Condensation oF cdoromesonre
Méta phase Nucleas membrane amd. uclactes get
Anaphase A thbegrabe
\ Telophase . Lam se Commasoeru ln yboplanrn ,

Metaphase.
Chomasome wi ak ortanged. 60 eapatuial
Spindle apparatw, form in the 2 poles

foam Srindle fibres (Prins woh bake sain ),
Continuos and cho maremal spindle fl

Aielo como ge sbi

28. Lontinuring. From (Pole ta Ole pole: —5/Cantinues.
Cd abtached to Eu entree of chrmaseme>

Che mass
Lenkrmne cull be 19 sama Una -

à spindle fibres (ram euch pole vull get attached to
the Cenbrom ere
Anaphaze
Centre. splits lomgitudoaly

Once. Wie split of Cenborure à Ov, Stsker chrome

Abe known ax Sistes Chromasomo-

by the énitalièr Of spindle Flores Sister dommasmas
move to opposik pales

bromas am ll Aa. amma boards Une polo as
Levkrome- pho faces teuiavds Pole.

METIA
page will

coil to fun mmalin apparatıs
* Nhelealas and nucleo, membrane app eas
"Also neun on prophase in Hu reverse.

29. ybokines'é
FE Auısien & eg

pls

wall’ ard He pos tion
lo bu ends io pink

Ak amd. prowed» '

h Centrioles ane form ham the
Animal cells ee a un

3 bye of spindle bres vo
> Cookinuows
— Chromaremal
— À
will vadiak ts wards Hu per
of at. amd. uth the. help of His bral
Libres (olainge of al manbrant hukus place
Owed fralty cellular Arion Maras haa
botraatre®

Mitosis Gala ‘vision

Youth amd development
Repair ofaits in lojuoy . Astyal mit