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1. DEMOGRAPHY DEMOGRAPHY ::

“ “Demography” or “population Demography” or “population
dynamics” is the study of a country’s dynamics” is the study of a country’s
population in terms of its size, population in terms of its size,
composition, behaviour & distribution.composition, behaviour & distribution.

2. • ThreeThree readily observable readily observable
human phenomena: human phenomena:
1. 1. Changes in population size.
2. The composition of the
population.
3. The distribution of population in
space.

3. • DEMOGRAPHIC CYCLE;DEMOGRAPHIC CYCLE;
1. High stationary1. High stationary::
This stage is characterised by a This stage is characterised by a ↑↑birth birth
rate & rate & ↑↑ death rate which cancel each other death rate which cancel each other
& the population remains stationary. India & the population remains stationary. India
was in this stage till 1920. was in this stage till 1920.
2. Early expanding:2. Early expanding:
The death rate begins to decline, while The death rate begins to decline, while
the birth rate remains unchanged. Birth the birth rate remains unchanged. Birth
rates have increased in some of these rates have increased in some of these
countries possibly as a result of improved countries possibly as a result of improved
health conditions.health conditions.

4. 3.3. Late expanding:Late expanding:
The death rate declines still further, & the The death rate declines still further, & the
birth rate tendsbirth rate tends to fall. The population to fall. The population
continues to grow because births exceed continues to grow because births exceed
deaths. India has entered this phase. In a deaths. India has entered this phase. In a
number of developing countries birth rates number of developing countries birth rates
have declined rapidly. have declined rapidly.
4. 4. Low stationaryLow stationary : :
This stage is characterised by a This stage is characterised by a ↓↓birth birth
rate & death rate with the result that the rate & death rate with the result that the
population becomes stationary. Zero population becomes stationary. Zero
population growth has already been recorded population growth has already been recorded
in Austria during 1980-85. UK, Denmark, in Austria during 1980-85. UK, Denmark,
Sweden & Belgium during 1980-85. Sweden & Belgium during 1980-85.

5. 55. FIFTH STAGE:. FIFTH STAGE:
The population begins to decline The population begins to decline
because birth rate is lower than the because birth rate is lower than the
death rate. Some East European death rate. Some East European
counties, notably Germany & Hungary counties, notably Germany & Hungary
are experiencing this stage.are experiencing this stage.

6. • BIRTH & DEATH RATES:BIRTH & DEATH RATES:
The glaring contrasts in BR & The glaring contrasts in BR &
DR in selected countries are as DR in selected countries are as
shown in TABLE:shown in TABLE:
►WORLD POPULATION TRENDSWORLD POPULATION TRENDS ::

7. Country Country Crude birth rateCrude birth rateCrude death rateCrude death rate
India India 24.124.1 7.57.5
Bangladesh Bangladesh 2727 88
PakistanPakistan 3131 88
Sri LankaSri Lanka 1616 66
ThailandThailand 1616 77
MyanmarMyanmar 2020 1010
NepalNepal 3030 88
ChinaChina 1313 77
JapanJapan 99 88
SingaporeSingapore 99 55
UKUK 1111 1010
USAUSA 1414 88

8. •Reduction in the crude birth & death rates in Reduction in the crude birth & death rates in
selected countries, 1970-2004selected countries, 1970-2004 TABLE-
Country Country Crude birth rateCrude birth rate
1970 20041970 2004
Crude death rateCrude death rate
1970 20041970 2004
Bangladesh Bangladesh 4545 2727 21 821 8
Nepal Nepal 42 3142 3121 821 8
IndiaIndia 40 24.140 24.117 7.517 7.5
Sri LankaSri Lanka 31 1631 169 69 6
ThailandThailand 37 1637 169 79 7
SingaporeSingapore 23 923 95 5 5 5
ChinaChina 33 1333 138 78 7
PakistanPakistan 43 3143 3116 816 8

9. KKey factors in fertility decline:
►Changes in government attitudes
towards growth
►spread of education
►↑availability of contraception
►Extension of services offered through
family planning programmes
►Marked change in marriage patterns

10. Demographic gapDemographic gap
Birth rate minus death rate (BR-DR)Birth rate minus death rate (BR-DR)
26-9=1726-9=17
Population changePopulation change→→ interaction of 3 variables: interaction of 3 variables:
births, births,
deaths, deaths,
and migration. and migration.
Difference between births and deathsDifference between births and deaths→→ the natural the natural
increase (or decrease) of a population. increase (or decrease) of a population.
Net migration: difference between no of persons Net migration: difference between no of persons
entering a geographic area (immigrants) & those leaving entering a geographic area (immigrants) & those leaving
(emigrants) (emigrants)

11. Causes of high birth rateCauses of high birth rate
Universality of marriage: Universality of marriage: Every one gets married & Every one gets married &
participate in reproduction.participate in reproduction.
Early marriage: Early marriage: 60% girls 16-19yrs already 60% girls 16-19yrs already
married.married.
Early Puberty: Early Puberty: Indian girls attain early Indian girls attain early
pubertypuberty
Low std of living:Low std of living: Low std of living Low std of living →→↑BR↑BR
Low literacy:Low literacy: 65.8% of population- literate 65.8% of population- literate
Female literacy- still lowerFemale literacy- still lower
Traditional habits & customs:Traditional habits & customs:Children gift of GodChildren gift of God
Absence of FPAbsence of FP

12. Causes of low death rateCauses of low death rate
Absence of natural checks: Absence of natural checks: Famines & large scale Famines & large scale
epidemicsepidemics
►Mass control of diseases:Mass control of diseases:Smallpox, plague, Smallpox, plague, choleracholera
►Advances in medical sciences: ChemotherapeuticsAdvances in medical sciences: Chemotherapeutics
Antibiotics & insecticidesAntibiotics & insecticides
►Better health facilities:Better health facilities:PHC PHC
►Impact of national health programmesImpact of national health programmes
►Improvements in food supplyImprovements in food supply
►International aid in several directionsInternational aid in several directions
►Development of social consciousness among massesDevelopment of social consciousness among masses

13. Importance of Demographic gapImportance of Demographic gap

Both death rates and birth rates have fallen, but Both death rates and birth rates have fallen, but
death rates have fallen faster than birth rates.death rates have fallen faster than birth rates.

There are about:There are about:
1.6 births for each death in more developed 1.6 births for each death in more developed
countries ( MDCs) & countries ( MDCs) &
3.3 births for each death in less developed 3.3 births for each death in less developed
countries( LDCs).countries( LDCs).

Demographic gap Demographic gap →→rapid ↑population in many rapid ↑population in many
countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa.countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa.

14. Effects of Demographic gapEffects of Demographic gap
Results in poverty.Results in poverty.
Rising global temperature.Rising global temperature.
Shrinking amount of cropland per person.Shrinking amount of cropland per person.
Decline in amount of wheat and rice grown/person.Decline in amount of wheat and rice grown/person.
Shrinking area of tropical moist forests.Shrinking area of tropical moist forests.
Decreasing oceanic fish harvest per person.Decreasing oceanic fish harvest per person.
Increasing number of people dying due to various Increasing number of people dying due to various
diseases.diseases.
↓↓Std of living, decrease life expectancy, Std of living, decrease life expectancy, ↓MMR↓MMR
Growing gap between rich and poorGrowing gap between rich and poor

15. Death rates have also declined worldwide Death rates have also declined worldwide
over the last decades.over the last decades.
The global death rate The global death rate ↓↓worldwide from worldwide from
11.0 to 9 /1000 population during 2004, 11.0 to 9 /1000 population during 2004,
a reduction of 18 .a reduction of 18 .
In countries with a relative young In countries with a relative young
population, crude death rates are mainly population, crude death rates are mainly
affected by infant & child mortality.affected by infant & child mortality.

16. •GROWTH RATES:
When the crude death rate is substracted When the crude death rate is substracted
from the crude birth rate, the residual is the from the crude birth rate, the residual is the
current annual growth rate, exclusive of current annual growth rate, exclusive of
migration.migration.
The salient features of population growth at The salient features of population growth at
a glance are as follows: a glance are as follows:
►Approximately 95 % is occurring in developing Approximately 95 % is occurring in developing
countries.countries.
►Currently, 1/3Currently, 1/3
rdrd
of world’s population is < 15 & of world’s population is < 15 &
will soon enter the reproductive bracket, giving will soon enter the reproductive bracket, giving
more potential for population growth.more potential for population growth.

17. ►The UNFPA estimates: The UNFPA estimates:
world population likely to reach 10 world population likely to reach 10
billion by 2050, & 20.7 billion a century billion by 2050, & 20.7 billion a century
later.later.
►Expected no of births /women, at Expected no of births /women, at
current fertility rates (2004), is: for current fertility rates (2004), is: for
industrialized countries 1.6, developing industrialized countries 1.6, developing
countries 4.9. the global total fertility countries 4.9. the global total fertility
rate is 2.6. rate is 2.6.
►World population has been growing at World population has been growing at
176 people per minute. 176 people per minute.

18. •DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS IN INDIA:DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS IN INDIA:
With a population of 1013.7 million by the With a population of 1013.7 million by the
year 2004,India is the 2year 2004,India is the 2
ndnd
most populous most populous
country in the world, next only to China.country in the world, next only to China.
India’s population is currently increasing at India’s population is currently increasing at
the rate of 16 million each year.the rate of 16 million each year.

► Ranking of most population states by Ranking of most population states by
population size 2001- population size 2001- TABLETABLE

19. Rank Rank StateState
Population Population
1.3.2001 1.3.2001
(million)(million)
Percent to total Percent to total
population of population of
India 1.3.2001India 1.3.2001
1.1.Uttar PradeshUttar Pradesh 166.05166.05 16.1716.17
2.2.MaharashtraMaharashtra 96.7596.75 9.429.42
3.3.Bihar Bihar 82.8782.87 8.078.07
4.4.West BengalWest Bengal 80.2280.22 7.817.81
5.5.Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh 75.7275.72 7.377.37
6.6.Tamil NaduTamil Nadu 62.1162.11 6.056.05
7.7.Madhya PradeshMadhya Pradesh 60.3860.38 5.885.88
8.8.RajasthanRajasthan 56.4756.47 5.505.50
9.9.KarnatakaKarnataka 52.7352.73 5.145.14
10.10.GujaratGujarat 50.5950.59 4.934.93

20. • Age & sex composition:Age & sex composition:
TheThe age-sex composition of India’s age-sex composition of India’s
population according to the National Family population according to the National Family
Health Survey-2 done in 1998-99 is as shown in Health Survey-2 done in 1998-99 is as shown in
TABLE- TABLE-

► Percent distribution of population by age & Percent distribution of population by age &
sex, India SRS estimates, 2003- sex, India SRS estimates, 2003- TABLE TABLE

21. AgeAge MaleMale FemaleFemale TotalTotal
0-40-4 11.311.3 10.810.8 11.011.0
5-95-9 10.610.6 10.310.3 10.510.5
10-1410-14 11.011.0 10.710.7 10.910.9
15-1915-19 11.011.0 10.410.4 10.710.7
20-2420-24 9.59.5 9.79.7 9.69.6
25-2925-29 8.48.4 8.38.3 8.38.3
30-3430-34 7.47.4 7.57.5 7.57.5

22. 35-3935-39 6.66.6 7.07.0 6.86.8
40-4440-44 5.85.8 5.75.7 5.75.7
45-4945-49 4.94.9 5.05.0 4.94.9
50-5450-54 3.93.9 3.73.7 3.83.8
55-5955-59 3.13.1 3.23.2 3.23.2
60-6460-64 2.32.3 2.52.5 2.42.4
65-6965-69 1.91.9 2.22.2 2.02.0
70+70+ 2.52.5 3.13.1 2.82.8
TotalTotal 100.0100.0 100.0100.0 100.0100.0

23. • Age Pyramids:Age Pyramids:
The age structure of a population is The age structure of a population is
best represented. Such type of best represented. Such type of
representation is called an “Age Pyramid”.representation is called an “Age Pyramid”.
The age pyramid of India is typical of The age pyramid of India is typical of
under developed countries, with a board under developed countries, with a board
base & a tapering top. base & a tapering top.

24. • Sex Ratio:Sex Ratio:
Sex Ratio is defined as “the number of Sex Ratio is defined as “the number of
females per 1000 males". In any study of females per 1000 males". In any study of
population, analysis of the sex composition population, analysis of the sex composition
plays a vital role.plays a vital role.
The sex ratio in India has been generally The sex ratio in India has been generally
adverse to women i.e., the number of women adverse to women i.e., the number of women
per 1000 men has generally been less than per 1000 men has generally been less than
1000.Kerala had a sex ratio of 1058 females per 1000.Kerala had a sex ratio of 1058 females per
1000 males in 2001. It is the only state with a 1000 males in 2001. It is the only state with a
sex ratio favorable to females.sex ratio favorable to females.

25. • Dependency ratio:Dependency ratio:
The proportion of persons >65 yrs of age The proportion of persons >65 yrs of age
& children <15 years of age are considered to & children <15 years of age are considered to
be dependent on the economically productive be dependent on the economically productive
age group. age group.
The ratio of the combined age groups The ratio of the combined age groups 0-14 0-14
years + 65 yearsyears + 65 years & above is as the total & above is as the total
dependency ratio.dependency ratio.

26. • Density of population:Density of population:
It is defined as the number of persons, It is defined as the number of persons,
living per square kilometer. living per square kilometer.
►Family size:Family size:
Family size refers to the total number of Family size refers to the total number of
persons in a family, in demography, family persons in a family, in demography, family
size means the total number of children a size means the total number of children a
women has borne at a point in time. The women has borne at a point in time. The
completed family size indicates the total completed family size indicates the total
number of children borne by a woman during number of children borne by a woman during
her child bearing age, which is generally her child bearing age, which is generally
assumed to be between 15 & 45 years. assumed to be between 15 & 45 years.

27. • Urbanization: Urbanization:
The The ↑↑urban population has been attributed urban population has been attributed
both to natural growth & migration from both to natural growth & migration from
villages. The continuous migration of people villages. The continuous migration of people
from country side to urban areas in India from country side to urban areas in India
constitute a social crisis, the ramification of constitute a social crisis, the ramification of
which may eventually impair the quality of which may eventually impair the quality of
life.life.

28. Literacy & Education:Literacy & Education:
Literacy rates in major states of India Literacy rates in major states of India
2001- 2001- TABLETABLE::
StateState Male Male FemaleFemale TotalTotal
Gujarat Gujarat 8080 5959 7070
MaharashtraMaharashtra 8686 6868 7777
KarnatakaKarnataka 7676 5656 6767
UP & UP &
UttaranchalUttaranchal
7171 4444 5858
Tamil naduTamil nadu 8282 6565 7373
KeralaKerala 9494 8888 9191

29. • Life expectancy:Life expectancy:
Life is the average number of years which Life is the average number of years which
a person of that age may expect to live, a person of that age may expect to live,
according to the mortality pattern prevalent in according to the mortality pattern prevalent in
that country.that country.
►Fertility:Fertility:
Fertility is meant the actual bearing of Fertility is meant the actual bearing of
children. Information on fertility in India children. Information on fertility in India
indicates that an average woman gives birth to indicates that an average woman gives birth to
an average of six or seven children if her an average of six or seven children if her
married life is uninterrupted. Reproductive married life is uninterrupted. Reproductive
period give birth to 15 children.period give birth to 15 children.

30. Fertility depends upon several factors:Fertility depends upon several factors:
1. Age at marriage.1. Age at marriage.
2. Duration of married life.2. Duration of married life.
3. Spacing of children.3. Spacing of children.
4. Education.4. Education.
5. Economic factors.5. Economic factors.
6. Caste & religion.6. Caste & religion.
7. Nutrition.7. Nutrition.
8. Family planning.8. Family planning.
9. Other factors9. Other factors

31. ..
► FERTILITY-RELATED FERTILITY-RELATED
STATISTICS:STATISTICS:

1. 1. Birth Rate:Birth Rate:
It is define as “the no of live births/ It is define as “the no of live births/
1000 estimated mid-year population, in a 1000 estimated mid-year population, in a
given yr”.given yr”.

32. Birth RateBirth Rate== N0 of live births during the yearN0 of live births during the year
Estimated mid-year population *1000 Estimated mid-year population *1000
2.2.General Fertility Rate (GFRGeneral Fertility Rate (GFR):):
It is the “no of live births /1000 women in It is the “no of live births /1000 women in
the reproductive age-group in a given yr”.the reproductive age-group in a given yr”.
No of live births in an area No of live births in an area
GFRGFR= = during the yearduring the year **10001000
Midyear female population age in the sameMidyear female population age in the same
area in same yeararea in same year

33. 3.3.General Marital Fertility Rate (GMFR):General Marital Fertility Rate (GMFR):
It is the “number of live births per 1000 It is the “number of live births per 1000
married women in the reproductive age group married women in the reproductive age group
(15-44 or 49) in a given year”.(15-44 or 49) in a given year”.
Number of live births in a year Number of live births in a year
GMFRGMFR= *1000= *1000
Midyear married female population Midyear married female population
in the age group 15-49 yearin the age group 15-49 year
4. 4. Age-specific Fertility Rate (ASFR):Age-specific Fertility Rate (ASFR):
Defines as the" number of live births in Defines as the" number of live births in
a year to 1000 women in any specified age-a year to 1000 women in any specified age-
group”.group”.

34. Number of live births in a Number of live births in a
particular age groupparticular age group
ASFR = *1000 ASFR = *1000
Midyear female populationMidyear female population
of the same age group of the same age group
5 5 Age-specific Marital Fertility Rate (ASMFR):Age-specific Marital Fertility Rate (ASMFR):
It is the number of live births in a year to It is the number of live births in a year to
1000 married women in any specified age 1000 married women in any specified age
group.group.

35. Number of live birth in aNumber of live birth in a
particular age groupparticular age group
ASMFR= * 1000ASMFR= * 1000
Midyear married female Midyear married female
population of the same age grouppopulation of the same age group
6. 6. Total Fertility Rate (TFR):Total Fertility Rate (TFR):
Total fertility rate represents the average Total fertility rate represents the average
number of children a woman would have if number of children a woman would have if
she were to pass through her reproductive she were to pass through her reproductive
years bearing children at the same rates as years bearing children at the same rates as
the women now in each age group (29). the women now in each age group (29).

36. It is computed by summing the age-It is computed by summing the age-
specific fertility rates for all ages; if 5-year age specific fertility rates for all ages; if 5-year age
groups are used, the sum of the rates is groups are used, the sum of the rates is
multiplied by 5. This measure gives the multiplied by 5. This measure gives the
approximate magnitude of “completed family approximate magnitude of “completed family
size”.size”.
7.Total Marital Fertility Rate (TMFR):7.Total Marital Fertility Rate (TMFR):
Average number of children that would Average number of children that would
be born to a married women if she be born to a married women if she
experiences the current fertility pattern experiences the current fertility pattern
throughout her reproductive span.throughout her reproductive span.

37. 8. 8. Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR):Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR):
Average number of girls that would be born Average number of girls that would be born
to a woman if she experiences the current to a woman if she experiences the current
fertility pattern throughout her reproductive fertility pattern throughout her reproductive
span, assuming no mortality.span, assuming no mortality.
9. 9. Net Reproduction Rate (NRR):Net Reproduction Rate (NRR):
NetNet Reproduction Rate (NRR) is defined as Reproduction Rate (NRR) is defined as
the number of daughters a newborn girl will bear the number of daughters a newborn girl will bear
her lifetime assuming fixed age-specific fertility & her lifetime assuming fixed age-specific fertility &
mortality rates(30).mortality rates(30).

38. The present level of NRR in India is 1.5 The present level of NRR in India is 1.5
(1990). NRR of 1 is equivalent to attaining (1990). NRR of 1 is equivalent to attaining
approximately the 2-child norm. If the NRR is approximately the 2-child norm. If the NRR is
less than 1, then the reproductive less than 1, then the reproductive
performance of the population is said to be performance of the population is said to be
below replacement level.below replacement level.
10.10.Children-woman Ratio:Children-woman Ratio:
It is the number of children 0-4 years of It is the number of children 0-4 years of
age per 1000 women of child-bearing age, age per 1000 women of child-bearing age,
usually defined as 15-44 or 49 years of age.usually defined as 15-44 or 49 years of age.

39. 11.11.Pregnancy Rate:Pregnancy Rate:
It is the ratio of number of pregnancies in a It is the ratio of number of pregnancies in a
year to married women in the ages 15-44 or 49 year to married women in the ages 15-44 or 49
years. The “number of pregnancies, whether years. The “number of pregnancies, whether
these had terminated as live births, still-births or these had terminated as live births, still-births or
abortions or had not yet terminated.abortions or had not yet terminated.

12. 12. Abortion Rate:Abortion Rate:
The number of all types of abortions, usuallyThe number of all types of abortions, usually
Per 1000 women of child-bearing age (32). Per 1000 women of child-bearing age (32).

40. 13.13. Abortion Ratio:Abortion Ratio:
This is calculated by dividing the number This is calculated by dividing the number
of abortions performed during a particular time of abortions performed during a particular time
period by the number of live births over the period by the number of live births over the
period (33).period (33).
14. 14. Marriage Rate:Marriage Rate:
It is the number of marriages in the year It is the number of marriages in the year
per 1000 population:per 1000 population:
Crude Number of marriages in the yearCrude Number of marriages in the year
Marriage= *1000Marriage= *1000
Rate Mid-year populationRate Mid-year population

41. Demographers consider this a very Demographers consider this a very
unsatisfactory rate, because the denominator is unsatisfactory rate, because the denominator is
comprised primarily of population that is not comprised primarily of population that is not
eligible to marry. A more sensitive rate is the eligible to marry. A more sensitive rate is the
general marriage rate:general marriage rate:
General Number of marriages within one yearGeneral Number of marriages within one year
Marriage= *1000Marriage= *1000
Rate Number of unmarried persons Rate Number of unmarried persons
age 15-49 yearsage 15-49 years
This rate is more accurate when computed This rate is more accurate when computed
for women than for men because more men than for women than for men because more men than
women marry at the older ages (15).women marry at the older ages (15).

42. • Fertility indicators 2003-all India- Fertility indicators 2003-all India- TABLETABLE
IndicatorIndicator RuralRuralUrbanUrbanCombinedCombined
General Fertility Rate General Fertility Rate
(GFR)(GFR)
103.5103.571.971.995.395.3
General Marital Fertility General Marital Fertility
Rate (GMFR)Rate (GMFR)
141.0141.0106.4106.4132.6132.6
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)Total Fertility Rate (TFR)3.23.22.22.2 3.03.0
Total Marital Fertility Total Marital Fertility
Rate (TMFR)Rate (TMFR)
4.94.94.24.2 4.74.7
Gross Reproduction Rate Gross Reproduction Rate
(GRR)(GRR)
1.51.51.01.0 1.41.4
Mean age at effective Mean age at effective
marriage for femalesmarriage for females
19.819.821.121.120.120.1

43. • Fertility trends:Fertility trends:
►HIGH BIRTH RATE:HIGH BIRTH RATE:
The causes of high birth rate are: The causes of high birth rate are:
1.1. Universality of marriage: Universality of marriage:
Marriages are universal & sacramental. Marriages are universal & sacramental.
Everyone, sooner or later gets married & Everyone, sooner or later gets married &
participates in reproduction. The individual’s participates in reproduction. The individual’s
economic security or emotional maturity are economic security or emotional maturity are
seldom a pre-requisite to marriage. seldom a pre-requisite to marriage.
2. 2. Early marriage:Early marriage:
Marriages are performed early. Data Marriages are performed early. Data
indicate that about 60 percent of the girls aged indicate that about 60 percent of the girls aged
15-19 years are already married. 15-19 years are already married.

44. 3.3.Early puberty:Early puberty:
Indian girls attain puberty early, between Indian girls attain puberty early, between
12 & 14 years.12 & 14 years.
4.4.Low standard of living:Low standard of living:
Where standards of living are low, birth Where standards of living are low, birth
rates are high.rates are high.
5.5.Low level of literacy: Low level of literacy:
The 2001 census showed that only 65.38 The 2001 census showed that only 65.38
percent of the population was literate. The female percent of the population was literate. The female
literacy is still lower, especially in the rural literacy is still lower, especially in the rural
areas.areas.
6.6.Traditional customs & habits: Traditional customs & habits:
Customs dictate that every woman must Customs dictate that every woman must
marry & every man must have a son. Children marry & every man must have a son. Children
are considered a gift of God & their birth should are considered a gift of God & their birth should
not be obstructed. not be obstructed.

45. 7.7.Absences of family planning habit:Absences of family planning habit:
Family planning is of recent origin. Family planning is of recent origin.
It has not yet become part of the marital It has not yet become part of the marital
mores of the people.mores of the people.
►DECLINING DEATH RATEDECLINING DEATH RATE : :
The declining death rate has been The declining death rate has been
attributed to: attributed to:
1.absence of natural checks, e.g., famines 1.absence of natural checks, e.g., famines
& large scale epidemics,& large scale epidemics,
2. mass control of diseases, e.g., smallpox, 2. mass control of diseases, e.g., smallpox,
plague, cholera, malaria etc., plague, cholera, malaria etc.,

46. 3. Advances in medical science, e.g., extensive 3. Advances in medical science, e.g., extensive
use of chemotherapeutics, antibiotics, & use of chemotherapeutics, antibiotics, &
insecticides,insecticides,
4. Better health facilities, e.g., establishment of 4. Better health facilities, e.g., establishment of
primary health cantres & more treatment primary health cantres & more treatment
centres,centres,
5. Impact of national health programmes,5. Impact of national health programmes,
6. Improvements in food supply,6. Improvements in food supply,
7. International aid in several directions,7. International aid in several directions,
8. Development of social consciousness among 8. Development of social consciousness among
the masses. the masses.
►Growth rate: Growth rate: