4Introduction
behaviour and ascribable to different factors such as purpose, participants and
topic. Much linguistic variation is “highly systematic” (Reppen, Fitzmaurice, &
Biber, 2002, p.vi), and, consequently, texts we use in different settings and for
different purposes show “different distributions of linguistic features” (Conrad,
2015, p. 309). Academic texts, for example, are shown to vary across disciplines
(e.g. Biber, 2006; Biber & Conrad, 2019; Hyland, 2004a). Newspaper texts are
no exception; they show systematic linguistic differences, especially across
genres.
That linguistic variation is an integral part of newspaper discourse means that
“[t]he language of newspapers is a heterogeneous and complex object of analysis”
(Semino, 2009, p. 453). In addition to genre (e.g. editorial writing), other factors
also determine newspaper language, including newspaper type (e.g. broadsheet),
subject domain/topic (e.g. politics), culture (e.g. Chinese) and individual style.
Thus, evaluation is not merely genre- specific. It is also topic- specific, culture-
specific, style- specific and so on. In short, variation is an integral part of newspaper
discourse, a fact stressed by Crystal (1997, p. 392):
With such a range of content, there is no likelihood of finding a single style
of writing used throughout a paper [newspaper], nor of finding linguistic
characteristics that are shared by all papers.
All this suggests that variation is a complex and yet worthwhile object of study.
Hence this book on variation in evaluative language use within newspaper
discourse.
1.3.2 News
Most of us today would probably think of news simply as anything new or infor-
mation reported or shared through such channels as newspapers, magazines,
television/radio programmes, Facebook and Twitter. But at a deeper level, the
notion of news is seen as “ambiguous” (van Dijk, 1988, p. 3) and “intangible”
(Lamble, 2011, p. 3). While it is hard to pin it down to a single all- encompassing
definition (Leiter, Harriss, & Johnson, 2000), it is nevertheless useful to see news
as “a construction [i.e. construct] by news workers who are subjected to many
influences and constraints” (Potter, 2011, p. 137). Put another way, news is “the
end-product of a complex process” (Hall, 1978, p. 53, as cited in Conboy, 2007, p.
11), and many factors are at work in news selection and presentation. In the words
of Hout and Cotter (2015, p. 1232),
Behind news discourse is a set of norms and values that govern how news
should be selected and presented. Audience concerns, news values,
1
produc-
tivity demands, style guides, reporting practice, and source- media interaction
set conditions on the news stories that journalists write.
Of particular importance and relevance here is the application of news values in
the new- making process. According to Cotter (2010, p. 87),