ENG 151, ENG 156 powerpoint and examination

Professional Integration: ENG 151, ENG 156 Prepared by: Aldrin Laddran

E NG 151: Language, Culture and Society Prepared by: Aldrin Laddran

PRE-TEST

Maria is writing an essay for her linguistics class. She argues that language is not just a tool for communication but a key part of human identity. To support her claim, she cites an ancient philosopher's view that humans are unique because of their ability to reason, which depends on language. Which philosopher is Maria most likely referencing? a. Aristotle b. Descartes c. Plato d. Socrates

2. A scientist is studying the physical evolution of early humans and notices that certain changes in their vocal tract and brain structure align with their ability to produce more complex sounds. Which theory of language origin does this support? a. Divine Source b. Genetic Source c. Natural Sound Source d. Physical Adaptation Source

3. A researcher today is interested in testing the theory of a divine source of language, inspired by the ancient experiment of Psammetichus . The researcher isolates a group of infants in a controlled environment without exposure to human language. After a few years, the researcher notices the children are making sounds, but none of these resemble any known human language. What conclusion can the researcher most likely draw based on this result? a. The children are imitating random environmental sounds. b. The children have created their own complex language system. c. The children have naturally rediscovered the original divine language. d. The experiment is inconclusive because modern children do not have the capacity to rediscover

4. In a classroom, students are learning that different languages use different words to refer to the same objects. For example, "apple" in English is "manzana" in Spanish. What feature of human language does this lesson highlight? a. Arbitrariness b. Cultural Transmission c. Discreteness d. Duality

5. Two students from the same village attend different schools—one goes to a prestigious private school, while the other attends the local public school. Even though they grew up in the same area, their way of speaking differs. What type of language variety does this situation best describe? a. Accent b. Idiolect c. Regional Dialect d. Social Dialect

6. In a medical report, a doctor writes that a patient’s test results came back "negative." This means the condition being tested for was not present. The doctor’s use of the word "negative" in this specific way is an example of: Colloquialism Diglossia Jargon Slang

7. A professor gives a lecture using complex sentences and specialized terminology specific to their field. The language used in this context is best described as: Colloquial Register Formal Register Informal Register Technical Register

8. In the Philippines, a phrase like “Let’s make tusok-tusok the fish balls” is an example of: Creole Pidgin Slang Standard Language

9. A new generation begins using the term "selfie" to describe a self-portrait taken with a smartphone. This change in language can be classified as: Decremental Change Incremental Change Replacement Semantic Change

10. When meeting a new friend from a different region, a person starts mimicking their friend’s accent and speech patterns to create a sense of rapport and understanding. This behavior reflects: Affective Component Cognitive Component Convergence Divergence

11. When a teacher says, "I will make sure to review your work in detail," the teacher is making a: Commissive Directive Expressive Representative

12. The phrase " Pwede ba tayo mag dinner sa Barney's Burgers later? I want protein!" demonstrates which type of code-switching? Dialect Switching Extra-Sentential or Tag Switching Inter-Sentential Code Switching Intra-Sentential Code Switching

13. During a meeting, a woman might say, “It might be helpful to consider this option,” whereas a man might say, “We should definitely go with this option.” This difference is an example of: Conflict vs. Compromise Information vs. Feelings Orders vs. Proposals Status vs. Support

14. In a multicultural city, different groups maintain their traditional customs, such as celebrating various cultural festivals, while also adapting to local practices. This interaction demonstrates which aspect of culture? Culture is Dynamic Culture is Gratifying Culture is Idealistic Culture is Pervasive

15. During a workplace meeting, a manager consistently interrupts and dismisses the ideas of employees from different ethnic backgrounds, favoring only those from the dominant ethnic group. This behavior is an example of: Gender Profiling Racist Discourse About Others Racist Discourse Directed at Others Racist Profiling

THE IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TO CULTURE AND SOCIETY

The Importance of Language to Culture and Society Language is a system of communication that uses sounds or signs to represent objects, actions, and ideas. It is essential to human life. According to Aristotle, humans are unique because they can reason, and reasoning depends on language. Language allows us to form and share ideas based on our experiences, and it evolves along with society. As Stalin noted, language develops as society grows and disappears when society dies. Without society, there is no language. The words we use shape society and culture, and in return, society and culture shape the words we use. We find meaning through conversations that follow social rules. Language is a tool of culture, used by humans to communicate with one another—whether by speaking, writing, or using gestures—to express thoughts, intentions, or desires.

SOURCES OF LANGUAGE

Sources of Language THE DIVINE SOURCE In the Bible's book of Genesis, God created Adam and gave him the ability to name all living creatures. Similarly, in Hindu tradition, language is said to have come from Sarasvati, the wife of Brahma, the creator of the universe. Many religions suggest that a divine being gave humans the gift of language. To uncover this original divine language, some experiments have been done with mixed results. The basic idea was that if babies grew up without hearing any language, they might start speaking the original language given by God.

Sources of Language An ancient Greek writer, Herodotus, told the story of an Egyptian pharaoh, Psammetichus , who conducted an experiment with two babies over 2,500 years ago. They were kept in isolation with only goats and a mute shepherd for company. After two years, they reportedly said a word, " bekos ," which means "bread" in the Phrygian language. The pharaoh believed that Phrygian must be the original language, though it's more likely that the children mimicked the sounds they heard from the goats. In 1500, King James IV of Scotland did a similar experiment, and the children supposedly started speaking Hebrew, which he thought was the original language of the Garden of Eden. However, other cases of children raised without human speech have not supported the results of these experiments. If human language did originally come from a divine source, we have no way of reconstructing it now, especially since, according to the Bible, God confused the languages at the Tower of Babel.

Sources of Language The Natural Sound Source Another idea about how language began is based on natural sounds. This theory suggests that early humans imitated the sounds they heard around them, like a bird's coo-coo, and used those sounds as words. In English, we have words like splash, bang, buzz, and hiss that sound like the noises they describe. This idea is called the "bow-wow theory" of language origin, and words that mimic sounds are called onomatopoeia.

Sources of Language The Social Interaction Source Another idea, known as the " yo -he-ho" theory, suggests that language may have developed from the sounds people made while working together, like grunts and groans during physical effort. Early humans working as a group might have used these sounds to coordinate tasks like lifting heavy objects or carrying large animals.

Sources of Language The Physical Adaptation Source When humans evolved to walk on two feet, some physical changes in their bodies might have helped them develop the ability to speak. These changes included features found in other primates, but in humans, they were better suited to speech. These physical traits suggest that humans developed the capacity for language as part of their evolution.

Sources of Language The Genetic Source Another explanation for the origin of language is that humans are born with a natural ability to learn and use language. This idea, called the innateness hypothesis, suggests that a key genetic mutation may have given humans the unique ability to speak. This ability is not tied to any specific language and is something that humans are born with, unlike any other species.

PROPERTIES OF HUMAN LANGUAGE

Displacement When your pet cat meows at your feet, it’s usually about the present moment. If you ask your cat where it has been, it will just meow again. Animals typically communicate about the here and now. For example, when a dog growls, it means “GRRR” right at that moment. Dogs can’t express something like “GRRR, last night at the park.” In contrast, humans can talk about things that happened in the past or will happen in the future. This ability to talk about things that aren’t present or are in a different time is called displacement .

Arbitrariness There’s no natural connection between a word and the thing it represents. For example, the animal that barks is called a “dog” in English, a “Hund” in German, a “ chien ” in French, and so on. There’s nothing about the sound of the word “dog” that makes it naturally fit the animal it describes. This feature of language, where the word and its meaning don’t have a direct connection, is called arbitrariness .

Productivity Humans are always creating new words and sentences to describe new things and situations. This ability to create an endless number of expressions is called productivity (or creativity or open-endedness). People don’t just follow scripts; they make up their sentences as they speak. This also allows us to create new words or even tell lies.

Cultural Transmission Language is passed down from one generation to the next through learning from others. It’s not something we are born knowing. This process of learning language through interaction with others is called cultural transmission , and it’s essential to how humans acquire language.

Duality Human language works on two levels at the same time. At one level, we have individual sounds like “b,” “ i ,” and “n.” These sounds on their own don’t mean anything. But when combined in a certain way, like “bin,” they create a meaningful word. Changing the combination, like to “nib,” changes the meaning. This ability to use a small set of sounds to create a large number of words with different meanings is called duality .

Discreteness Each sound in a language is distinct from the others. For example, the words “back” and “pack” are different because of the distinct sounds “b” and “p.” The difference in sound leads to a difference in meaning. This feature is known as discreteness .

VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

Dialect A dialect is a regional or social form of a language that is different in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. The word dialectal relates to this topic, and the study of dialects is called dialectology or sociolinguistics . Dialect usually refers to any way of speaking that differs from the standard version of a language, which is often seen as the "dialect-free" form. However, very few people actually speak this standard version. Most people speak in a dialect, which is a version of a language linked to a specific region or social group. A person’s social background also affects their dialect. For example, two children from the same village might speak differently if one comes from a wealthy family and attends a private school, while the other comes from a less wealthy family and goes to a local public school. Dialects exist because groups of people share common language habits.

Two Types of Dialect Regional Dialect : This is the distinct form of a language spoken in a specific geographic area. For example, people in the Ozarks or Appalachia have distinct ways of speaking that set them apart from other English speakers. Social Dialect : This is the distinct form of a language spoken by members of a specific social class. For example, there are working-class dialects in England.

Distinctions Between Language and Dialect The terms language and dialect are often used as if they have clear differences, but there isn’t an objective way to separate them. In general, if you can understand a form of speech without special training, it’s considered a dialect of your language. If you can’t, it’s considered a different language. In popular usage, a language is both spoken and written, while a dialect is often just spoken. However, in a scientific sense, all forms of speech are dialects, and the term language is just an abstraction.

Distinctions Between Dialect and Accent An accent is a person’s way of pronouncing words. A dialect is broader, covering vocabulary and grammar. For example, if one person says " eether " and another says " iyther ," that’s a difference in accent. But if one person says "dustbin" and another says "garbage can," that’s a difference in dialect.

Idiolect An idiolect is a language variety unique to an individual. It includes patterns of word choice, grammar, and pronunciation that are specific to that person. Everyone has an idiolect, which reflects their interests, region, and social situations. For example, you might speak differently with family than you would in a job interview. An idiolect is a very specific kind of speech variety, while a dialect is a broader category that groups similar idiolects together.

Sociolect Different groups of people develop their own styles of language to create a sense of identity and belonging. Factors that influence these styles include: Socio-economic status : Language used by the upper class differs from that of the lower class. Age : Adults and teenagers often have different language styles. Occupation : Certain professions, like lawyers or doctors, have their own jargon and sentence structures. Gender : Men might use more slang and swear words than women.

Diglossia Diglossia is when two different varieties of the same language are used in a community for different purposes. One variety is used in casual, everyday conversations, and the other is used in formal settings. Low Variety: This is the informal version of the language, spoken casually and often without formal grammar rules. It changes more easily over time. For example, saying “what’s up” instead of “what is going on” is an informal way of speaking. Other examples might include saying “yeah” instead of “yes” or asking, “Niagara falls that bad?” instead of using the proper form, “Is Niagara Falls that bad?” High Variety: This is the formal version of the language, learned in school and used in official situations. It follows strict grammar rules and doesn’t change as easily over time. It uses formal, polite language, such as “tallied” instead of “counted” or “would” instead of “will.”

Colloquial Words Colloquialisms are informal words or phrases used in casual conversation. They are often tied to a specific region. Colloquialisms are sometimes confused with slang, but the difference is that slang is used by specific social groups (like teenagers), while colloquialisms are more widely understood by people from the same region. For example, in different parts of the U.S., people refer to a carbonated drink as “soda,” “pop,” “soft drink,” or “Coke.” Differences between American and British English also show up in colloquialisms, like “truck” in the U.S. and “lorry” in the U.K.

Jargons Jargon refers to specific words or phrases used in a particular profession or field. These terms are often understood only by people who work in that area. For example, in the medical field: Acute : A condition that starts suddenly Negative : A test result showing that a condition is not present Atypical : Something that is not completely normal

LANGUAGE REGISTER

Language Register When we talk about language variation, we often hear the terms genre , register , and style . According to David Crystal (2008), register refers to a type of language used in particular social situations. For example, there are registers for scientific, religious, and formal English. In Hallidayan linguistics, register is defined by how language is used in a situation, unlike dialects, which are based on who is speaking. Register is broken down into three categories: field (the topic or setting), mode (how the communication happens), and tenor (the relationship between the speakers).

Language Register Although genre and register are related, they are not the same. Genre is more about cultural patterns, while register focuses on the situation. Register is a type of language that depends on the context in which it is used, and it can be understood using the field-mode-tenor framework. For example, when writing a recipe (the genre), the field involves the cooking context, the tenor includes the relationship between the writer and the reader, and the mode involves the format and style of the recipe.

Language Register In simpler terms, language register refers to the level of formality we use when speaking or writing. We use different registers for different situations. Your choice of words and sentence structure depends on the register. Even when writing, you can choose a formal, informal, or neutral register.

Formal Register The formal register is used in formal speaking and writing situations. For example, in a State of the Nation Address, the President uses polished, careful language, often reading from a script, because it's important to avoid mistakes. On the other hand, a priest giving a sermon usually speaks in a more relaxed, simple way to ensure everyone can understand the message. The priest also wants to speak from the heart to connect with the audience. The formal register is also used in professional writing, such as project proposals, position papers, and business letters. This kind of writing is impersonal, objective, and factual

Inf ormal Register The informal register is more casual and is used with people you know well, such as friends and family. This type of writing can be more emotional since there is a personal relationship between the speaker and listener or writer and reader. Register refers to the kind of language used based on the situation, regardless of the speakers’ status. For example, legalese (legal language) is filled with old-fashioned words, technical terms, and long, complex sentences, while texting language ( textese ) is the opposite—it uses abbreviations, acronyms, and slang to make communication quicker. However, misunderstandings can happen in text messages if the reader doesn’t understand the abbreviations or lacks context. Therefore, we need to be careful when interpreting text messages.

LANGUAGE CHANGE

How and Why Does Language Change? Language Learning : As language is passed from one generation to the next, it gets transformed. Each person learns language differently, which creates variation. Small changes, like making language easier to use, can spread across generations and become fixed in the language. Language Contact : When people speaking different languages come into contact through migration, trade, or conquest, they often borrow words, sounds, and sentence structures from each other. Social Differentiation : Social groups may develop their own unique ways of speaking, using specific vocabulary, pronunciations, and grammar to distinguish themselves. Natural Usage : In everyday speech, people tend to simplify their language, often combining or dropping sounds. Over time, these changes can become standard even in careful speech.

Internal and External Language Change Internal Language Change : This happens within the language itself, like changes in grammar, word order, and sound patterns. For example, speakers might simplify how words are pronounced or change the structure of sentences. External Language Change : This occurs when language is influenced by social and cultural factors. Interaction with other languages (through trade, politics, or cultural exchange) can cause words and structures to change or be borrowed.

Types of Changes Incremental Change : New words or terms are created as new inventions or ideas appear. These words gradually become part of the language. For example, "selfie" and "emoji" were recently added to dictionaries. Decremental Change : Words fade from use because the things they describe are no longer relevant. For example, words related to sword fighting are used less often today. Replacement : Some words or structures get replaced by new ones. For example, " halfs " became "halves" and "rise" became "rose."

Levels of Changes Phonological Change (Sound) : Some sounds disappear from words over time. For instance, the [h] sound was lost in words like " hlud " (loud) and " hlaford " (lord). This is why we have "silent letters" in English today. Syntactic Change (Sentence Structure) : The order of words in sentences can change over time. For example, Old English often placed words in different orders, and double negatives were once allowed. These rules have since changed in modern English. Semantic Change (Meaning) : Words can broaden or narrow in meaning. For example, "holiday" once meant a religious feast day but now refers to any break from work. Sometimes, meanings can also change in a negative way, like "vulgar," which used to mean "ordinary" but now has a negative connotation.

LANGUAGE ATTITUDE

Language Attitude Language attitudes are the feelings people have about their own way of speaking or the way others speak.

Language Attitude Examples of language attitudes include: "Women talk too much." "Kids today can’t speak or write properly." "In the Appalachians, they speak like Shakespeare." "Black children lack proper verbal skills." "People in the South and New York City speak bad English." "Everyone has an accent except me."

Language Attitude These attitudes can't be seen directly, but we notice them through people's actions, like how they treat others who speak different languages. For example, if someone adjusts their way of speaking to match another person's speech, it shows a positive attitude toward that person's language. On the other hand, if someone purposely speaks differently, it shows a negative attitude. Studying language attitudes helps us understand how one group views the character and social standing of people from another group based on their language. It can also help identify connections between communities and predict how likely people are to share language materials.

Components of Language Attitude Cognition : This is how someone thinks about a language. It's based on whether they associate it with good or bad qualities. Example: "I think modern jazz is awful and doesn't require any skill." Affective : This is how someone feels about a language or the evaluation they’ve made of it. Example: "Modern jazz makes me feel uncomfortable and irritated." Behavior : This is how someone acts based on their attitude toward a language. It can be an action they take that either shapes their attitude (input) or is a result of their attitude (output). Input : A behavior that influences how someone feels about something. Example: "I went to a jazz concert, and I hated it." Output : A behavior that happens because of how someone feels. Example: "I hate jazz, so I always turn it off when it's on the radio."

Convergence and Divergence According to the Communication Accommodation Theory , there are two key ways people adjust their language when speaking: Convergence : This is when a speaker adjusts their language to be more like the listener's language. It shows a positive attitude because they want to be understood and accepted. Divergence : This is the opposite. It's when a speaker purposely separates their way of speaking from the listener's language, showing a negative attitude.

SPEECH ACT AND SPEECH EVENTS

Speech Acts Speech acts are things we do with words—such as greeting, insulting, complimenting, or giving instructions. Here's a breakdown of different types of speech acts: Representatives : These include statements, suggestions, or descriptions. For example: "The sky is blue." Commissives : These are promises or threats. For example: "I will help you with your homework." Directives : These are commands or requests. For example: "Please close the door."

Speech Acts Declarations : These are official or ceremonial statements like baptisms or firing someone. For example: "I now pronounce you husband and wife." Expressives : These express emotions or attitudes, such as congratulations or apologies. For example: "I’m sorry." Verdictives : These are judgments or assessments. For example: "You did a great job."

Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Acts Locutionary : This is the basic act of saying something. It’s just the words without any deeper meaning. For example: "The black cat!" (This just points out the cat without saying what is meant by it.) Illocutionary : This is the intended meaning behind the words. For example: "The black cat is lost." (Here, the speaker is trying to communicate a fact.) Perlocutionary : This is the effect the words have on the listener. For example: "Please find the lost black cat." (The speaker is trying to get the listener to take action.)

Speech Events Different events involve different kinds of speech. For example, a political rally, a church service, or a casual chat with a friend all have different types of appropriate speech.

Turn Taking and Pausing People don't usually talk over each other; they use signals like "you know?" or "I guess…" to let others know they’re finished speaking.

Adjacency Pairs Some types of speech acts naturally go together, like a question followed by an answer or an apology followed by an acknowledgment.

Opening and Closing Sequences Conversations usually start and end in predictable ways, such as with greetings at the start and goodbyes at the end.

Conversational Routines People often follow certain routines in conversation. For example, if they make a mistake in speaking, they will correct themselves (this is called "repairing").

Cross-Cultural Communication Politeness and the way people speak vary across cultures. For instance, in American conversations, people might start chatting immediately. In French conversations, they might start by apologizing for interrupting. Different cultures have different ways of being polite.

CODE SWITCHING

Code Switching Code switching happens when someone switches between two or more languages or dialects during a conversation. Here are some simple examples: If you have an exam next week, şimdiden çalışmaya başlamalısın . (English + Turkish) Gracias for the lovely gift. Está awesome! (Spanish + English) Pwede ba tayo mag dinner sa Barney's Burgers later? I want protein! (Tagalog + English) Are we eating chez ta mère demain ? (English + French) Saweyti l-homework tabaa’ik ? (Arabic + English) Nó còng đang celebrate cái sinh nhật . (Vietnamese + English) Ní yào qù get pizza with me ma ? (Mandarin + English)

Types of Code Switching Inter-Sentential Code Switching This happens when you switch languages at the start or end of a sentence. For example: "If you are late for the job interview, işe alınmazsın ." (Here, the switch happens between the English sentence and the Turkish part.) Intra-Sentential Code Switching This is when you switch languages in the middle of a sentence without pausing or hesitating. The speaker often doesn’t notice the switch. For example: "You are sleepy coğu zaman , because you spend a lot of saat in your bed." (Here, the switch happens within the sentence.) Extra-Sentential or Tag Switching This involves switching a single word or a short phrase from one language to another, often as a small addition to a sentence. For example: " Él es de Oaxaca y así los criaron a ellos , if you know what I mean ." Another example is Turkish students adding words like ama (but) or yani (I mean) while speaking English.

Code Switching Code switching happens when someone switches between two or more languages or dialects during a conversation. Here are some simple examples: If you have an exam next week, şimdiden çalışmaya başlamalısın . (English + Turkish) Gracias for the lovely gift. Está awesome! (Spanish + English) Pwede ba tayo mag dinner sa Barney's Burgers later? I want protein! (Tagalog + English) Are we eating chez ta mère demain ? (English + French) Saweyti l-homework tabaa’ik ? (Arabic + English) Nó còng đang celebrate cái sinh nhật . (Vietnamese + English) Ní yào qù get pizza with me ma ? (Mandarin + English)

LANGUAGE AND GENDER

Languag e and Gender Gender vs. Sex Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females, like reproductive organs. Gender is about how society views and defines roles and behaviors for men and women. It varies from one culture to another and is not just about biological differences.

Languag e and Gender Language and Attitudes to Gender: This looks at how language reflects and supports attitudes towards men and women. For example, language can be used to control or belittle others. Sometimes, these effects are felt subjectively by the people involved. Language Differences Between Genders: This explores how men and women might speak or write differently, influenced by their upbringing or education. There are some inherent differences in how men and women use language, although education can impact these differences.

Deborah Tannen’s Views on Male and Female Language Use Status vs. Support: Men often use conversation to compete and maintain status, while women use it to seek support and build connections. Independence vs. Intimacy: Men value independence, whereas women value closeness and maintaining relationships. This can lead to different views on situations, such as how decisions are made in a relationship. Advice vs. Understanding: Men may try to solve problems when someone is upset, while women often seek sympathy and understanding.

Deborah Tannen’s Views on Male and Female Language Use Information vs. Feelings: Men tend to focus on giving brief, factual information. Women often share more details and discuss feelings. Orders vs. Proposals: Women might suggest actions more indirectly, while men are more likely to give direct commands. Conflict vs. Compromise: Women might avoid conflict by not opposing others openly, while men might be more willing to assert themselves, even if it means conflict.

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

Languag e and Culture Language’s Influence on Culture Language is more than just talking or writing; it shapes how we see the world and our thoughts. Early 20th-century researchers, like Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, believed that language filters our view of reality, like a camera lens showing only what we have words for. Learning Culture Through Language Sapir (1968) said that language is a unique human way to share ideas and feelings using symbols. Goodenough (1957) described culture as everything one needs to know to fit in and perform roles accepted by society.

Characteristics of Culture Culture is Learned Much of what we do, like driving a car or using utensils, is learned. Some behaviors are visible (like attending a football game), while others are less obvious. Culture is Abstract Culture exists in our minds and habits. We see culture through regular behaviors and patterns, though we can’t see culture itself directly. Culture Includes Attitudes, Values, and Knowledge People often think their ideas and attitudes are unique, but many are shared culturally. Disagreements can highlight cultural differences, like those between a Muslim and a Christian.

Characteristics of Culture Culture Includes Material Objects Culture also involves the objects we create, such as chairs and airplanes. These objects are more than just materials; they are products of human creativity. Culture is Shared Culture is not owned by just a few people but shared widely. Many people use the same behaviors and ideas, like driving cars or speaking English. Culture is Pervasive Culture affects every part of life. It influences both how we act and how we interact with others, shaping everything from emotions to social norms.

Characteristics of Culture Culture is Idealistic Culture reflects the ideals and norms of a group, including intellectual and social goals that people aim to follow. Culture is Continually Changing Culture is always evolving. Some societies change slowly, but change is constant. Culture is Dynamic Cultures interact and influence each other. Changes in one part of a culture can lead to adjustments in the whole system.

Characteristics of Culture Culture is Transmissive Culture is passed from one generation to the next, mainly through language. It is taught and learned through imitation and instruction. Culture Varies from Society to Society Each society has its own unique culture, which can differ greatly from others. Cultural elements like traditions and values vary across time and place. Culture is Gratifying Culture helps us meet our needs and desires, guiding our actions in ways that fulfill both biological and social requirements.

How Language Affects Culture Language reflects the interests and concerns of a culture. For example, people in snowy regions have many words for different types of snow, while those in warmer places have fewer terms. Language evolves with culture, adapting to new ideas and conditions. Words can change meanings over time, like how "nice" used to mean foolish but now means pleasant.

How Culture Affects Language Culture shapes how we speak and behave. As cultures change, so does language, with new words emerging and old ones fading. Language often reflects cultural trends influenced by things like music or media. For example, the slang of today might be different from the past, showing how language and culture are interconnected.

LANGUAGE AND ETHNICITY

Languag e and Ethnicity What Does Ethnicity Mean? Ethnicity is about how people define themselves and others based on things like culture, nationality, ancestry, language, and beliefs. Fredrik Barth (2016) explained it as the social lines people draw in their daily lives, which influence how they act and think about others. Racist Discourse Racist discourse refers to harmful ways of talking and communicating that support racism and ethnic dominance. This includes expressing and justifying racist views of the dominant ethnic group.

Two Main Types of Racist Discourse Racist Discourse Directed at Others Using offensive language or insults Avoiding eye contact Ignoring what others suggest Speaking loudly or interrupting Acting arrogant or superior

Two Main Types of Racist Discourse Racist Discourse About Others Denying or downplaying racism Showing others in a negative light Presenting oneself in a better way Blocking a positive view of others Blocking a negative view of oneself

Stereotype A stereotype is a widely held but oversimplified idea about a group of people or an individual. These are often confused with prejudices because both are based on preconceived notions. Stereotypes can apply to different races, cultures, or genders.

Common Stereotypes Racial Profiling For example, assuming all Black people are great at sports is a stereotype because it unfairly groups everyone of that race together. Gender Profiling Examples include: Men are strong and do all the hard work. Women are not as smart or capable as men. Girls are not good at sports.

Common Stereotypes Cultural Stereotypes Examples include: All white Americans are overweight and lazy. Mexicans are lazy and entered the U.S. illegally. All Arabs and Muslims are terrorists. People from England have bad teeth. Italians or French people are the best lovers. All Black people outside the U.S. are poor.

Common Stereotypes Group Stereotyping Examples include: Goths are always dressed in black and are unhappy. Punks are troublemakers with mohawks and chains. Politicians are selfish and only care about personal gain. Girls care only about their looks. All blondes are not smart.

LIFE AND DEATH OF LANGUAGE

Life and Death of Language In 1992, a well-known US linguist shocked many by predicting that by 2100, 90% of the world’s languages might be gone. Here’s a simple overview of what happens to languages when they interact with each other or borrow from one another:

Language Contact and Borrowing Language Contact : This happens when people who speak different languages start interacting more, often due to things like colonization. Language contact has been studied to understand how languages influence each other. Borrowing : When one language takes words or grammatical elements from another, it’s called borrowing. This is different from code-switching, where people switch between languages. Borrowing doesn’t require knowing the other language, and borrowed words can become a normal part of the new language.

Language Maintenance, Shift, and Death Language Maintenance : Keeping a language alive despite the presence of a more dominant language. Language Shift : When a community starts using a different language instead of their own. Language Death : When a language is no longer spoken by any community. For example, Cornish in England and Norwegian in the USA are examples of languages that have died or shifted.

Types of Language Death Gradual Death : A language slowly replaced by another. For example, Gaelic being replaced by English in parts of Scotland. Sudden Death : A language disappears quickly without a period of bilingualism, like Tasmanian. Radical Death : A community stops using their language for self-protection, as seen in El Salvador in 1932. Bottom-to-Top Death : A language is no longer used in daily conversation but may survive in special contexts, like Tzeltal in Mexico.

Six Notable Dead Languages Latin : Once spoken across Europe and Africa, it evolved into languages like French and Spanish. It’s still studied but no longer spoken natively. Coptic : The last remnants of ancient Egyptian languages, now only used in the Coptic Church’s liturgy. Biblical Hebrew : An ancient form of Hebrew used in religious texts. It’s still studied but not spoken in daily life.

Six Notable Dead Languages Sumerian : The language of the first civilization with writing. It’s no longer spoken but studied through ancient texts. Akkadian : Spoken in Mesopotamia from the 3rd to 1st millennium BCE, now only studied by scholars. Sanskrit : An ancient language used in Hinduism and other religions. It’s largely academic but still spoken by a small number of people in Nepal.

Language Revitalization Revitalization : Efforts to bring a language back to life, like Modern Hebrew, which was successfully revived. Many languages are endangered, and revitalization is crucial to preserve cultural history.

Extinction of Languages Extinction Causes : Languages can become extinct due to factors like the extermination of speakers or pressure to adopt a dominant language. For example, in the US, Native American languages were suppressed in boarding schools. Sometimes, the decline is slow, like with Mohawk and Onondaga.

Reasons for Language Endangerment Factors : Languages become endangered due to fewer native speakers, lack of use by children, government policies, and other pressures. Many endangered languages are spoken by small, often marginalized communities.

Impact of Language Loss Cultural Loss : Losing a language means losing part of a community’s culture and identity. Language is crucial for expressing emotions, traditions, and shared experiences. When a language dies, these aspects of culture are at risk of being lost.

LANGUAGE OF THE MILLENIALS

Language has always changed and adapted over time, and each new generation puts its own spin on it. With the rise of new ways to communicate, especially with technology, language keeps evolving to fit our changing world.

Neologisms Neologisms are new words or phrases that people start using but haven’t become part of the official language yet. They show how language evolves. Neologisms can be entirely new words, new meanings for old words, or new uses for existing words.

Types of Neologisms Portmanteaus or Blend Words : These combine two words into one new word. Examples: Smog (smoke + fog) Spork (spoon + fork) Brunch (breakfast + lunch)

Types of Neologisms Derived Words : These are words based on Latin or Greek words but adapted to English. Examples: Villa (Latin) becomes villa , village , and villager . Sub (Latin, meaning "under") becomes submarine and subway . Copia (Latin, meaning "plenty") becomes cornucopia and copious .

Types of Neologisms Transferred Words : These are borrowed from other languages and adjusted in English. Examples: Herbs from French herbes . Alligator from Spanish el lagarto (meaning "lizard"). Wiener dog from German wiener (meaning "hot dog").

Millennial Terms If you're older and don’t know terms like "spilling the tea," "clap back," or "fleek," don’t worry. Here are some popular millennial terms: "Netflix and chill" : A casual way to say "Let's watch a movie and hang out." "Sorry not sorry" : When you want to show you’re not really sorry about something. "Woke" : Being aware or alert to something important. "The struggle is real" : When you want to acknowledge that something might not be as bad as it seems. "On fleek" : When something looks perfect or "on point." “TBH” : Short for "To be honest," often used before a direct comment. “ Yaaas ” : A very enthusiastic way to say "Yes!"

E NG 156: Language Programs and Policies in Multilingual Societies Prepared by: Aldrin Laddran

THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE

The Nature of Language As Robins (2020) explained, language is a complex part of human life that we use to communicate with others. It helps us share our thoughts and express who we are, as everything we do is influenced by language. Many different definitions of language have been offered to describe this.

Characteristics of Language a. Language is arbitrary There is no direct link between the words we use and the meanings they represent. The words are just symbols. b. Language is social Language is a tool humans use to communicate within a community. It follows shared rules that allow people to interact, cooperate, and relate to each other. In this way, language acts like a social system.

Characteristics of Language c. Language is innate Humans are born with the ability to learn language quickly due to a special feature in the brain known as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This means children naturally pick up their first language within a few years of birth. d. Language is systematic Language isn’t random or chaotic. It follows specific patterns where sounds are organized in a set order to create words that have meaning.

Characteristics of Language e. Language is vocal Language mainly consists of vocal sounds produced by the human body. Speech is the main form of language, while writing is a secondary form, so speech is often prioritized when teaching language. f. Language is universal All children, no matter where they are, learn a mother tongue. Across the world, languages share common features like sounds, rules for forming words and sentences, and ways to ask questions or give commands.

Characteristics of Language g. Language is non-instinctive and conventional Language develops over time through evolution and shared customs. It is passed down from one generation to the next, and like other human traditions, it can change, grow, or fade. Language is not something people are born with; it’s something they learn due to their natural ability. h. Language is productive and creative Language allows for endless creativity. The building blocks of language can be combined in new ways to create sentences that have never been spoken before, yet everyone can understand them. Language adapts to meet the changing needs of society.

DEFINING LANGUAGE POLICY

Language Policy A language policy consists of ideas, laws, regulations, rules, and practices aimed at creating planned language changes within a society, group, or system, often put in place by an authority like the government (Kaplan and Baldauf , 1997).

Types of Language Policy Origin Top-down : Policies created at a high, official level, usually by a government or authority. Bottom-up : Policies created by and for the local community, from the grassroots level.

Types of Language Policy Means and Goals Overt : Clearly stated in written or spoken documents. Covert : Hidden policies with secret agendas, either planned by authorities (collusive) or pushed by the community (subversive) ( Shohamy , 2006).

Types of Language Policy Documentation Explicit (official) : Clearly documented in official policy texts. Implicit (unofficial) : Occurs without official documentation, or goes against what is written.

Types of Language Policy In Law and Practice De jure : Officially documented policies in law. De facto : Policies in practice, often arising naturally without official documentation, or differing from what is officially written. De facto practices may or may not match the actual policies, focusing more on what happens in reality than on what’s written in law.

FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE POLICY

Factors Influencing Language Policy Sociolinguistic Situation This involves the variety and number of languages in a community, the number of speakers for each language, and how useful these languages are for communication both within and outside the community.

Factors Influencing Language Policy National Ideology This concerns national, ethnic, or cultural identity within the community. In modern countries, the value of the national language plays a big role in shaping language policies.

Factors Influencing Language Policy English as a Global Language With globalization, English has become a dominant language worldwide. This affects many communities by making English an important language for accessing better economic opportunities and communication networks.

Factors Influencing Language Policy Language Rights Language rights are increasingly seen as part of human and civil rights. Many nations now include language rights in their laws, especially for people who speak languages other than the national one. These rights are usually: Territorial : Languages spoken by a large part of the population in a specific region are more likely to be recognized. Demographic : Indigenous languages are more likely to be given rights than those spoken by immigrants or foreign workers. Functional Limitation : Governments are more willing to provide state services in other languages than they are to offer education in those languages.

INTRODUCING THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF MULTILNGUALISM

Multilingualism Today, multilingualism—knowing and using more than one language—is a common occurrence worldwide. With nearly 7,000 languages spoken across about 200 countries (Lewis, 2009), it is expected. In many places, people who speak smaller or minority languages need to learn and use other languages in their daily lives. According to the European Commission (2007), multilingualism means that individuals, groups, institutions, and societies regularly use multiple languages in their everyday activities.

Types of L anguages based on their use: First Languages These are learned early in life and become the natural language for thinking and communication. Second Languages These are learned later, often through school or for work, business, or other purposes.

Types of L anguages based on their use: Majority Languages These languages have a large number of speakers compared to other nearby languages. Majority language speakers often hold more social, political, or economic power. These languages are often used as a common language (lingua franca) between different groups.

Types of L anguages based on their use: Minor or Minority Languages These are spoken by fewer people and are rarely used between different groups. They are not often learned as a second language. Special-Purpose Languages These languages are learned mainly for religious or educational purposes, like Classical Arabic for Quranic studies or French/English for higher education.

Types of L anguages based on their use: National Languages These are languages chosen by a government to represent national unity and identity. The language's importance is recognized symbolically for the country. Official Languages These are languages used by the government for official matters like administration, education, legal proceedings, and business.

Types of L anguages based on their use: Mother Tongue (MT) This is the first language a person learns, also known as the native language or L1. It is the language they know best or use most often. Unwritten Languages These are spoken languages that do not yet have a written form. Lingua Franca This is a language used by people who speak different languages to communicate, often in markets, public spaces, and the media. It helps different language groups interact effectively.

ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF STRONG MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

Components of Strong MLE Programmes Support language and education policies - Clear plans that guide how the program will be carried out and maintained over time. Preliminary research - Research that provides important information about the languages and communities involved, and identifies resources for the program. Cooperation - Working together among local, district, national, and international groups that support the program.

Components of Strong MLE Programmes Awareness-raising and mobilization - Raising interest and gaining support for the program from people at all levels. Monitoring, evaluation, and documentation - Checking the progress of learners and identifying what works well and what needs improvement in the program. Orthographies (Writing System) - Developing acceptable written forms for minority languages that are agreed upon by native speakers and authorities.

Components of Strong MLE Programmes Recruitment and training - Bringing in motivated and respected people to the program and helping them develop their skills. MLE-specific instructional materials - Creating teaching materials that build on the learners' language and experiences and help them move toward learning additional languages. Graded reading materials - Providing reading materials in the learners' home language and other languages to help them become confident readers and enjoy learning.

LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION POLICY AND PRACTICE IN SOME COUNTRIES IN ASIA

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Indonesia: Indonesia is the most linguistically diverse country in Asia, with over 700 languages. The official language, Indonesian, is used for teaching in schools, but only about 10% of people speak it as their first language. Though laws support using students' mother tongues in early education, local languages are rarely used in public schools, except in some areas where they are taught as subjects. Local languages are more common in non-formal education, especially for adult literacy.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Malaysia: Malaysia has about 140 languages. The official language is Malay, and it is mostly used in schools. Some primary schools, called "national-type" schools, use Mandarin, Tamil, or other Indian languages for instruction. In Malay-medium schools, students can study Tamil, Mandarin, and some indigenous languages as subjects. Since the late 1990s, some indigenous groups have started programs using their local languages, but these are not fully bilingual programs as local languages are not officially used for instruction.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Singapore: Singapore has over 20 languages. The country promotes multilingualism and aims for everyone to be bilingual. Most people are ethnic Chinese, speaking different varieties of Chinese. However, English is used as the language of instruction in schools. Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil are taught as second languages, called "mother tongues." Other languages are not included in formal education, unlike many other Southeast Asian countries.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries China: China has over 200 languages, and Mandarin Chinese is the official language. Laws support using ethnic minority languages for teaching in minority areas, but this is not applied everywhere and only applies to 55 recognized minority groups. Local languages are used in some areas, mainly in primary to high school, with Mandarin taught as a second language. Most bilingual programs quickly switch from the mother tongue to Mandarin, though local languages are sometimes taught as subjects.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Japan: Japan has two indigenous languages, Japanese and Ainu, along with 11 distinct dialects. Japanese is spoken by 99% of the population and is the language used in schools. With growing immigration, more native languages are spoken in Japan. The government has introduced policies to improve Japanese as a second language for immigrant children and offers support for teaching in students' native languages where possible. This helps promote cross-cultural understanding in schools.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Bangladesh: Bangladesh has about 40 languages, with Bangla being the national language and the main language used in schools. 98% of the population speaks Bangla, and it is used for teaching at all levels. English is used in higher education. Tribal languages are not formally used in schools, though they are sometimes used orally to help explain lessons. This lack of support for minority languages means many groups are losing their languages and culture while also missing out on education in a language they understand.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Philippines: The Philippines has around 170 languages, many with writing systems and literature. English and Filipino are the main languages used in education. Some local languages are used in early primary grades as transitional languages to help students understand lessons, but they are mainly spoken rather than written. Local languages are more widely used in non-formal education, especially for adult literacy, mostly in projects run by NGOs and community groups.

BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND ITS TYPES

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries 1. Submersion program is a type of education where students who speak a different language at home are placed in regular classes where only the majority language (the language most people speak in that country) is used. Example: • Imagine a school in the U.S. where a student named Maria speaks Spanish at home. In a Submersion program, Maria would be put into a regular English-speaking class without any special help. The idea is that if Maria is surrounded by English all the time, she’ll learn it quickly and be able to fit in better with the rest of the students. • However, this approach can have downsides. Since Maria is forced to use English right away, she might struggle to understand her lessons and might even start to forget Spanish, which can be a big loss if she needs to use it later or if it’s important to her family and community.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries 2. Submersion program with withdrawal classes (also known as sheltered English), students who speak a different language at home get a mix of regular classes in the majority language and special classes to help them learn that language better. Example: • Imagine a student named Hiro who speaks Japanese at home and is now going to school in the U.S. In this program, Hiro would spend most of his day in regular classes where only English is spoken. However, he would also have special “pull-out” classes where he’s taken out of his regular classes to focus on learning English. These special classes might use simpler English and focus on helping Hiro catch up with the language. • The idea is to help Hiro learn English more easily without the full shock of being in an all-English environment. However, a drawback is that while Hiro is in these special classes, he misses out on some of the regular class content, which means he might fall behind in other subjects. Also, being pulled out can make him feel more separated from his classmates.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries 3. Segregationist program is one where students from minority language groups are kept apart from the mainstream educational system. They are forced to learn only in the majority language, and they don't get the chance to use or learn in more widely spoken languages that might help them advance socially or economically. Example: • Imagine a country where the majority language is English, but there is a minority group that speaks only a regional language like Tamil. In a Segregationist program, students who speak Tamil would be required to learn only in English, but they might not be given any resources or support to learn English well. They are kept separate from more useful opportunities, like learning other international languages or getting better resources, which can limit their future job prospects and social mobility. • For instance, if there’s a special program to learn French or computer skills, which could help students get better jobs, the Tamil-speaking students might not have access to these programs. Instead, they might be stuck with just learning in English without the chance to catch up or improve their situation. This keeps them in a disadvantaged position and limits their opportunities for success.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries 4. Transitional program helps students who speak a different language at home gradually switch to learning in the majority language of their new environment. At first, the students get a lot of instruction in their home language, but over time, the amount of instruction in that language is reduced, and more is given in the majority language. Example: • Let’s say a student named Ana speaks Spanish at home and starts school in the U.S. In a Transitional program, Ana’s first classes might be taught in Spanish to help her understand basic subjects and catch up. For instance, she might learn math and science in Spanish while also starting to learn English. As Ana becomes more comfortable with English, the school will slowly start teaching more and more in English, while reducing the amount of Spanish used. By the end of the program, Ana will be learning almost everything in English and using Spanish less and less. • The goal is for Ana to become fluent in English so she can fully participate in regular classes and use the majority language effectively. This approach helps her transition smoothly without overwhelming her right from the start.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries 5. Mainstream program with Foreign Language Teaching is where students primarily learn in their own language (the majority language), but also have lessons in a foreign or second language as an additional subject. The foreign language is just another class in their schedule, not used for teaching other subjects. Example: • Imagine students in the U.S. who speak English at home. They go to school where most of their lessons—like math, science, and history—are taught in English. But they also have a separate class where they learn Spanish or French as a foreign language. •In this setup, students might spend a few hours each week learning Spanish or French, but they mostly continue to use English for all their other subjects. This means they don’t get much practice speaking or using the foreign language outside of their language class. Concrete Example: •In the Philippines, English is the main language used for most teaching in schools. Filipino students learn English as a subject, spending a few hours each week on it. However, their other subjects—like math, science, and social studies—are taught in Filipino or a combination of Filipino and English. This limited exposure means they might not get enough practice to become fluent in English or any other foreign language.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries 6. Separatist program is where students from a minority language group are taught mainly in their own language and follow their own cultural practices. This approach helps them stay connected to their own language and traditions, rather than blending into the mainstream society. Example: Imagine a community of Native American students who speak Navajo at home. In a Separatist program, these students would go to a school where most of their classes are taught in Navajo, and they also learn about Navajo culture and traditions. The goal is to keep their native language and culture strong, even though they live in a society where the majority language might be English. By keeping their education focused on Navajo, they avoid losing their language and cultural practices, even if it means they might not interact as much with the mainstream English-speaking world. Concrete Example: The Navajo Nation operates schools where the primary language of instruction is Navajo. These schools aim to preserve Navajo language and culture by teaching students in their native language and incorporating traditional practices into the curriculum. This helps students maintain their cultural identity and language, despite the influence of the wider English-speaking society around them.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries 7. Immersion program is where students who already speak the majority language are taught in a second language for most of their classes. The idea is to help students become fluent in the second language while they also learn regular subjects like math and science. Example: Let’s say a school in Canada wants students to become fluent in French. In an Immersion program, English-speaking students would start learning in French from a young age. They would have their regular subjects—like science and history—taught in French instead of English. This helps them become fluent in French while also learning important subjects.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Types of Immersion: Early Immersion: This starts very young, like in preschool. For example, a preschooler who speaks English at home might start attending a French immersion preschool, where everything is taught in French. Middle Immersion: This begins around the middle of elementary school. For instance, an English-speaking student might start French immersion in 3rd grade, with some subjects taught in French and others in English. Late Immersion: This starts around junior high school. So, an English-speaking student might begin learning subjects in French when they enter 7th grade, gradually becoming fluent as they progress through school.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Concrete Example: In Quebec, Canada, many schools offer French immersion programs. For instance, a student might start in an Early Immersion program in kindergarten, where they learn everything in French. By the time they reach high school, they would be fluent in both French and English, having learned all their subjects in French but also being able to use English comfortably.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries 8. Maintenance or Heritage Language program helps students who speak a different language at home keep learning in that language while also learning English. The goal is to help them stay connected to their home language and culture while also becoming fluent in English. Example: Imagine a student named Amina who speaks Arabic at home and goes to school in the U.S. In a Maintenance program, Amina would have classes in both Arabic and English. For example, she might learn math and science in Arabic while also having English lessons. This way, she continues to develop her Arabic language skills and cultural knowledge while also learning English.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Key Points: Bilingual Instruction: Students learn in their home language (Arabic in Amina's case) and English. This helps them keep their native language strong while learning a new one. Cultural Connection: Students learn about their own culture in addition to learning about the new culture. This helps them maintain their cultural identity. Academic Success: By using their home language to understand subjects, students can keep up with their academic work and don't fall behind while learning English.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Concrete Example: In a Maintenance program, Amina might have her math lessons in Arabic and her English classes in English. Over time, she’ll become proficient in both languages. By keeping up with her Arabic studies, she maintains her cultural ties and language skills, while also becoming fluent in English. This makes her both bilingual and bicultural, able to navigate and succeed in both her home and new communities.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries 9. Two-way or Dual Language program is designed for students from both minority and majority language backgrounds. In these programs, classes are taught in both languages, with the goal of helping all students become fluent in both languages while learning regular subjects. Example: Imagine a school with students who speak Spanish at home and students who speak English at home. In a Two-way program, the school would aim to have an even mix of both Spanish-speaking and English-speaking students in each class.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries How It Works: Bilingual Teaching: Each class would be taught in both Spanish and English. For example, the students might learn math in Spanish for part of the day and then switch to English for science lessons. Equal Value: Both languages are used equally and are valued in the classroom. This way, Spanish-speaking students continue to develop their Spanish skills, while English-speaking students learn Spanish. Learning Through Content: Instead of having separate language classes, students learn subjects like math and science in both languages. This helps them pick up the languages naturally through the subjects they are studying.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Concrete Example: In a Two-way program, a classroom might split the day between Spanish and English. For instance, the students might start the day with a Spanish lesson on history and then switch to English for their science lesson. By working together in both languages, students help each other learn and practice, making the classroom a bilingual environment where both Spanish and English are used and valued equally. This helps all students become fluent in both languages and appreciate each other’s cultures.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries 10. Mainstream Bilingual program is designed for students who already speak a majority language (like English) and are learning in an environment where they use two majority languages. This often happens in international schools or regions where people use multiple languages. Example: Imagine a student named Alex who speaks English and is attending an international school in Singapore, where both English and Mandarin are widely used. In a Mainstream Bilingual program, Alex would have classes in both English and Mandarin.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries How It Works: Two Majority Languages: Students learn subjects in two major languages. For example, Alex might have math lessons in English and history lessons in Mandarin. International or Multilingual Environment: These programs are common in places where people speak multiple languages, like Singapore, where English and Mandarin are both widely spoken. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): In Europe and similar regions, this method is called CLIL. It means students learn both the subject matter (like history or science) and the language simultaneously. For instance, Alex might learn about Chinese history in Mandarin, which helps him understand both the subject and the language.

Language in Education Policy and Practice in Some Asian Countries Concrete Example: In an international school in Luxembourg, a student might study science in French and social studies in English. This helps students become fluent in both languages while learning important subjects. This approach supports bilingualism and helps students adapt to a multilingual world.

THE BILINGUAL DEAF EDUCATION, AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE AND FILIPINO SIGN LANGUAGE

Common Principles of Bilingual Deaf Education Programs ✔ The main goal is for Deaf students to live successfully as bilingual individuals in society. ✔ Deaf people are viewed as a cultural group, not as people with a disability. ✔ Building pride, confidence in language, and a strong sense of identity as a Deaf person. ✔ Giving students access to Deaf role models and peers. ✔ Seeing language and culture as connected, and using this connection to develop literacy and cultural heritage.

Common Principles of Bilingual Deaf Education Programs ✔ Recognizing that a strong first language foundation is key to learning a second language. ✔ Understanding that using sign language helps students learn and improve other languages (spoken and written). ✔ Using sign language as a base to help students learn to read and write, with both languages supporting each other. ✔ Helping students transfer skills between languages by developing an awareness of how language works.

Common Principles of Bilingual Deaf Education Programs ✔ Teaching students how to translate between the two languages by comparing them. ✔ Using sign language as the main language for teaching in the classroom (dual curriculum). ✔ Helping students become fluent in both sign language and spoken/written language.

Common Issues and Concerns of Bilingual Deaf Education Programs ✔ Comparing Deaf bilinguals with hearing bilinguals – understanding their similarities and differences. ✔ Finding solid proof that learning sign language improves literacy skills. - Finding evidence that learning sign language helps Deaf students become better at reading and writing. ✔ Managing the mixing of languages in the classroom. - Deciding how to handle situations where sign language and spoken/written languages are mixed in the classroom. ✔ Understanding how sign language knowledge carries over to written or spoken language. - Understanding if and how knowledge of sign language helps students learn to read or speak.

Common Issues and Concerns of Bilingual Deaf Education Programs ✔ Deciding when and how to introduce different languages to students. - Deciding the best time and method to teach students sign language and spoken/written languages. ✔ Figuring out how sign language affects speech, and how speech affects sign language. - Exploring whether using sign language changes how students speak and whether speaking changes how they sign. ✔ Exploring the link between storytelling in sign language and the development of reading skills. - Understanding how telling stories in sign language relates to learning how to read.

American Sign Language (ASL) is a full and natural language, just like spoken languages, but its grammar is different from English. ASL is communicated through hand and face movements. It is the main language for many Deaf and hard-of-hearing people in North America, and some hearing people use it too. In 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) recognized ASL as a language and required that governments, nonprofits, and businesses make their services accessible to Deaf people, including equal access to phone services.

Where did ASL originate? The exact beginnings of ASL are not clear, but some suggest that it arose more than 200 years ago from the intermixing of local sign languages and French Sign Language (LSF, or Langue des Signes Française). Today’s ASL includes some elements of LSF plus the original local sign languages; over time, these have melded and changed into a rich, complex, and mature language. Modern ASL and modern LSF are distinct languages. While they still contain some similar signs, they can no longer be understood by each other’s users.

How does ASL compare with spoken language? ASL is a language completely separate and distinct from English. It contains all the fundamental features of language, with its own rules for pronunciation, word formation, and word order. While every language has ways of signaling different functions, such as asking a question rather than making a statement, languages differ in how this is done. Fingerspelling is part of ASL and is used to spell out English words. In the finger spelled alphabet, each letter corresponds to a distinct handshape. Fingerspelling is often used for proper names or to indicate the English word for something.

Filipino Sign Language Filipino Sign Language (FSL) is the main way Deaf people in the Philippines communicate. It is thought to be related to French Sign Language but has been heavily influenced by American Sign Language (ASL) since the Philippine School for the Deaf was founded in 1907 by Delia Delight Rice, an American teacher. FSL and ASL share some similarities in how they use hand shapes, positions, movements, facial expressions, and palm directions. However, their conversations and styles are different due to cultural differences.

Filipino Sign Language On October 30, 2018 , President Rodrigo Duterte signed RA 11106 , also known as " The Filipino Sign Language Act ." This law makes Filipino Sign Language (FSL) the national sign language for Deaf Filipinos and the official sign language for government dealings with the Deaf. It also requires the use of FSL in schools, broadcast media, and workplaces. This law supports earlier laws like the Early Years Act and the Enhanced Basic Education Act, which already include FSL in education for Deaf students from early childhood through high school.

BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND LANGUAGE POLICY IN THE PHILIPPINES

1937: Tagalog Chosen as the National Language In the 1930s, the push for a national language became important as Filipinos, especially politicians, focused on gaining independence from American rule. • In 1937, the National Language Institute was created by Commonwealth Act No. 184, also known as the Romualdez Law. • Tagalog was chosen as the national language for several reasons: Many of the country's leaders, including President Manuel Quezon, spoke Tagalog. The government was based in Manila, in Central Luzon, where most people spoke Tagalog.

1959: Tagalog Renamed ‘Pilipino’ In the 1930s, the push for a national language became important as Filipinos, especially politicians, focused on gaining independence from American rule. In 1937, the National Language Institute was created by Commonwealth Act No. 184, also known as the Romualdez Law. Tagalog was chosen as the national language for several reasons: Many of the country's leaders, including President Manuel Quezon, spoke Tagalog. The government was based in Manila, in Central Luzon, where most people spoke Tagalog.

1973: Pilipino ceased to be the national language During the debates about rewriting the Philippine Constitution in 1973, language rivalries became a big issue again (Gonzalez 1980). As a result, Pilipino was no longer the national language. Instead, Section 3.2 of Article XV in the 1973 Constitution said: “The National Assembly will work on creating and officially adopting a new national language called Filipino. Until this new language is developed, English and Pilipino will be the official languages used by the government for official matters, like writing the constitution, announcing policies, and holding formal meetings.”

1974: Bilingual Education Introduced as a Compromise In June 1974, the Bilingual Education Policy (BEP) was put into effect through Department Order No. 25. This policy required using English to teach Mathematics and Science, and Pilipino to teach all other subjects in both elementary and secondary schools. Although Pilipino was no longer the national language, it became an important language of instruction. This was the first time in 20th-century Philippine education that another language seriously challenged English’s dominance in schools. • Before 1974, except for a few subjects in Grades 1 and 2, English had been the only language used in schools since it was introduced in 1901.

1974: bilingual education established as political compromise This change eventually led to Pilipino becoming Filipino (Espiritu, 1999). Two main reasons were important for starting bilingual education in the Philippines: First, there was concern about English being the only language used in schools. Using a local language, like Pilipino, could help reduce the educational inequalities caused by only using English. Second, even though Pilipino was no longer the national language due to language rivalries, it was still used as a language of instruction alongside English.

1987: Bilingual Education Confirmed; ‘Filipino’ Becomes the National Language In 1987, the constitution was revised again during President Corazon Aquino's administration after Ferdinand E. Marcos was removed from power in the 1986 People Power revolution. The 1987 Philippine Constitution stated clearly that "The national language of the Philippines is Filipino." This was followed by Department of Education Order No. 52, which detailed how the Bilingual Education Policy (BEP) should be implemented. Now, Filipino (not Pilipino) would be used as a language of instruction along with English, even though ‘Tagalog’, ‘Pilipino’, and ‘Filipino’ are essentially the same language (Nolasco, 2010).

LANGUAGE POLICIES IN THE PHILIPPINES DURING THE SPANISH COLONIZATION

Language Policies by the Government in Spain

A. Language Policy and Religion Early Missionary Efforts: When Spain first came to the Philippines, the local people practiced traditional beliefs. The Spanish missionaries introduced Catholicism and wanted to use local languages to spread their faith. However, translating important religious terms like “God” and “church” into native languages was difficult. So, they decided to keep these terms in Spanish. Missionaries also found local writing systems, like baybayin , insufficient because they were not detailed enough. Therefore, they chose to use the Roman alphabet for writing in local languages.

B. Royal Decrees Issued by the Government in Spain Decree of 1550: Issued by Carlos I, this was the first decree requiring the teaching of Spanish (Castilian) in Spanish colonies, even before the Philippines was colonized. It showed concern about accurately teaching Christian doctrine in local languages. Instructions of 1596: Issued by Felipe II, this directive told friars to teach Spanish to natives instead of just learning local languages. This reflected Spain's growing recognition of the importance of Spanish, though they still saw value in native languages. Decree of 1603 : This decree, reissued by Spain, required friars to learn local languages again, possibly due to some friars not mastering them.

B. Royal Decrees Issued by the Government in Spain Decree of 1634: Felipe IV ordered that all natives should be taught Spanish. This aimed to help them understand Catholic teachings better and improve their lives and government roles. Decree of 1686: Carlos II complained that previous decrees were not being followed. This decree emphasized teaching Spanish and allowed natives to directly communicate with Spanish authorities instead of going through friars. It also introduced punishments for not following these policies. Decree of 1792 : Issued by Carlos IV, this decree reinforced the use of Spanish for all domestic matters. It required the establishment of Spanish language schools, banned native languages in schools, and appointed teachers who met certain standards.

C. Language Policies by the Colonial Government Ordinance of 1768: Governor Solís established this ordinance, which required the creation of schools where only Spanish was spoken. It also offered government jobs as an incentive for learning Spanish. Education Act of 1863: This law was a major change in the Philippine education system. It required every town to have a primary school and made primary education compulsory and free for children aged 6-12. The Act mandated that Spanish be the only language of instruction and stated that natives who did not become literate in Spanish within five years could not hold government jobs. This law was designed to encourage Filipinos to learn Spanish.

LANGUAGE POLICIES IN THE PHILIPPINES

A. Language Provisions in the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines Article XIV, Sections 6 and 7 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution set the official language policies for the country. This constitution clarified what the national language should be, a question that was unclear in earlier constitutions. Section 6: Filipino is the national language of the Philippines. It will continue to develop and improve by incorporating elements from other Philippine languages and beyond. Section 7: For communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until laws change this, English.

B. The Philippine Bilingual Education Policy (BEP) Background: In line with the 1987 Constitution, the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) introduced a bilingual education policy in 1974. This policy was established to use both Filipino and English in schools. Implementation: According to the policy, Filipino (previously called Pilipino) is used to teach subjects like social studies, music, arts, physical education, home economics, practical arts, and character education. English is used for science, mathematics, and technology subjects.

B. The Philippine Bilingual Education Policy (BEP) Policy Goals: Improve learning by using both Filipino and English. Promote Filipino as a language of literacy. Strengthen Filipino as a symbol of national unity and identity. Develop Filipino as a language for academic and intellectual work. Maintain English as an important international language for science and technology.

B. The Philippine Bilingual Education Policy (BEP) Regional Languages: In Grades I and II, regional languages will be used to help with initial literacy. Responsibilities: Schools must teach both Filipino and English, and continuously improve their use. Higher education institutions will focus on advancing Filipino, and the Department of Education will work with the National Language Commission to further develop Filipino.

C. Executive Order No. 335 Issued by President Corazon Aquino in 1988: This order requires all government offices to use Filipino in official communications. It aims to improve understanding and unity across the country.

C. Executive Order No. 335 Requirements: Enhance the use of Filipino in official documents and communications. Assign staff to handle Filipino communications. Translate names of government offices and signs into Filipino, with English translations if desired. Filipinize the "Oath of Office" for officials. Include Filipino language training in employee development programs.

C. Executive Order No. 335 Commission on the Filipino Language: This commission is tasked with creating and implementing programs to support this order.

D. Executive Order No. 210, s. 2003 Signed by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo: This order focuses on strengthening the use of English in education. Policies: Teach English as a second language starting in First Grade. Use English as the medium of instruction for English, Mathematics, and Science from at least Third Grade. In secondary education, English should be the main language of instruction for at least 70% of class time.

LANGUAGE POLICIES AND PROGRAMS OF CHED AND TESDA

Language Policy of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) General Overview: CHED Creation: CHED was established in 1994 under Republic Act No. 7722, known as the “Higher Education Act of 1994.” It oversees both public and private higher education institutions. Initial Steps: CHED updated the General Education Curriculum (GEC) for bachelor's degrees to better meet future needs.

Key Policies: CMO No. 59, s. 1996: Language Requirements: Requires 9 units of Filipino and 9 units of English in the General Education Curriculum. Literature is now part of Humanities, with 6 units allocated. Language Use: Language courses should be taught in the respective languages. Literature can be taught in Filipino, English, or other languages, as long as there are enough materials and qualified instructors. Placement Exams: Incoming first-year students must pass an English Placement Exam or take a remedial course.

Key Policies: CMO No. 22, s. 2001: Chinese Language: Encourages higher education institutions to offer Chinese language courses, both as part of undergraduate and Ph.D. programs. CMO No. 23, s. 2010: Foreign Languages: Guidelines for including foreign languages (like Chinese, Spanish, French) in higher education curricula as electives to help students with global job opportunities.

Key Policies: CMO No. 04, s. 2018: Filipino and Panitikan : Requires Filipino and Literature courses for various fields of study. The inclusion of Filipino and Panitikan courses is emphasized, and institutions can decide how to integrate them into their schedules.

Language Policy of Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) General Overview: TESDA Creation: TESDA was established in 1994 under Republic Act 7796 to oversee technical and vocational education.

Key Policies: Circular Number 107, s. 2019: Language Integration: Aims to include language instruction in the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) curriculum. English as Medium: Requires English as the main language of instruction in TVET institutions and encourages offering other foreign languages. Global Context: Emphasizes the importance of language skills for global communication and competitiveness.

LANGUAGE POLICIES AND PROGRAMS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Language Policy of the Department of Education (DepEd) The Department of Education (DepEd) in the Philippines was established by the Education Decree of 1863 and has undergone many changes over time. It was officially created under Republic Act 9155 in 2001, which defines its current role. DepEd's Role DepEd is responsible for creating and managing policies for both formal and non-formal basic education. It oversees all public and private elementary and secondary schools, including alternative learning systems, and ensures that education supports national development goals.

Language Policies and Programs DECS Order No. 11 (1987) : This order prioritizes hiring teachers from the local area where the school is located. It also supports using local languages to enhance cultural education in local communities. DO 52 (1987) : Known as the Policy on Bilingual Education, it aims for students to be proficient in both Filipino and English. Regional languages were used as supplementary languages in the first two grades. The policy ensures students can use both languages effectively for national and international needs.

Implementation of Bilingual Education Policy Early Childhood Education : Filipino and English are used as teaching languages in preschool. In areas where Filipino is not commonly spoken, teachers use local languages to help children understand. Primary Grades : Grades 1-3: Filipino is used for subjects like Civics and Culture. Grades 4-6: Filipino is used for subjects including Geography and History, while English is used for Mathematics and Science. Teachers believe using Filipino helps build national pride and better reading skills, as it's widely used in media. English is also supported due to early exposure and availability of resources.

Language Policies and Programs DECS Memorandum No. 144 (1999) : This project introduced teaching in local languages in Grade 1, with Filipino taught orally and English introduced later. It showed that learning in a native language first helps with learning additional languages. BESRA : The Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda (BESRA) aims to improve the education system by 2015, focusing on better literacy transfer from Filipino to English. However, lack of language skills sometimes hinders English performance.

Language Policies and Programs DepEd Memorandum No. 181 (2003) : This response to Executive Order No. 210 emphasizes using English to improve students' skills for future job competitiveness, especially in technology. DO 36 (2006) : This order set rules for implementing Executive Order No. 210, requiring English to be used more in teaching, starting from Grade 1 for English, Math, and Science.

Language Policies and Programs DO No. 31 (2012) : This policy included Integrated Language Arts in the K to 12 Curriculum, focusing on teaching in the Mother Tongue (MT) from Grades 1-3, then transitioning to Filipino and English from Grades 4-10. DO No. 31 (2013) : Clarified that Mother Tongue is used in Grades 1-2 for most subjects, with Filipino and English introduced later in the school year.

MOTHER TONGUE-BASED MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION

What is Mother-Tongue Multilingual Based Education? MTB-MLE is a way of teaching where students use their first language (mother tongue) and other languages in the classroom. Kids start learning in the language they know best, which helps them build strong reading and writing skills. Research shows that children who are good at their mother tongue learn other languages more easily and perform better in school. This approach helps them use all their languages effectively for learning and life.

Goal of MTB-MLE The main goal is to help Filipino children become lifelong learners in their mother tongue, Filipino (the national language), and English (the global language). This prepares them to do well in school and in their communities. DepEd uses 19 different languages in MTB-MLE, including Tagalog, Cebuano, and Ilocano. MTB-MLE is used both as a subject to learn and as a language used for teaching other subjects.

Legal Bases of MTB-MLE Republic Act No. 10157 (Kindergarten Education Act) In kindergarten, teaching should use the child’s mother tongue as the main language. Exceptions include cases where children speak different languages, resources aren't available, or teachers are not trained yet.

Legal Bases of MTB-MLE Republic Act No. 10533 (Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013) For kindergarten and the first three years of elementary school, teaching should use the students' native language. From Grades 4 to 6, Filipino and English are gradually introduced.

Legal Bases of MTB-MLE DepEd Order No. 31, s. 2013 Mother Tongue is used for teaching various subjects in Grades 1 and 2. Filipino is introduced in Grade 1, and English is introduced in Grade 1 during the third quarter.

EFFECTIVE COMMUNITY TEACHERS FOR MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

Characteristics of Effective Teachers A. Competence A teacher should be very good at using the language they are teaching. It's often best if they are native speakers of that language. Teachers need to know both the subject they are teaching and the best ways to teach it. Training should cover both these areas and give teachers lots of practice. Teachers should be able to create lesson plans and make useful teaching materials from local resources. They need to understand the needs of their students and design lessons that meet those needs. For adult education, teachers should help students use their new skills right away to improve their lives and communities.

Characteristics of Effective Teachers B. Confidence Teachers need to practice leading interactive lessons that build on what students already know. It's important for teachers to ask questions and understand why certain teaching methods are used. This helps them be creative and try new ideas. Teachers should have opportunities to share their experiences with each other and get feedback from more experienced teachers. Teachers should create a positive learning environment, especially for students who may have had negative experiences before. A confident teacher adapts lessons to meet students' needs and values their existing knowledge.

Characteristics of Effective Teachers C. Credibility Having the community involved in selecting teachers makes them more trusted. Even if a teacher is well-regarded by the community, they still need the skills to be effective. It helps if teachers receive official recognition or certificates for their training, which boosts their credibility with parents and others.

Characteristics of Effective Teachers D. Commitment Teachers should value the language they are teaching and understand the benefits of starting literacy in the mother tongue. Their enthusiasm can motivate students. When teachers share the vision of the education program, they are more likely to take on leadership roles and commit to making the program successful. Involving teachers in decision-making helps them feel more invested in the program.

Teachers' Qualifications and Training Teachers are crucial for the success of MTB-MLE (Mother-Tongue Based Multilingual Education). They need to be well-qualified and trained. Here’s a summary of qualifications and training for MTB-MLE in five Southeast Asian countries:

Teachers' Qualifications and Training Philippines The government sets rules for choosing and training MT teachers. Training is conducted by national and international experts. Participants include school administrators, teachers from Kindergarten to Grade 3, and native speakers.

Teachers' Qualifications and Training Singapore Teachers are selected from the top students in secondary school. Some foreign teachers are hired for MT classes. Experienced teachers mentor new teachers.

Teachers' Qualifications and Training Thailand Teacher assistants might not have a Bachelor’s Degree but should be fluent in the mother tongue. Training is organized by the government and NGOs. Participants include MTB-MLE staff, teachers, and native speakers. Experienced teachers mentor new teachers.

Teachers' Qualifications and Training Vietnam Training is provided by the Ministry of Education and Training. Teachers and native speakers are involved.

Teachers' Qualifications and Training Malaysia The government organizes the training. Teachers for both common and less common mother tongues should have a good level of proficiency. Training includes MT teachers and community volunteers.

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