Data and graphs

data and graphs information.

1. Seminar on DATA AND GRAPHS INTEGRAL UNIVERSITY BY: UNDER GUIDANCE OF: SHAIKH ZOHRAMNEENA MR.PARAMDEEP BAGGA M.PHARM ( PHARMACOLOGY ) 1 ST YEAR

2. INTRODUCTION What is DATA? Data is information that has been translated into form that is more convenient to move or process. What is DATA COLLECTION? Data collection is a systematic approach to gathering information from a variety of sources to get a complete and accurate picture of an area of interest.

3. PURPOSE of Data Collection . To obtain information. To keep on record To make decisions about important issues. To pass information on to others.

4. Classification

5. Primary Data Primary data are collected by investigator from personal experimental studies. Secondary Data Data obtained from some secondary sources such as from journals, magazines, reports etc .

6. Collection of primary data Direct Personal Observation: Trained and skilled investigator establishes personal contact and puts simple and direct questions to them. Indirect oral observation: Investigator prepares a set of questions which are indirectly related to sub-matter and are asked to different people their answers are recorded. Information through local agencies: Information is collected through local agents or correspondents. They are instructed to send their own estimates of a particular phenomenon. By schedule and questionnaire: Questionnaire is list of questions directly or indirectly related to the field of enquiry made by investigator.

7. Collected by two ways

8. Collection of secondary data Published data Published thesis Government reports International reports By-product of administration Commission’s report Unpublished data: Some of the organizations, research institutes etc. collect data but they normally do not publish it, like unpublished thesis submitted for the award of Ph.D.

9. Preparation of data Frequency distribution table What is FREQUENCY? Frequency is the number of times a character or attribute has appeared in the collected data. What is FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION? The arrangement and presentation of condensed data into classes is called frequency distribution. These classes are also called class intervals .

10. Sr. no. No. of pea grains per pod frequency Frequency distribution 1. 1 3 2. 2 3 2 3. 3 4 4. 4 4 2 5. 5 7 1 6. 6 5 1 Types of Frequency Distribution Tables Frequency distribution table Overlapping frequency table. Non-overlapping frequency table.

11. Number of pods or variable Frequency 15 1 16 2 17 2 18 2 19 2 20 2 21 2 22 3 23 3 24 3 25 4 26 5 27 6 28 7 29 9 Simple frequency table of pea pods

12. No. of pods in class intervals No. of plants in frequency 15-17 3 17-19 4 19-21 4 21-23 5 23-25 6 25-27 9 27-29 13 Overlapping frequency table

13. Non-overlapping frequency table No. of pods in class intervals No. of plants in frequency 15-17 5 18-20 6 21-23 8 24-26 12 27-29 22

14. Bar diagram Bar diagram is for diagrammatic representation of data. It permits a visual comparison of data by displaying the magnitude of each category as a horizontal or vertical bar. It consists of equally spaced vertical rectangular bars of equal width placed on a common horizontal base line. The height of rectangle is proportional to the frequencies. Use for representing and analyzing discontinuous qualitative variables as hair color, gender etc.

15. Types of bar diagram Simple bar diagram . Multiple or Grouped bar diagram . Divided or Component bar diagram.

16. Simple bar diagram: I t is used to compare two or more items related to a variable. In simple bar diagram the bars are usually arranged to relative magnitude of items. Limitations: Simple bar diagram has limitation that only one variable can be represented on it. Species Percent Frequency Of plant Simple bar diagram representing percentage frequency of plant species in a Particular area

17. Multiple or Grouped bar diagram: A multiple bar diagram is used when a number of items are to compared in respect of two, three or more values. T hey can be prepared either by changing the width of the bar or by using different colors for each character. Multiple bar diagram of the number of students in various faculties In a college in different years. Number of students Years

18. 3. Divided or component bar diagram: A divided or component bar diagram can be formed by dividing a single bar into several components part with the help of different colors or designs. A single bar represents the aggregate value whereas the component parts represent the component values of the aggregate value.

19. Histogram It is graphic representation of continuous quantitative data in which frequencies are represented in the form of bars. The histogram is used for continuous variables which are grouped into classes of equal width. The histogram consists of a series of rectangles, one for each values of variable. The area or more specially the height of each rectangle is proportional to the frequency.

20. Class intervals Frequency 60-64 3 65-69 3 70-74 8 75-79 10 80-84 5 85-89 2 Frequency distribution of heights of black cherry trees.

21. Pie chart Used for percentage distribution Different components are represented by means of sectors of a circle. Angles of sectors are proportional to respective values. This sort of representation is called a pie chart. Also known as circular chart or sector chart. Sr. no. Item Percentage expenditure Contribution out of 360o 1. Food 50 360x50/100 2. House 10 360x10/100 3. Clothing 10 360x10/100 4. Education 10 360x10/100 5. Entertainment 5 360x5/100 6. Saving 10 360x10/100 7. Miscellaneous 5 360x5/100 Percentage expenditure of middle class family

22. P ie chart diagram of data in table.

23. Frequency curves When number of observations is very large and the class intervals are of small widths, the frequency polygon tends to lose its angulation and produces a smooth curve which is known as Frequency C urve. Provides a continuous graph. Frequency curve can be obtained by drawing a smooth free hand curve through the vertices of frequency polygon.

24. Types of Frequency Curves Symmetrical curves: Bell shaped curves. In these distributions the frequency increases up to the middle item and then decreases in the same ratio. A lso termed as normal curve.

25. 2. Moderately symmetrical or skewed curve: These curves show skewness. They have more frequencies on one side than on other side. In this one tail is always longer than other.

26. Two Types. Positive skewed curve: When the longer tail is on positive side means at right side the frequency curve is termed as Positive skewed curve. b. Negative skewed curve: When the longer tail is on negative side means at left side the frequency curve is termed as Negative skewed curve.

27. 3. Extremely asymmetrical or J- shaped curve: The class frequencies when run up to a maximum at either of ends of the range is termed as asymmetrical or J- shaped curve. It may be negative or positive J- shaped curve.

28. 4. U- shaped curve: In these types of curve the maximum frequency is at the ends of the range and a minimum towards center.

29. 5. Bimodal curve: T he frequency distribution shows two curves. It usually includes two populations , each showing a partial normal distribution.

30. Mixed curves: S ometimes some distributions increases and decreases and again the same process is repeated. Such distributions are termed as mixed curves.

31. References Dr. ARUN KUMAR. ,“ PHARMACEUTICAL BIOSTATISTICS”, KRISHNA PRAKASHAN MEDIA, 1-9 VEER BALA RASTOGI. ,” FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOSTATISTICS”, ANE BOOK PUBLICATION, 35-70 www.wikepedia.com

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