ex1uxosws4w99hhoaohc-signature-132c2b3937a787aed48364a3f2c88d8b7a1e758a5b6889cf34f9d2b8a3bd3b4e-poli-170510121321.pptx

ex1uxosws4w99hhoaohc-signature-132c2b3937a787aed48364a3f2c88d8b7a1e758a5b6889cf34f9d2b8a3bd3b4e-poli-170510121321.pptx

1. Islamic and Pre-modern African Architecture Chapter Six Lecturer Abdirahman Beder Muse

2. Islamic architecture   encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by  Roman, Byzantine and all other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries.  Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. The principal Islamic architectural types are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture. There are different attitudes. Symbolic views of some scholars on Islamic architecture have consistently been criticized by historians for lacking historical evidence. The interior side view of the main dome of  Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey. (Ottoman style)

3. THE SPREAD OF ISLAM The expansion of the Arab Empire in the years following Muhammad's death led to the creation of caliphates, occupying a vast geographical area and conversion to Islam was boosted by missionary activities particularly those of Imams, who easily intermingled with local populace to propagate the religious teachings.  These early caliphates, coupled with Muslim economics and trading and the later expansion of the Ottoman Empire resulted in Islam's spread outwards from Mecca towards both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and the creation of the Muslim world. Trading played an important role in the spread of Islam in several parts of the world, notably southeast Asia

4. Spread of Islam The birth of Islam is marked by the first revelation conveyed to the prophet Muhammad by god (in Arabic, Allah), which occurred in the seventh century near the city of mecca on the Arabian peninsula. Islam emerged in a polytheistic environment; although there were notable Jewish and Christian communities, most people living on the Arabian peninsula believed in multiple gods. In contrast, the fundamental tenet of Islam was monotheism—the belief in one god alone. What began as a religious movement soon took on a political dimension and Islam spread quickly throughout the middle and near east. The fall of the Sasanian empire in Persia and Byzantium's weakening control of its eastern territories in the seventh century provided fertile ground for this expansion, and within a hundred years of the prophet’s death the new leaders of the Islamic community (ummah), the caliphs, controlled lands reaching from Spain to present-day Pakistan .

5. Assimilation of earlier traditions Islamic architectural styles was influenced by two different ancient traditions: Western tradition:  In particular, the regions of the newly conquered Byzantine Empire (Southwestern Anatolia, Syria, Egypt and the Maghreb) supplied architects, masons, mosaicists and other craftsmen to the new Islamic rulers. These artisans were trained in Byzantine architecture and decorative arts, and continued building and decorating in Byzantine style, which had developed out of Hellenistic and ancient Roman architecture.

6. Eastern tradition: Mesopotamia and Persia, despite adopting elements of Hellenistic and Roman representative style, retained their independent architectural traditions, which derived from Sasanian architecture and its predecessors. The transition process between late Antiquity, or post-classical, and Islamic architecture is exemplified by archaeologic findings in North Syria and Palestine, the Bilad al-Sham of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. In this region, late antique, or Christian, architectural traditions merged with the pre-Islamic Arabian heritage of the conquerors. Recent research on the history of Islamic art and architecture has revised a number of colonialist ideas.

7. CONVERSIONS in Islam: 1.1Phase I: Early Caliphs and Umayyads (610–750 CE) 1.2Phase II: The Abbasids (750–1258) 1.3Phase III: Dissolution of the Abbasids and the emergence of the Seljuks and Ottomans (950-1450) 1.4Phase IV: Ottoman Empire: 1299 – 1924 1.5Phase V: Post-Ottoman Empire to the present Territories in Central Europe under the Ottoman Empire, 1683 CE Age of the Caliphs  :   Expansion under the Prophet Mohammad, 622-632    Expansion during the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661    Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750

8. Early period: the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties The first years following the death of Muhammad were, of course, formative for the religion and its artwork. The immediate needs of the religion included places to worship (mosques) and holy books (Korans) to convey the word of God. So, naturally, many of the first artistic projects included ornamented mosques where the faithful could gather and Korans with beautiful calligraphy. Because Islam was still a very new religion, it had no artistic vocabulary of its own, and its earliest work was heavily influenced by older styles in the region. Chief among these sources were the Byzantine tradition of present-day Egypt and Syria, with its scrolling vines and geometric motifs, Sassanian metalwork and crafts from what is now Iraq with their rhythmic, sometimes abstracted qualities, and naturalistic Byzantine mosaics depicting animals and plants. It occurred first in Syria and Iraq, the two areas with the largest influx of Muslims and with the two successive capitals of the empire, Damascus under the Umayyads and Baghdad under the early Abbasids. From Syria and Iraq this new taste spread in all directions and adapted itself to local conditions and local materials, thus creating considerable regional and chronological variations in early Islamic art. From a historical point of view, two major dynasties are involved. One is the Umayyad dynasty, which ruled from 661 to 750. It was the only Muslim dynasty ever to control the whole of the Islamic-conquered world. The second dynasty is the ʿAbbāsid dynasty. Its rule extended as late as 1258.

9. Practice of Islam Profession of faith (shahada). The belief that “there is no god but god, And Muhammad is the messenger of god” is central to Islam. This Phrase, written in Arabic, is often prominently featured in architecture. Prayer (salat). Muslims pray facing mecca five times a day: at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and after dark. Muslims can pray individually at any location or together in a mosque, where a leader in prayer (imam) guides the congregation. Men gather in the mosque for the noonday prayer on Friday; women are welcome but not obliged to participate. Alms (zakat). In accordance with Islamic law, Muslims donate a fixed portion of their income to community members in need. Many rulers and wealthy Muslims build mosques, drinking fountains, hospitals, schools, and other institutions both as a religious duty and to secure the blessings associated with charity. Fasting (sawm). During the daylight hours of Ramazan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, all healthy adult Muslims are required to abstain from food and drink. Pilgrimage (hajj ). every Muslim whose health and finances permit it must make at least one visit to the holy city of mecca, in present-day Saudi Arabia. The Ka'ba, a cubical structure covered in black embroidered hangings, is at the centre of the haram mosque in mecca. Muslims believe that it is the house Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic) built for god, and face in its direction (qibla) when they pray.

10. The mosque: Origins A mosque from Arabic: المسجد‎‎ al-masjid is a place of worship for followers of Islam. There are strict and detailed requirements in Sunni jurisprudence (fiqh) for a place of worship to be considered a masjid, with places that do not meet these requirements regarded as musallas. There are stringent restrictions on the uses of the area formally demarcated as the mosque (which is often a small portion of the larger complex), and, in the Islamic Sharia law, after an area is formally designated as a mosque, it remains so until the Last Day. The mosque serves as a place where Muslims can come together for salat ( صلاة ṣalāt, meaning "prayer") as well as a center for information, education, social welfare, and dispute settlement. The first mosque in the world is often considered to be the area around the Kaaba in Mecca now known as the Masjid al-Haram. Since as early as 638 AD, the Masjid al-Haram has been expanded on several occasions to accommodate the increasing number of Muslims who either live in the area or make the annual pilgrimage known as hajj to the city.

11. The mosque Essential Architectural Elements of a Mosque The essential architectural elements of the mosque include: The qibla is the direction Muslims face when praying toward the Ka‘ba in Mecca. The qibla wall is the wall in a mosque that faces Mecca. The mihrab is a niche in the qibla wall indicating the direction of Mecca; because of its importance, it is usually the most ornate part of a mosque, highly decorated and often embellished with inscriptions from the Qur’an. The minbar is a pulpit in the form of a staircase on which the prayer leader (imam) stands when delivering a sermon after Friday prayer. The pulpit is usually situated to the right of the mihrab and is often made of elaborately carved wood or stone. A minaret is a tall tower attached or adjacent to a mosque. It is designed so the call to prayer, issued from mosques five times a day, can be heard loud and clear throughout a town or city. Alternatively, the call may be made from the roof or entrance, and is now often projected with the aid of microphones and speakers. The minaret is also a visual symbol of the presence of Islam. Most mosque courtyards ( sahn ) contain a public fountain, where believers can perform ablutions, the ritual washing of the hands, feet, and face required before prayer. In the arid lands of Arabia, water is revered as a gift from God, and fountains also have symbolic meaning, alluding to the four rivers of Paradise mentioned in the Qur’an.

12. The mosque The Islamic Prophet Muhammad went on to establish another mosque in Medina, which is now known as the Masjid an-Nabawi, or the Prophet's Mosque. Built on the site of his home, Muhammad participated in the construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer the concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic city. Mosques had been built in Iraq and North Africa by the end of the 7th century, as Islam spread outside the Arabian Peninsula with early caliphates. The Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala is reportedly one of the oldest mosques in Iraq. The shrine, while still operating as a mosque, remains one of the holiest sites for Shia Muslims, as it honors the death of the third Shia imam, and Prophet Muhammad's grandson, Hussein ibn Ali. Quba Mosque, Medina Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (The Mosque of the Prophet) Medina Shrine of Imam Hussain ibn Ali

13. Architecture of the Early religious buildings The one obviously new function developed during this period is that of the mosque, or masjid . The earliest adherents of Islam used the private house of the Prophet in Medina as the main place for their religious and other activities and muṣallās without established forms for certain holy ceremonies. The key phenomenon of the first decades that followed the conquest is the creation outside Arabia of masjids in every centre taken over by the new faith. These were not simply or even primarily religious centres. They were rather the community centres of the faithful, in which all social, political, educational, and individual affairs were transacted. Among those activities were common prayer and the ceremony of the khuṭbah . The first mosques were built primarily to serve as the restricted space in which the new community would make its own collective decisions. It is there that the treasury of the community was kept, and early accounts are full of anecdotes about the immense variety of events. Great mosque of Kairouan

14. Architecture of the Early religious buildings Only in one area, Iraq, did the mosque acquire a unique form of its own, the oriented hypostyle. Neither in Iraq nor elsewhere is there evidence of symbolic or functional components in mosque design. The only exception is that of the maqṣūrah (literally “closed-off space”), an enclosure, probably in wood, built near the centre of the qiblah wall. Its purpose was to protect the caliph or his replacement. None of those early mosques has survived, and no descriptions of the smaller ones have been preserved. There do remain, however, accurate textual descriptions of the large congregational buildings erected at Kūfah and Basra in Iraq and at Al-Fusṭāṭ in Egypt. The new Muslim cities of Iraq created the hypostyle mosque (a building with the roof resting on rows of columns). A flexible architectural unit, a hypostyle structure could be square or rectangular and could be increased or decreased in size by the addition or subtraction of columns. The single religious or symbolic feature of the hypostyle mosque was a minbar (a pulpit) for the preacher, and the direction of prayer was indicated by the greater depth of the colonnade on one side of the structure. Great Umayyad Mosque, Syria

15. The mosque: The prohibition against images A second and closely parallel development of the impact of the Islamic religion on the visual arts is the celebrated question of a Muslim iconoclasm. It was from about the middle of the 8th century a prohibition had been formally stated. The justification for the prohibition tended to be that any representation of a living thing was an act of competition with God, for he alone can create something that is alive. Instead there occurred very soon a replacement of imagery with calligraphy and the concomitant transformation of calligraphy into a major artistic medium. Furthermore, the world of Islam tended to seek means of representing the holy other than by images of human beings, and one of the main problems of interpretation of Islamic art is that of the degree of means it achieved in this search.

16. The mosque: The prohibition against images Throughout the ages mystics & theologians have used geometry as a contemplative focus, as it enables the viewer a vision of the underlying order of both the cosmos and the natural world . The cyclical movement of heavenly bodies, which Plato described as the ‘music of the spheres’, finds its Earthly reflection in the natural symmetries found throughout nature and most strikingly within the world of flowers, the proportions of which are governed by simple geometric laws. The origin of the word ‘cosmos’ is adornment (from which we derive the modern word ‘cosmetics’) and the adornment of sacred buildings with both floral and geometric patterns makes the viewer sensitive to the subtle harmonies uniting the natural world around us with the cosmos. In Islamic art the geometric figure of the circle represents the ancient symbol of unity and the ultimate source of all diversity in creation. The natural division of the circle into regular divisions is the ritual starting point for many traditional Islamic patterns. In the Alhambra (14th C), Spain, geometric pattern is perfectly integrated with biomorphic design (arabesque) and calligraphy . These are the three distinct, but complementary, disciplines that comprise Islamic art. They form a three-fold hierarchy in which geometry is seen as foundational. This is often signified by its use on the floors or lower parts of walls. The decorative elements deployed use a range of symmetries that have now been classified as belonging to distinct mathematical groups, but the subtlety and beauty of the designs is unparalleled in modern mathematical thinking.

17. Design Principles of the Muslim City A number of factors played decisive roles in ordering and shaping the plan and form of the Muslim City. In addition to the influence of local topography, and morphological features of pre-existing towns, the Muslim City reflected the general socio-cultural, political, and economic structures of the newly created society. In general this involved the following: 1. Natural laws: The first principle that defined much of the character of the Muslim city is the adaptation of the built form and plan of the city to natural circumstances expressed through weather conditions and topography. These were expressed in the adoption of concepts such as courtyard, terrace, narrow covered streets and gardens. Such elements were designed for coping with hot weather conditions dominating the Muslim environment. 2. Religious and cultural beliefs: The religious beliefs and practices formed the centre of cultural life for these populations, thus giving the mosque the central position in spatial and institutional hierarchies. The cultural beliefs separating public and private lives regulated the spatial order between uses and areas. Thus, the town plan consisted of narrow streets and cul-de-sacs separating private and public domains, while the land use emphasized the separation of male and female users. Consequently, economic activity that involved exchange and public presence was separated from residential (private dwellings) use and concentrated in public areas and in the main streets.

18. Design Principles of the Muslim City 3. Design principles stemmed from Sharia Law : The Muslim city also reflected the rules of Sharia (Islamic Law) in terms of physical and social relations between public and private realms, and between neighbours and social groups. The privacy principle was made into a law which sets the height of the wall above the height of a camel rider. This as well as the laws of the property rights, for example, were all factors determining the form of the Muslim city. 4. Social principles: The social organisation of the urban society was based on social groupings sharing the same blood, ethnic origin and cultural perspectives. Development was therefore directed towards meeting these social needs especially in terms of kinship solidarity, defence, social order and religious practices. Such groups included; Arabs, Moors, Jews and other groups such as Andalusians, Turkish, and Berbers as in cities of the Maghreb. These were reflected in the concept of quarters known as Ahiaa (in the Mashraq ) or Huma (in the Maghreb).

19. Elements of space making Paradise Garden Gardens and water have for many centuries played an essential role in Islamic culture, and are often compared to the garden of Paradise. he classical form of the Persian Paradise garden, or the Charbagh , comprises a rectangular irrigated space with elevated pathways, which divide the garden into four sections of equal size: One of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is the four-part garden laid out with axial paths that intersect at the garden's centre. This highly structured geometrical scheme, called the chaharbagh , became a powerful metaphor for the organization and domestication of the landscape, itself a symbol of political territory.

20. Elements of space making Islamic West The double-arched system of arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba is generally considered to be derived from Roman aqueducts like the nearby aqueduct of Los Milagros. Columns are connected by horseshoe arches, and support pillars of brickwork, which are in turn interconnected by semicircular arches supporting the flat timberwork ceiling. In later-period additions to the Mosque of Córdoba, the basic architectural design was changed: Horseshoe arches were now used for the upper row of arcades, which is now supported by five-pass arches. In sections which now supported domes, additional supporting structures were needed to bear the thrust of the cupolas.

21. Elements of space making Islamic east The system of squinches , which is a construction filling in the upper angles of a square room so as to form a base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome, was already known. The spherical triangles of the squinches were split up into further subdivisions or systems of niches, resulting in a complex interplay of supporting structures forming an ornamental spatial pattern which hides the weight of the structure. The "non-radial rib vault", an architectural form of ribbed vaults with a superimposed spherical dome, is the characteristic architectural vault form of the Islamic East.

22. Elements of space making Domes Based on the model of pre-existing Byzantine domes, the Ottoman Architecture developed a specific form of monumental, representative building: Wide central domes with huge diameters were erected on top of a centre-plan building. Despite their enormous weight, the domes appear virtually weightless. Some of the most elaborate domed buildings have been constructed by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan. When the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople, they found a variety of Byzantine Christian churches, the largest and most prominent amongst them was the Hagia Sophia. The brickwork-and-mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central dome of the Hagia Sophia were built simultaneously, as a self-supporting structure without any wooden centring. Mimar Sinan solved the structural issues of the Hagia Sophia dome by constructing a system of centrally symmetric pillars with flanking semi-domes, as exemplified by the design of the Süleymaniye Mosque (four pillars with two flanking shield walls and two semi-domes.

23. Elements of space making Muqarnas The architectural element of muqarnas developed in northeastern Iran and the Maghreb around the middle of the 10th century. The ornament is created by the geometric subdivision of a vaulting structure into miniature, superimposed pointed-arch substructures, also known as "honeycomb", or "stalactite" vaults. Made from different materials like stone, brick, wood or stucco, its use in architecture spread over the entire Islamic world. In the Islamic West, muqarnas are also used to adorn the outside of a dome, cupola, or similar structure, whilst in the East is more limited to the interior face of a vault. The muqarnas are a form of architectural ornamented vaulting, the "geometric subdivision of a squinch, or cupola, or corbel, into a large number of miniature squinches, producing a sort of cellular structure", sometimes also called "honeycomb" vaults from their resemblance to these. They are used for domes, and especially half-domes in entrances, iwans and apses, mostly in traditional Islamic and Persian architecture.

24. Ottoman architecture mimar sinan Koca Mi'mâr Sinân Âğâ (Sinan Agha the Grand Architect) He was responsible for the construction of more than 300 major structures and other more modest projects. He rose rapidly through the ranks to become first an officer and finally a Janissary commander, with the honorific title of ağa . He refined his architectural and engineering skills while on campaign with the Janissaries, becoming expert at constructing fortifications of all kinds, as well as military infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges and aqueducts. At about the age of fifty, he was appointed as chief royal architect. His masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, although his most famous work is the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul. Prince’s Mosque

25. Selimiye Mosque

26. Suleiman’s Mosque

27. Rustom Pasha Mosque

28. TOPKAPI PALACE

29. The Topkapı Palace  is a large palace in Istanbul, Turkey that was one of the major residences of the Ottoman sultans for almost 400 years (1465–1856) of their 624-year reign. As well as a royal residence, the palace was a setting for state occasions and royal entertainments. It is now a museum and as such a major tourist attraction. It also contains important relics of the Muslim world, including Muhammed's cloak and sword. The Topkapı Palace is among the monuments contained within the "Historic Areas of Istanbul", which became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985, and is described under UNESCO's criterion iv as "the best example[s] of ensembles of palaces of the Ottoman period."

30. The palace complex consists of four main courtyards and many smaller buildings. At its peak, the palace was home to as many as 4,000 people, and covered a large area with a long shoreline. It contained mosques, a hospital, bakeries, and a mint. Construction began in 1459, ordered by Sultan Mehmed II the conqueror of Byzantine Constantinople. It was originally called the  New Palace  ( Yeni Saray  or  Saray -ı Cedîd -i Âmire ) to distinguish it from the previous residence. It received the name " Topkapı " (Cannon Gate) in the 19th century, after a (now lost) gate and shore pavilion. The complex was expanded over the centuries, with major renovations after the 1509 earthquake and the 1665 fire.

31. The Imperial Gate is the main entrance into the First Courtyard. The four courtyards lead to each other and during the Ottoman Empire, each became steadily more exclusive leading to the Fourth Courtyard, which was the sultan's private courtyard. This First Courtyard functioned as an outer precinct or park and is the largest of all the courtyards of the palace. The steep slopes leading towards the sea had already been terraced under Byzantine rule. The large Gate of Salutation (Arabic:  Bâb-üs Selâm ), also known as the Middle Gate (Turkish:  Orta Kapı ), leads into the palace and the Second Courtyard. This crenelated gate has two large octagonal pointed towers. The date of construction of this gate is not clear, since the architecture of the towers is of Byzantine influence rather than Ottoman. The Gate of Salutation ( Bâb-üs Selâm ), entrance to the Second courtyard of Topkapı Palace Church of Hagia Eirene in the First Courtyard The Imperial Gate 

32. The Imperial Council ( Dîvân -ı Hümâyûn ) building is the chamber in which the ministers of state, council ministers ( Dîvân Heyeti ), the Imperial Council, consisting of the Grand Vizier ( Paşa Kapısı ), viziers, and other leading officials of the Ottoman state, held meetings. It is also called  Kubbealtı , which means "under the dome", in reference to the dome in the council main hall. It is situated in the northwestern corner of the courtyard next to the Gate of Felicity. All the statesmen, apart from the Grand Vizier, performed their dawn prayers in the Hagia Sophia and entered the Imperial Gate according to their rank, passing through the Gate of Salutation and into the divan chamber, where they would wait for the arrival of the Grand Vizier. The Grand Vizier performed his prayers at home, and was accompanied to the palace by his own attendants.

33. The Imperial Harem ( Harem-i Hümayûn ) occupied one of the sections of the private apartments of the sultan; it contained more than 400 rooms. The harem was home to the sultan's mother, the  Valide Sultan; the concubines and wives of the sultan; and the rest of his family, including children; and their servants The harem consists of a series of buildings and structures, connected through hallways and courtyards. Every service team and hierarchical group residing in the harem had its own living space clustered around a courtyard. The number of rooms is not determined, with probably over 100,  of which only a few are open to the public..

34. Imperial Hall The Imperial Hall ( Hünkâr Sofası ), also known as the Imperial Sofa, Throne Room Within or Hall of Diversions, is a domed hall in the Harem, believed to have been built in the late 16th century. It has the largest dome in the palace. The hall served as the official reception hall of the sultan as well as for the entertainment of the Harem. Here the sultan received his confidants, guests, his mother, his first wife ( Hasseki ), consorts, and his children. Entertainments, paying of homage during religious festivals, and wedding ceremonies took place here in the presence of the members of the dynasty After the Great Harem Fire of 1666, the hall was renovated in the rococo style during the reign of Sultan Osman III. The tile belt surrounding the walls bearing calligraphic inscriptions were revetted with 18th-century blue-and-white Delftware and mirrors of Venetian glass. But the domed arch and pendantives still bear classical paintings dating from the original construction.