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1. Chapter 4: The Act

2. Ethical Requirements What is reason?  It is the capacity of consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying logic, and adapting or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information. It is man's tool of understanding. It is the method of thinking in an organized, clear way to achieve knowledge and understanding.

3. Ethical Requirements B. What is impartiality? It is also called as  even handedness  or  fair-mindedness. It is a principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.

4. Ethical Requirements C. Reason and Impartiality The relationship between reason and impartiality is that: 1. Reason is a requirement for impartiality. 2. Reason clarifies the judgment of impartiality to be logically objective on the criteria of judgment without any biases.

5. Ethical Requirements D. Ethics and feelings Emotions – that is to say feelings and intuitions – play a major role in most of the ethical decisions people make. Most people do not realize how much their emotions direct their moral choices. I Most often, it is impossible to make any important moral judgments without emotions.

6. Ethical Requirements D. Ethics and feelings Inner-directed negative emotions like guilt, embarrassment, and shame often motivate people to act ethically. Example: A boy sitting on an LRT saw an old woman standing (feels guilt and shame) offers his seat to the old woman.

7. Ethical Requirements D. Ethics and feelings Outer-directed negative emotions, on the other hand, aim to discipline or punish. Example: People often direct anger, disgust, or contempt at those who have acted unethically. This discourages others from behaving the same way.

8. Ethical Requirements D. Ethics and feelings Positive emotions like gratitude and admiration, which people may feel when they see another acting with compassion or kindness, can prompt people to help others. Example: When a man saw a woman helping a group of children, he feels admiration for the compassion and kindness shown by the woman. Thus, he also wants to help the children.

9. Ethical Requirements D. Ethics and feelings Emotions evoked by suffering, such as sympathy and empathy, often lead people to act ethically toward others.  Example: When a person sees an old weak man, he feels empathy. Thus, he decides to help the old man.

10. Ethical Requirements D. Ethics and feelings Empathy is the central moral emotion that most commonly motivates pro-social activity such as altruism, cooperation, and generosity. “We may believe that our moral decisions are influenced most by our philosophy or religious values, but in truth our emotions play a significant role in our ethical decision-making.”

11. Ethical Requirements Steps of Ethical Decision-Making Process 1. Gather the facts 2. Define the ethical issues 3. Identify the affected parties (stakeholders) 4. Identify the consequences 5. Identify the obligations (principles, rights, justice).

12. Ethical Requirements Steps of Ethical Decision-Making Process 6. Consider your character and integrity 7. Think creatively about potential actions 8. Check your gut 9. Decide on the proper ethical action and be prepared to deal with opposing arguments.

13. Ethical Requirements F. The difference between reason and will Reason In philosophy, it is the faculty or process of drawing logical inferences. It is the method of thinking in an organized, clear way to achieve knowledge and understanding. Will In philosophy, it is the volitional faculty, it is an appetite for the good; that is, it is naturally drawn to goodness. It commands the body to move or the intellect to consider something.

14. Ethical Requirements F. The difference between reason and will There is an evident interplay between reason and will. Reason can legislate but only through will can its legislation can be translated into action. However, these two are not understood as separate entities but they are considered as parts of the intellect that functions differently. Thus, without reason, nothing will give direction to the will and without the will, reason has no power to enact.

15. Chapter 5: The Early Philosophers and Their Works

16. The Early Philosophers St. Thomas Aquinas on Virtue Thomas Aquinas Born in Roccasecca , Kingdom of Sicily [Italy] (1225) Died in Fossanova (1274) He is known as “the Angelic Doctor” Italian Dominican philosopher and theologian , the foremost medieval Scholastic.

17. The Early Philosophers St. Thomas Aquinas on Virtue and Happiness Aquinas follows Aristotle in thinking that an act is good or bad depending on whether it contributes to or deters us from our proper human end—the ” telos ” or final goal/end at which all human actions aim (means). That ” telos ” is  eudaimonia , or happiness, where “happiness” is understood in terms of completion, perfection, or well-being.

18. The Early Philosophers St. Thomas Aquinas on Virtue and Happiness Achieving happiness , however, requires a range of intellectual and moral virtues that enable us to understand the nature of happiness and motivate us to seek it in a reliable and consistent way.

19. The Early Philosophers St. Thomas Aquinas on Virtue and Happiness Aquinas believes that we can never achieve complete or final happiness in this life. For him, final happiness consists in beatitude , or supernatural union with God . Such an end lies far beyond what we through our natural human capacities can attain.  For this reason, we not only need the virtues , we also need God to transform our nature —to perfect or “deify” (to be perfect like God) it—so that we might be suited to participate in divine beatitude. 

20. The Early Philosophers St. Thomas Aquinas on Virtue and Happiness Happiness as Knowledge of God Man’s true happiness can only be found in knowledge of God. No other worldly good or pleasure can truly provide us with the ultimate good we seek.

21. The Early Philosophers St. Thomas Aquinas on Virtue and Happiness It is impossible for any created good to constitute man’s happiness. For happiness is that perfect good which entirely satisfies one’s desire; otherwise it would not be the ultimate end, if something yet remained to be desired. Now the object of the will, i.e. Of man’s desire, is what is universally good; just as the object of the intellect is what is universally true.

22. The Early Philosophers SUMMARY Aristotle: Happiness = highest good and ultimate end. Aquinas: God = perfect and supreme being, the ultimate and the highest degree of all perfections (including goodness). Therefore: Happiness = God “ Man’s true happiness is achieved through eternal bliss and union with God.”

23. The Early Philosophers B. Kant on Good Will Kant means that a good will is "good without qualification" as such an absolute good in-itself, universally good in every instance and never merely as good to some yet further end. Kant argues that no consequence can have fundamental moral worth; the only thing that is good in and of itself is the Good Will. The Good Will freely chooses to do its moral duty.

24. The Early Philosophers B. Kant on Good Will Kant's point is that to be universally and absolutely good, something must be good in every instance of its occurrence. To act of a “good will” means to act out of a sense of moral obligation or “duty.” According to Kant, the overarching principle of all morality is what everyone simply calls the “categorical imperative.”

25. The Early Philosophers B. Kant on Good Will Kantian ethics  - refers to a  deontological ethical theory  ascribed to the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. The theory, developed as a result of Enlightenment rationalism, is based on the view that the only intrinsically good thing is a good will ; an action can only be good if its  maxim  – the principle behind it  – is duty to the moral law .

26. The Early Philosophers B. Kant on Good Will Deontology  or  Deontological ethics - from the Greek word ” deon ” which means "obligation” or “duty“ - It is the normative ethical theory that the morality of an action should be based on whether that action itself is right or wrong under a series of rules, rather than based on the consequences of the action.

27. The Early Philosophers B. Kant on Good Will Hypothetical Imperatives - one must obey if we want to satisfy our desires: i.e.'go to the doctor' is a hypothetical imperative because we are only obliged to obey it if we want to get well. - These are the “ oughts .” Categorical Imperatives - binds us regardless of our desires: i.e. ‘everyone has a duty to not lie,’ regardless of circumstances and even if it is in our interest to do so. - These are the “moral oughts .” - The primary formulation of Kant's ethics

28. The Early Philosophers Categorical Imperatives 1.) The Formula of the Universal Law of Nature “Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” —  Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)

29. The Early Philosophers Categorical Imperatives 1.) The Formula of the Universal Law of Nature - When someone acts, it is according to a rule, or maxim. For Kant, an act is only permissible if one is willing for the maxim that allows the action to be a universal law by which everyone acts.

30. The Early Philosophers Categorical Imperatives 2.) The Humanity Formula “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end (goal) and never simply as a means (action to attain the goal.)” —  Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)

31. The Early Philosophers Categorical Imperatives 2.) The Humanity Formula - treat humanity as an end in itself - Kant argued that rational beings can never be treated merely as means to ends; they must always also be treated as ends themselves, requiring that their own reasoned motives must be equally respected.

32. The Early Philosophers Categorical Imperatives 3.) The Autonomy Formula “The idea of the will of every rational being as  a will that legislates universal law .” —  Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)

33. The Early Philosophers Categorical Imperatives 3.) The Autonomy Formula - Kant's Formula of Autonomy expresses the idea that a person is obliged to follow the Categorical Imperative because of their rational will, rather than any outside influence.

34. The Early Philosophers Categorical Imperatives 4.) The Kingdom of Ends Formula “A rational being must always regard himself as giving laws either as member or as sovereign in a kingdom of ends which is rendered possible by the freedom of will. —  Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)

35. The Early Philosophers Categorical Imperatives 4.) The Kingdom of Ends Formula - This formulation requires that actions be considered as if their maxim is to provide a law for a hypothetical Kingdom of Ends. - Accordingly, people have an obligation to act upon principles that a community of rational agents would accept as laws. - In such a community, each individual would only accept maxims that can govern every member of the community without treating any member merely as a means to an end.

36. The Early Philosophers B. Kant on Rights For Kant, natural rights, like individual freedom, are not ahistorical , universal standards of political justice but the historical outcome of the long process of enlightenment. As such, what is right will depend on what is timely.

37. The Early Philosophers C. Rights a moral or legal entitlement to have or obtain something or to act in a certain way. D. Kinds of rights The right to due process The right to freedom of speech The right to freedom of religion The right to privacy The right to interstate and intrastate travel The right to equality The right to assemble And the right to bear arms

38. The Early Philosophers E. Distinction between moral rights and legal rights Legal Rights are rights that people have under some legal system, granted by a duly authorized legal authority or government. basically those codified rights which are given by a legal system of a country and it can be modified, repealed, and restrained by legal body (authority).

39. The Early Philosophers E. Distinction between moral rights and legal rights Moral Rights are rights accorded under some system of ethics. These might be grounded in mere humanity — they might be rights that all people deserve just because they are humans, or because they are rational beings, or whatever. are those universal rights which are not given by any government authority and law.

40. Chapter 6: Framework and Principles

41. Righteousness and Equality Justice and Fairness JUSTICE In its broadest context, includes both the attainment of that which is just and the philosophical discussion of that which is just. It is the morally fair and right state of everything. To have  justice  as a person's character trait means that they are just and treat everyone the same, or how they would like to be treated.

42. Righteousness and Equality Justice and Fairness FAIRNESS impartial and just treatment or behavior without favoritism or discrimination. It is defined as just and reasonable treatment in accordance with accepted rules or principles. Treating all people equally and applying reasonable punishments only when rules are broken is an  example of fairness . 

43. Righteousness and Equality B. Principles of Justice  “The principle of justice could be described as the moral obligation to act on the basis of fair adjudication between competing claims.”

44. Righteousness and Equality C. Principles of Fairness   “The principle of fairness establishes moral standards for decisions that affect others. Fair decisions are made in an appropriate manner based on appropriate criteria.”

45. Righteousness and Equality D. Kinds of Justice  Commutative - based on the principle of equality. Distributive - guarantees the common welfare by sharing what God has created. Legal - the obligations of the government to it's citizens and society. Social - everyone has a right to a fair say in society.

46. Righteousness and Equality . Difference between justice and fairness “ Justice  should be defined as adherence to rules of conduct, whereas fairness  should be defined as individuals' moral evaluations of this conduct.”