DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BRIQUETTING MOLD

A project on biomass briquetting mold for conversion of biomass waste to briquetting.
Biomass briquettes are cooking fuels form from biomass for the reduction of the use of firewood in rural area mostly.

1. DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BIOMASS BRIQUETTING MOLD


BY


EKWUEME HENRY M.
KPT/COE/CHEM/10/007




SUBMITTED




TO DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING FOR PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING KADUNA POLYTECHNIC KADUNA



OCTOBER, 2014.

2. DECLARATION
I, Ekwueme Henry M. sincerely declare that this research project was conducted by me
under the supervision of Engr. Victor Kurah and Mallam Murtala Mohammed, of the
Department of Chemical Engineering, Kaduna polytechnic.

Ekwueme Henry M.
Student name Signature
KPT/COE/1O/007

3. APPROVAL PAGE
This is to certify that this project is an original work undertaken by Ekwueme Henry M.,
KPT/COE/10/007 and it has been carried out in accordance with the rules and regulations
guiding the preparation and presentations of projects in Kaduna polytechnic.


Engr. Victor Kurah Date.
(Project Supervisor)


Mallam M. Mohammed Date.
(Co- Supervisor)



Engr. Sirajo Lawal Date.
(Project Coordinator)



Engr. M. A. Ali Date.
(Head of Department)

4. DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to God almighty for enabling me with the strength which helped
me in overcoming all challengers that came my way during the course of this study.
And to my dear Parents Mr. Thomas A. Ekwueme and Mrs. Uchenna C. Ekwueme, that
supported me financially and morally through the course of this project.

5. ACKNOWNLEDGEMENT
I wish to acknowledge with deep gratitude the head of my department, Engr. A. M. Ali for
making this work possible and to my supervisor, Engr. Victor kurah and Co-supervisor
Mallam Murtala Mohammed for the guidance and encouragement I received from them
during the course of this work.
I am also deeply grateful and humbled by the support I always get from my parent, Aunty
(Mrs. Chigozie Ofordum) and sibling, I received all the financial and moral support I
needed from them as I work on this project. I pray that God will grant them grace to
succeed more and more.
To my project group member, Nwali O. Emmanuel, Ahera T. Joseph, Emordi Henry and
the only She among us, Awe D. Sarah, ‘hmm’ at last we are through, the biggest thanks to
you all. For we passed through the challenges of this course together without anyone
giving up when things seem bad and now here we are with the best solution for the project,
you guys are the best.
Nevertheless, I also thank my friends, class mate and well-wisher for their support and
encouragement towards the success of this work. Valentine Edokwe, Ebuka and Emeka
Obide and Abraham are those I owe much gratitude to.
Above all, I thank the Almighty God for sparing my life to witness such a great venture.

6. ABSTRACT
In this study, an appropriate commercial biomass briquetting machine suitable for use in
rural communities was designed and constructed, and the performance evaluation carried
out using sawdust. The physical and combustion properties of the briquette were
determined at varying biomass-binder ratios of 100:15, 100:25, 100:35 and 100:45 using
cassava starch as the binding agent. Both the physical and combustion properties of the
briquette were significantly affected by the binder level (Pressure < 0.05). The optimum
biomass-binder ratio on the basis of the compressed density was attained at the 100:25
blending ratio having a compressed density of 0.7269g/cm
3
and a heating value of
27.17MJKg
-1
while the optimum blending ratio on the basis of the heating value was
attained at the 100:35 blending ratio with a compressed density of 0.7028g/cm
3
. It was
concluded that the heating values at the optimum biomass-binder ratios were sufficient to
produce heat required for household cooking and small scale industrial cottage
applications. The biomass briquetting machine had a production capacity of about
7.2kg/hr.

7. TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENTS Page
Title page i
Approval ii
Declaration iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgment v
Abstract vi
Table of content vii

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Aims and Objectives 2
1.2 Scope of Work 2
1.3 Justification of Work 3

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 History of Briquetting Technology 5
2.2 Briquetting Technology 7

8. 2.2.0 Merits and Demerits of Piston press Technology 8
2.2.1 Merits and Demerits of Screw Press Technology 10
2.3 Compaction Characteristics of biomass and their significance 11
2.3.0 Effect of particle size 12
2.3.1 Effect of moisture 12
2.3.2 Effect of Temperature 13
2.3.3 Effect of Temperature of the Die 13
2.3.4 Effect of external additives 14
2.4 Unit Operations 15
2.5 Briquetting Process Overview 16
2.6 Briquette Storage 16
2.7 Application of Briquette 17

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY 18
3.1 Material of Construction and Their Specification 19
3.1.0 The mold or molder 19
3.1.1 The Supporting Frame 20
3.1.2 Movable Disc 20
3.1.3 Hydraulic Jack 21

9. 3.1.4 The Machine Stand [Wheel stand] 21
3.1.5 The Flange 22
3.1.6 The Anchor 23
3.1.7 Compressing Handle 23
3.1.8 Metal Spring 24
3.2 Methodology 24
3.3 Briquetting Method 25
3.4 Briquetting procedure 25

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULT 26
4.1 Result 27
4.2 Discussion of result 27

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 28
5.1 Conclusion 28
5.2 Recommendation 29
References
Appendix

10. CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The present world’s energy crisis and its related environmental issues as well as
increasing trend of fossil fuel prices, renewable energy source is an essential
matter.
Biomass briquettes are renewable source of energy and they avoid adding fossil
carbon to the atmosphere. They are made from agricultural waste and are
replacement for fossil fuels, and can be used to heat boilers in manufacturing
plants and also have applications in developing countries.
Biomass, a domestic energy source is naturally abundant and present promising
renewable energy opportunity that could provide an alternative to the use of
fossil resources. Biomass being the third largest primary energy resource in the
world, after coal and oil, it still meet the major fraction of the energy demand in
rural areas of most developing countries, (Bapat et al, 1997).
To survive in competitive environment, biomass briquette entrepreneurs should
be provided and appropriate technology which helps to reduce production cost
and time, and improve productivity.
Therefore, in this paper we provide a biomass briquetting machine which
produces a cheap and quality briquette. This biomass briquettes are biofuel

11. substitutes to coal and charcoal, and biomass residues being lice rice husk, rice
straw, wheat straw, maize stalk, saw dust, bagasse, cocoanut coir (back) and
groundnut shall have high energy potential.
These residues found a variety of forms have high moisture content and low
bulk densities.

1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this project is to design and fabricate a briquetting machine which
can be used in briquetting of biomass waste.
This aim can be actualized through the following objectives:
a. Presentation of a detailed design calculation of the equipment unit of a manual
press briquetting machine.
b. Presentation of a detailed economic analysis of the project

1.2 SCOPE OF THE WORK
The scope of this work (project) is as follows:
i. Designing of briquette mold.
ii. Fabrication of briquetting mold.
iii. Test-running of the briquetting mold.

12. 1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF WORK
The justification of this work is as follows:
I. Rid urban settlement of a large bulk of the solid waste it produces at
various sources (biomass waste).
II. Stimulate or provide employment (collectors, producers, traders and
others).
III. Provide an alternative and locally available source of energy (Example
charcoal).
IV. Reduction of deforestation, environmental pollution and others

13. CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE SURVEY
Fuel briquettes generated by the low pressure compaction of paper, sawdust,
agricultural or yard waste, etc., currently serve as an alternative or substitute to
firewood, wood pellets and charcoal in developing countries in Africa, Asia and
south America, and also used by fire industrial boiler that produce steam.
Hence, briquette produces higher calories value more than coal. Research at
Boise state university in Idaho, explored both the caloric content and shape to
optimize burn efficiency of the briquettes. The energy content of briquettes
ranged from 4.48 to 5.95kj/g (kilojoule per gram) depending on composition,
whereas the energy content of sawdust, charcoal and wood pellets ranged from
7.24 to 8.25kj/g.
Bio briquettes molded into a hollow-core cylindrical form exhibited energy
output comparable to that of traditional fuels.
The study demonstrate that low-energy content feed stocks can be composted,
pressed and combusted to produce heat output commensurate with higher energy
content fuels.
In 2006, the United State produced more than 227 billion kilogram (kg) of solid
waste, this equates to approximately 2.1kg per person per day, where

14. approximately half of this amount is in the form of paper and horticultural
rubbish, (Adjaye J. D., 1995).
Conversion of these waste into combustible biomass briquettes would provide a
means to satisfy individual energy needs while alleviating landfill use.
Further, lumber has become a scarce resource in many regions of the world, and
there is a pressing need for sustainable fuels to augment or replace traditional
wood fuel.
The energy produced when properly molded bio briquettes are combusted is
comparable to traditional fuels.
Ideally, biofuels can be made from renewable and readily available materials
and their production should result in a reduced environmental impact when
compared to traditional fuels being replaced.

2.1 HISTORY OF BRIQUETTING TECHNOLO GY
First biomass briquetting technology developed was in Europe and the United
States. Industrial methods of briquetting date back in the second part of the 19
th

century.
In 1865, a report was made on a machine used for making fuel briquettes from
peat, current machines screw extrusion briquetting technology was invented and
developed in Japan in 1945.

15. As of April 1969, there were 638 plants in Japan, Japan engaged in
manufacturing sawdust briquettes known as ‘ogalite’.
The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA), a finance
granting agency which has financed many briquetting projects.
High compaction technology or binderless technology consists of the piston
press and the screw press. Most of the unit currently installed in India are the
reciprocating type where the biomass is pressed in a die by reciprocating ram at
a very high pressure.
The use of organic fuel briquettes in 1970’s was started in Scandinavia, the
U.S.A and Canada (Mc Cabe W.L, 1956).

2.2 BRIQUETTING TECHNNOLOGY
There are two major briquetting technology which are piston and screw press
technology. These are discuss as follows:

I. Piston Press Technology
The piston presses which are currently operating in India are also known as ram
and die technology, is the most common type of briquetting in India.
In this case, the biomass is punched into a die by a reciprocating ram with a very
high pressure thereby compressing the mass to obtain a briquette.

16. The pressure in the compression section is in the order of 110 to 140mpa.
Temperature up to the lignin is becoming fluid and the briquette produced is
60mm in external diameter.
This machine has a 700kg/hr. capacity and the power requirement is 25 kilowatt.
The ram moves approximately 270 times per minute in this process.

II. Screw Press Technology
In the screw-type briquetting press, the material is compressed in the form of a
log under screw and the process is continuous without any break.
The central hole incorporated into the briquette produced by a screw extruder
helps to achieve uniform and efficient combustion and also, these briquette can
be carbonized. Logs are partly carbonized and free of volatile compounds.
An electrical coil heater was fixed on the outer surface of the die, to heat it to
about 300 degree Celsius. This temperature is required to soften the lignin in the
biomass, which acts as a binder.
Screw press in a screw extruder press, the biomass is extruded continuously by a
screw through a heated taper die.
The power consumption in the former is less than that of the latter, briquette
quality and production procedure of screw press is superior to the piston press
technology, (Buckingham, 1963.).

17. 2.2.0 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF PISTON PRESS TECHNOLOGY
i. There is less relative motion between the ram and biomass hence, wear of the
ram is considerably reduced.
ii. It is the most cost-effective technology currently offered by the Indian market.
iii. Some operational experience has now been gained using different type of
biomass.
iv. The moisture content of the raw material should be less than 12% for the best
result.
v. The quality of the briquettes goes down with an increase in production for the
same power.
vi. Carbonization of the outer layer is not possible, briquettes are somewhat brittle.

2.2.1 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF SCREW PRESS TECHNOLOGY
In the screw press technology, the biomass is extruded continuously by a screw
through a taper die which is heated externally to reduce the friction.
I. The output is continuous and the briquette is uniform in size.
II. The outer surface of the briquette is partially carbonized facilitating easy
ignition and combustion. This also protects the briquettes from ambient
moisture.

18. III. A concentric hole in the briquette helps in combustion because of sufficient
circulation of air.
IV. The machine runs very smoothly without any shock load and is light compared
to the piston press because of the absence of reciprocating parts and flywheel.
V. The machine parts and the oil used in the machine are free from dust or raw
material contamination.
VI. The power requirement of the machine is high compared to that of piston press.

2.2 COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOMASS AND THEIR
SIGNIFICANCE
In order to produce good quality briquettes, feed preparation is very important.
Feed parameters are discussed below as these play a practicable role in
briquetting technology.
For densification of biomass, it is important to know the feed parameters that
influence the extrusion process, for different briquetting machines, the required
parameters of raw materials like their particle size, moisture content, and
temperature different, etc. These are discussed above;

19. 2.3.0 Effect of Particle Size.
Particle size and shape are of great important for densification. It is generally
agreed that biomass material of 6-8mm size with 10-20% powdery component
(<4 mesh) gives the best results.
Although the screw extruder which employs high pressure (1000-1500 bar), is
capable of briquetting material of oversized particles, the briquetting will not be
smooth and clogging mighty take place at the entrance of the die resulting in
jamming of the machine.
The larger particles which are not conveyed through the screw
Start accumulating at the entry point and the steam produced due to high
temperature (due to rotation of screw, heat conducted from the die and also if
the material is preheated) inside the barrel of the machine start condensing on
fresh cold feed resulting in the formation of lumps and leads to jamming. That is
why the processing conditions should be changed to suit the requirements of
each particular biomass.
Therefore, it is desirable to crush larger particles to get a random distribution of
particle size so that an adequate amount of sufficiently small particle is present
for embedding into the larger particles.
The presence of different size particles improves the packing dynamics and also
contributes to high static strength. Only fine and powdered particles of size less

20. than 1mm are not suitable for a screw extruder because they are less dense, more
cohesive, non-free flowing entities (Aqa, S. and Bhattacharya S.C., 1992).

2.3.1 Effect of Moisture
The percentage of moisture in the feed biomass to extruder machine is a very
critical factor. In general, it has been found that when the feed moisture content
is 8-10%, the briquettes will have 6-8% moisture.
At this moisture content, the briquettes are strong and free of cracks and the
briquetting process is smooth.
But when the moisture content is more than 10%, the briquettes are poor and
weak and the briquetting operation is erratic.
Excess steam is produced at higher moisture content leading to the blockage of
incoming feed from the hopper and sometimes it shoots out the briquettes from
the die.
Therefore, it is necessary to maintain an optimum moisture content. In the
briquetting process water also act as a film type binder by strengthening the
bonding in briquettes. In the case of organic and cellular product, water helps in
promoting bonding by van der Waal’s forces by increasing the true area of
contact of the particles.

21. In fact, the surface effects of water are so pronounced that the success or failure
of the compaction process solely depends upon the moisture content of the
material. The right amount of moisture develops self-bonding properties in lingo
cellulosic substance at elevated temperatures and pressures prevalent in
briquetting machines.
It is important to establish the initial moisture content of the biomass feed so that
the briquettes produced have a moisture content greater than the equilibrium
value.
Otherwise the briquettes may swell during storage and transportation and
disintegrate when exposed to humid atmospheric conditions (Eriksson, S. and
M. Prior, 1990).

2.3.2 Effect of Temperature of Biomass
By varying the temperature of biomass the briquette density, briquette crushing
strength and moisture stability can be varied.
In a screw extruder, the temperature does not remain constant in the axial
direction of the press but gradually increase.
Internal and external friction causes local heating and the material develops self-
bonding properties at elevated temperatures. It can also be assumed that the
moisture present in the material forms steam under high pressure condition

22. which then hydrolyses the hemicellulose and lignin portions of biomass into
lower molecular carbohydrates, lignin products, sugar polymers and other
derivatives.
These products, when subjected to heat and pressure in the die, act as adhesive
binders and provide a bonding effect “in situ.”
The addition of heat also relaxes the inherent fibers in biomass and biomass and
apparently softens its structure, thereby reducing their resistance to briquetting
which in turn results in a decreased specific power consumption and a
corresponding increase in production rate and reduction in wear of the contact
parts.
However, the temperature should not be increased beyond the decomposition
temperature of biomass which is around 300
.
c (degree Celsius).

2.3.2 Effect of Temperature of Die
The distinctive feature of a screw briquetting machine is that heat is applied to
the die ‘bush’ section of the cylinder.
This brings about two important operational advantages; the machine can be
operated with less power and the life of the die is prolonged.
Further, the surface of the briquette is partially carbonized or terrified to a dark
brown color making the briquette resistant to atmospheric moisture during

23. storage. The temperature of the die should be kept at about 280-290
.
c (degree
Celsius), if the die temperature is more than the required one, the friction
between the raw material and the die wall decreases such that compaction
Occurs at lower pressure which results in poor densification and inferior
strength.
Conversely, low temperature will result in higher pressure and power
consumption and lower production rate (Sen, K. C., 1987).

2.3.4 Effect of External Additives
The briquetting process does not add to the calorific value of the base biomass.
In order to upgrade the specific heating value and combustibility of the
briquette, certain additives like charcoal and coal in very fine form can be
added. About 10-20% char fines can be employed in briquetting without
impairing their quality.
Further, only screw pressed briquettes can be carbonized, when carbonized with
additive in the briquette to make dense charcoal, the yield is remarkably
increased. However, depending upon the quality of charcoal and coal powder,
various formulations can be evolved for optional results.
In piston press technology the effect of particle size and moisture content is
similar to that of the screw press, but in this case preheating of raw material is

24. not employed and the die is not heated. In fact the die needs cooling for smooth
briquetting, (Reece, F. N., 1966).

2.4 UNIT OPERATION
The above factors illustrate that biomass feed preparation is very important and
forms an integral part of the briquetting process.
The unit operations of the piston press and screw press are similar except where
the latest development in screw press technology has been adopted, i:e, where a
preheating system has been incorporated to preheat the raw material for
briquetting to give better performance commercially and economically to suit
local conditions. In the present piston press operating plants, the biomass is
briquetted after pre-processing the raw material but no preheating is carried out.
Depending upon the type of biomass, there processes are generally required
involving the following steps.
a. Sieving – Drying – Preheating – Densification – Cooling – Packing.
b. Sieving – Crushing – Preheating – Densification – Cooling – Packing.
c. Drying – crushing – preheating – densification – Cooling – Packing.
The first process is adopted when sawdust is used, while the second process is
for agro and mill residues which are normally dry. These materials are coffee
husk, groundnut shell, etc.

25. The third process is for materials like bagasse, coir pith (which do not need
sieving), mustard and other cereal stalks, (Mc Cabe W. L, 1956).

2.5 BRIQUETTING PROCESS OVERVIEW
Briquetting process is a process of compaction of residues into a product of
higher density than the original raw material.
In developing countries such as Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand, biomass
briquettes are mostly carbonized to obtain briquetted charcoal. The briquette
carbonization production process consists of a carbonization stage and a
compaction stage.
In the carbonization stage, a biomass material such as wood is heated
(approximately 450
.
c) but is not given enough oxygen for the material to burn,
this stage produces charcoal.
In compaction stage, the charcoal is crushed into very small size as a carbonized
powder. Then the powder and some binder are completely mixed at a
predetermined mixing ratio.
After that, the mixture is brought into the molding machine to form the
briquettes and the briquettes formed are dried and cooled. An overview of the
process flow is shown below in fig 2.1, (El-Hagar S. M., 2007).

26. Fig 2.1: Biomass Briquetting Process.




Each step of the process is detailed as follows:
a) Carbonizing: the raw material is carbonized by less air combustion in
carbonization furnace with low temperature approximately 450
.
C.
b) Crushing: the carbonized material is crushed into very small size by using
crushing machine.
c) Mixing: appropriate proportions of raw materials and binder are mixed
thoroughly into the mixing container.
d) Briquetting: the mixture is pressured or produced into finished products
called briquettes. Briquetting machine is used for briquetting charcoal fine
into charcoal briquettes.
e) Drying: the briquettes will be dried under sunlight, so as to make it strong.
Carbonization
Crushing
Mixing Briquetting Drying
Raw
material
Briquettes
Compaction stage
Carbonization
stage

27. The important manufacturing process of the charcoal briquette production is
crushing, mixing and briquetting, which requires three machines in the
production process.
There are several methods available for briquetting biomass.
In developing countries, the well-known briquetting method that is suitable for
small-scale application is the screw press briquetting.
The raw material from the hopper is conveyed and compressed by a screw in the
briquetting machine. This process can produce denser and stronger briquettes
compared with piston process, (Abkr, Y. A, 2006).

2.6 BRIQUETTE STORAGE
Once the pre-processed feed is introduced to the machine, the briquettes are
extruded in a continuous length. They are then cut to the desired length. In a
screw press, as the briquettes come out of a heated die, the temperature of the
briquettes is very high, requiring them to be cooled before storage. There is also
lot of associated steam and hot gases which escape through the hole of the
briquette and a fume exhaust system is generally used to take these up to the
atmosphere so that the briquetting site remains free from polluting gases and hot
steam.

28. Piston press briquettes do not need cutting or cooling as they come out in small
pieces produced by strokes and they are not hot. These briquettes come out of a
water cooled die and can be immediately stored. There is also no associated
steam or hot gases. The hot screw press briquettes are usually cooled over the
conveying belt during their transportation to the storage site. They are stacked
length-wise and do not cause any fire hazard due to spontaneous combustion as
is the case with heaps of agro-residues. The briquettes should be protected from
water and it is ideal to store them under a shed.

2.7 APPLICATIONS OF BRIQUETTE
The briquettes are particularly recommended for
a. Boilers: For steam generation.
b. Food processing industries: Distilleries, bakeries, canteens, restaurants and
drying etc.
c. Textile process houses: Dyeing, bleaching etc.
d. Agro-products: Tobacco curing, tea drying, oil milling etc.
e. Clay products: Brick kilns, tile making, pot firing etc.
f. Domestic: Cooking and water heating.
g. Gasification: Fuel for gasifiers.
h. Charcoal: Suitable for making charcoal in kilns.

29. CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR SPECIFICATION
The briquetting machine present in this research produces six cylindrical
briquettes and it consist of different major parts such as:
a) The moulds or moulders,
b) Supporting frame,
c) Movable disc,
d) Hydraulic jack,
e) The machine stand,
f) The flange,
g) Compressing handle of the jack and
h) The anchor.
i) Metal spring
All this parts made up the machine and the machine is of height 1500mm and
700mm width. The machine is in a frame-like shape and operated manually
hence, man-power (hand) are used to drive the jack to the required depth.
The briquettes were made in the form of hollow core cylinder with a diameter of
80mm and length of 170mm.

30. The specification of this parts are described below.

3.1.0 The Moulds or Moulders
These parts consist of metal, made in a cylindrical shape with diameter 80mm
and length of 170mm. The moulds are six in number in the briquetting machine
and is responsible for moulding or forming of the shape and size of the
briquettes.

3.1.1 The Supporting Frame
The supporting frame is the part that give the machine its structure and support,
in order to stay firm on its stand.
It is called supporting frame due to its frame-like shape and support, it gives to
the machine.

3.1.2 Movable Disc and Rods
As the name implies, is a disc of diameter 80mm attached to a rod, length
200mm which is connected to the hydraulic jack with a pan intermediate of
square shape and breadth of 500mm.

31. The movable disc helps in applying pressure so as to compress the raw material
in the mould or moulder to form briquettes and it is also six in the machine as
the moulders.

3.1.3 Hydraulic Jack
This is the main source of vertical motion necessary for briquetting operations.
The vertical motion produced by the hydraulic jack is converted into pressure by
the contact of the moveable disc with the briquettes in the mold.
It consists of a compressing handle which energizes the hydraulic jack to
produce vertical upward and downward motion (transitional movement).
The Hydraulic jacks used are ten (10) tons and fifteen (15) tons respectively for
the compressing activity and supporting motion.

3.1.4 The Machine Stand [Wheel Stand]
The briquetting machine consist of four stand that keeps it at equilibrium. The
stand serves as the foundation of the machine because it bears the whole weight
of the machine and keep the machine at a standard equilibrium. A wheel stand
was used for the machine, to aid easy mobility of the machine.

32. 3.1.5 The Flange
It is the metallic part that projected from one end to the other which holds the
jack or keeps it to firm. This part keeps it stable and it is different from the
anchor but is part of the supporting frame.

3.1.6 The Anchor
It is a part of the supporting frame that prevent the movement of the second pan
holding the moulds in the machine.
The pan is fix firmly and stably so that it can be able to withstand the pressure
applied by the jack during moulding of the briquettes (briquetting). And the part
supporting the third pan, preventing it from dangling can also be referred to as
an anchor.

3.1.7 Compressing Handle
This is the part that controls the hydraulic jack. When pressure is needed for
compression or briquetting, the handle is been moved in an upward and
downward direction to bring about the movement of the jack so as to apply
pressure to the raw material to produce briquettes.

33. 3.1.8 Metal Springs
The metal spring aid the compressing hydraulic jack, returning it back to its
starting point after compaction must have taking place. It also keep the jack at
its normal state as it is subjected to pressure (weight of the pan, pulling the jack
downward).

3.2 METHODOLOGY
3.3 BRIQUETTING METHOD
The manufacture of briquettes in more rural location is of the central interest in
this study. It is possible to form briquettes from waste crop residues, in location
with limited equipment availability, using a wet process with a hand operated
press.
In this study any raw material can be considered in test running the machine,
especially materials that are more rampant or ease to get in the environment, the
briquettes is to be produced.
The raw material passes through different stages before it is been briquetted and
the machine in this study is only responsible for moulding of the briquettes
(briquetting). This stages are carbonization and compaction stage, and they are
discussed below;

34. i. Carbonization stage: from the name carbonization, it is simply the act of
carbonizing which means to turn something to carbon especially by heating it.
These stage deals with heating of the raw material.
ii. Compaction stage: it consist of four steps which consist of crushing, mixing,
briquetting and drying and these steps leads to the final product which is the
briquettes.
The machine in this study is only responsible for the third step in the compacting
stage which is the briquetting.
a. Crushing deals with the breaking down of the raw materials into smaller
size.
b. Mixing is the addition of additives such as bond etc. to the raw material to
make it compactible.
c. Briquetting is compressing the raw materials to form briquettes.
d. Drying is the final step which is the exposition of the briquette to the
sunlight or alternative source of heat to make it heat and easily
combustible.

35. 3.4 BRIQUETTING PROCEDURE
The design and construction of briquetting machine is the major interest in this
study. It is possible to form briquettes from crop residue like chaff in a location
with limited technologies available by using a hand operated press. In this study,
the method used in briquetting is hydraulic pressing system. The hydraulic
pumps are welded on the upper and lower frames of the machine and the upper
hydraulic pump serving as the compressing pump and the lower hydraulic pump
serves as a table support and height adjustment pump. The moveable discs are
welded on the upper moveable plate of the machine to ensure uniform motion of
the individual compressing discs. The molds are welded on the fixed tables and
another moveable table with core producing rod is welded on the jack below the
fixed table to serve as a cover to the molds during compressing operation.
During operation, the lower moveable table is first moved to cover the molds
opening at the bottom then chaff is fed into the molds and the upper jacked is
lowered my using the compressing handle to energize the jack there by adding
pressure to the chaff in the molds and then enabling the chaff to compact to
form briquettes. At the end of the briquetting, the briquettes formed are hollow
core.

36. CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULT
The performance of the machine is determined as follows:
True density (ρt) =
&#3627408448;
??????
---------------------------------------- (1)
Apparent density (ρa) =
&#3627408448;
??????o
-------------------------------------------------------------(2)
Percentage increase in density of compressed briquette:
ηd =
(ρa ̵ ρt)
ρa × 100
---------------------------------------(3)
Machine capacity, C
C=
&#3627408449;×60
??????
, per hour
Where;
M= Mass premixed feed mixture
H= Height of Briquette, M
h= Height of mold.
t = time taken to complete one operation, in minutes
Ao= Area of mold, m
2
Vo= Volume of mold, m
3
V= Volume of Compressed briquette, m
3

37. ρa = apparent density of briquette, kg/m
3
ρt = true density of briquettes, kg/m
3

N = number of briquettes per operation
4.1 RESULT
The result of the performance tests are tabulated in the table below:
Table 4.1
S/N Mass of
feed (kg)
H(m) h(m) Vo(m
3
) V(m
3
) ρt (kg/m
3)
ρa (kg/m
3)
ηd(%)
1. 0.6 0.15 2.0 0.0013 0.00079 461.54 759.5 39.23
2. 0.6 0.15 2.0 0.0013 0.00079 461.54 759.5 39.23
3. 0.6 0.15 2.0 0.0013 0.00079 461.54 759.5 39.23
4. 0.6 0.15 2.0 0.0013 0.00079 461.54 759.5 39.23
5. 0.6 0.15 2.0 0.0013 0.00079 461.54 759.5 39.23
6. 0.6 0.15 2.0 0.0013 0.00079 461.54 759.5 39.23


1.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULT
The machine was operated successfully and it was observed that the edges of
some parts the briquettes were not too smooth due to clearance and friction
problem.

38. Further it was observed that if uniform pressure is not applied throughout the
entire volume of the material, it causes variation in compact density of the
products. The variation in the final height of the compressed briquettes is a
result of addition of starch as a binder to one of the samples which also affect
the percentage increase in density of the compressed briquettes.
Also, it was noted that the bigger the size of the briquettes the longer it takes for
drying, hence smaller briquettes tend to get dried faster compare to bigger ones.
The briquettes being made in this research work is mostly suitable for domestic
use.
In the construction of the machine, it was made in such a way that the volume
can be adjusted depending on the size needed by user.

4.2 RAW MATERIAL COST
The paid for residue, if any very much a site specific issues and much be
regarded as a unit cost relevant to a particular project. However, even if the
residue is normally free and readily available, it is common for a transport cost
to be incurred in bringing the residue to the briquetting plant.

39. 4.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATION
The general consideration in designing this briquetting machine is producing a
machine that could be easily assemble or disassemble.
A machine with a mold that allows material to pass through effectively with a
minimum wastage.
An extruder or screw to extrude the material as a solid briquette from the die
(mold). A machine that affordable and easy to operate.

40. CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
For the project aimed at designing and fabrication of the Briquetting machine, it
can be concluded that the overall efficiency of the machine in producing high
quality briquettes depend largely on the operating pressure of the equipment.
Also the progress of the process depend on the availability of the raw material,
thus equipment should be located in an area that the agro-residues are readily
available.
The project is economically wise in the sense that the raw material is usually
readily available at low cost or sometimes can be free.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
Based on the work carried out, the following can be recommended:
 The biomass briquetting mold should be modified to operate
automatically to reduce the time and energy expend in operating the
machine.
 The briquetting machine should be modified to include more molds,
mixer and less overall energy in briquetting operations.

41.  The Federal Government and other Non-Governmental Organizing to help
in financing the production of briquettes in the country in other to
compete with their counterparts in other countries and by so doing will
provide more job opportunities to the citizens.

42. REFERENCES

Adjaye J D. (1995), Catalyst conversion of Biomass-derived oil to fuel and chemicals:
model compound studies and reaction pathways Biomass and bio-energy 8(3):
131 -149.
Aqa S. (1990) A study of densification of preheated saw dust, masthesis, NO, ET, 90-4,
Asian Institute of Technology.
Grover P. G & Mishra S. K (1996) Biomass briquetting Technology and practices, food
and agricultural organization of the United Nations, No 46, FAO, Bangkok,
Thailand, Field document.
Hall D. O. (1994), Trees and Biomass energy: carbon storage and/ or fossil fuel
substitution, Biomass and bio energy 6(1–20): 11 -30.
MC Cabe W.L. and J. C. Smith, Unit operations in chemical engineering, pp943, 1956.
Obernberger I. (1997), Concentration of inorganic elements in Biomass fuel and
recovery in the different ash fraction, Biomass and Bio energy 12(3): 33-56.
Smouse and scott M. (1998), Promotion of Biomass Cogeneration with power expert in
the Indian sugar industry, fuel processing technology 54 (1-3):227-247.
Reece, F.N., Temperature, Pressure and time relationships in forming dense hay
wafers, Trans, A.S.A.E., 9, 749, 1966.

43. APPENDIX



Height of mold (ho) = 200mm = 0.2m
Radius of mold (ro) =
&#3627408465;??????????????????&#3627408466;??????&#3627408466;??????
2
=
90????????????
2
= 45mm = 0.045m
Volume of mold (vo) = π ro
2
ho = 3.142 × (0.045)
2
× 0.2 = 0.0013m
3

Height of briquette (h) = 150mm = 0.15m
Radius of briquette =
&#3627408465;??????????????????&#3627408466;??????&#3627408466;??????
2
=
82????????????
2
= 41mm = 0.041m
Volume of briquette (v) = π r
2
h = 3.142 × (0.041)
2
× 0.15 = 0.00079m
3

Radius of disc (re) =
&#3627408465;??????????????????&#3627408466;??????&#3627408466;??????
2
=
80????????????
2
= 40mm = 0.04m
Area of disc = 0.126m
2

Mass of briquette (M) = 600g = 0.6kg
Apparent density of briquette (ρa) =
&#3627408448;
??????
=
0.6????????????
0.00079??????3


= 759.5kg/m
3

True density of briquette (ρt) =
&#3627408448;
??????o
=
0.6????????????
0.00013??????3


= 461.54kg/m
3

44. Percentage increase in density of compressed briquette (ηd) =
(ρa ̵ ρt)
ρa × 100
=
(759.5−461.54)
759.5×100

= 39.23%
N = number of briquettes per operation = 6pieces

1. COST ESTIMATION
Material cost:
Table 1

S/N ITEM QUANTITY COST (₦)
1 Hydraulic jack 2 piece 11,000.00
2 Mild steel plate 1 sheet 5,000.00
3 Annular disc 6 pieces 1,500.00
4 Bolts and nuts 6 pieces 120.00
5 Long pipe 12 pieces 1,200.00
6 Long rod 6 pieces 600.00
7 Metal spring 2 pieces 1,900.00
8 Miscellaneous 15,000.00
Total equipment cost 36,320.00

45. Table 2

S/N SUBJECT COST (₦)
1 Fabrication and finishing
cost
17,500.00
Total cost 17,500.00




Table 3

S/N Capital cost Amount (₦)
1 Equipment cost 36,320.00
2 Fabrication cost 17,500.00
Total capital cost 53,820.00

46. DIAGRAM OF THE BRIQUETTING MOLD






Figure: I. Labelled diagram of the briquetting mold.

47. Figure II. Front view of the briquetting mold.

48. Figure III. Top view of the briquetting mold.


Figure IV. Side view of the briquetting mold.