Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies

Introduction to Computing Concepts

1. Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies A Comprehensive Journey Through the Evolution and Application of Computing

2. Introduction to Computing Concepts Key Entities in the Field of Computing Importance of Computational Thinking Evolution of Computer Hardware The ENIAC and Transistor-Based Computers Microprocessors and Personal Computers Types of Computer Housing Blade Enclosures and Blade Servers Challenges in Using Newer Server Blades Understanding CPU Instruction Sets Evolution of CPU Word Sizes AMD vs. Intel in CPU Market ARM Processors and Oracle SPARC 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Table of contents

3. SPARC and IBM POWER Processors Evolution of Computer Memory Technology Components and Functions of Computer Memory Evolution of Serial Communication Interfaces Modern Laptop Connectors and Cables Differences Between PCI and PCIe Bus Architectures Types of PCI and PCIe Lanes Compute Virtualization Concept Virtualization Architecture Overview VMware's Leadership in x86 Virtualization Software Defined Compute (SDC) Hypervisor Management of Virtual Machines Drawbacks of Virtualization in IT Infrastructure 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Table of contents

4. Emulation and Logical Partitions Logical Partitions and Hypervisors Virtualization Techniques and Hypervisor Types Memory Management in Virtual Machines Container Technology Overview Implementation of Containers in Development Container Security Implications Repository and Container Orchestration Mainframes in High-Volume Computing Mainframe Architecture Overview Processing Units in Mainframe Systems Control Units and Mainframe Virtualization Midrange Systems Overview 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Table of contents

5. Evolution of Minicomputers Midrange System Architecture UMA Architecture in Midrange Systems NUMA Architecture in Midrange Systems Midrange Virtualization Technologies x86 Servers Architecture Evolution Virtualization on the x86 Platform Performance of Computers and Moore's Law CPU Execution Process and Clock Speed CPU Caching and Memory Organization CPU Pipelines and Instruction Execution Prefetching and Branch Prediction Superscalar CPUs and Parallel Execution 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 Table of contents

6. Limitations of CPU Clock Speeds Multi-Core CPUs and Heat Generation Impact of Moore's Law on CPU Cores Virtualization Impact on CPU Usage Physical and Virtual Security Measures Minimizing Hypervisor Security Risks 53 54 55 56 57 58 Table of contents

7. Definition of Compute: Refers to computers in datacenters, physical or virtual machines. Components of Physical Computers: Power supplies, CPUs, BIOS, memory, network connectivity. Groups of Compute Systems: Mainframes, midrange systems, x86 servers. History of Computers: Evolution from manual calculations to programmable computers. British Colossus Computer: World's first programmable computer, created during World War II. Introduction to Computing Concepts / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Introduction to Computing Concepts 1

8. Definition and function Importance in computing CPU (Central Processing Unit) Definition and function Role in system performance RAM (Random Access Memory) Definition and function Benefits in processing Hyper-threading technology Overview of Intel processors Key features and advancements Intel CPUs Definition and function Comparison with Hyper-threading Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) Key Entities in the Field of Computing / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 2

9. Computational thinking is a fundamental skill in the digital age, emphasizing problem-solving through logical and algorithmic approaches. It involves breaking down complex problems into smaller, manageable parts to develop step-by-step solutions. Computational thinking fosters creativity, critical thinking, and the ability to analyze and solve problems efficiently. By applying computational thinking, individuals can approach challenges in various fields, not just limited to computer science. Developing computational thinking skills is crucial for students and professionals to thrive in today's technology-driven world. Importance of Computational Thinking / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Computational Thinking: A Fundamental Skill 3

10. Evolution from manual calculations to mechanical calculators and programmable computers. Introduction of the British Colossus computer during World War II as the first programmable computer. Evolution from Manual to Programmable 01 Evolution of Computer Hardware Development of the first universal microprocessor, the Intel 4004, in 1971. Increase in CPU power exponentially since the introduction of microprocessors, following Moore's Law. Microprocessor Revolution 02 Transition from single supercomputers to clustered computers in the 1990s for high-performance computing. Utilization of specialized hardware like GPUs for specific calculations due to their massively parallel architecture. High-Performance Computing 03 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 4

11. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was one of the earliest general-purpose computers, developed during World War II. ENIAC was massive, weighing about 30 tons and taking up a significant amount of space. It used vacuum tubes for processing, making it prone to overheating and requiring frequent maintenance. ENIAC: A Pioneer in Computing The ENIAC and Transistor-Based Computers Transistor-based computers replaced vacuum tubes with transistors, leading to smaller, faster, and more reliable machines. Transistors revolutionized computing by reducing power consumption and heat generation while increasing processing speed. The transition from ENIAC to transistor-based computers marked a significant advancement in computer technology. The Transition to Transistor-Based Computers / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 5

12. Microprocessors are the central processing units (CPUs) of personal computers, responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations. Intel x86 processors, starting from the 8088 CPU to the latest 22-core E5-2699A Xeon Processor, have been pivotal in shaping computer architectures. AMD is a major competitor to Intel in the CPU market, offering alternative processor options for personal computers. The evolution of CPU word sizes, from 4 bits to 64 bits, has influenced the capabilities of personal computers in handling data and memory. Personal computers utilize microprocessors to run operating systems and applications efficiently, enhancing user experiences and productivity. Microprocessors and Personal Computers / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Microprocessors and Personal Computers 6

13. Types of Computer Housing Stand-alone complete systems like pedestal or tower computers were the original computer housing. Rack-mounted servers are complete machines requiring their own power, network, and SAN cables. Blade servers lack their own power supply or expansion slots and are placed in blade enclosures for high server density. Blade servers are connected to shared power supplies through a backplane, reducing costs by sharing components like power supplies and fans. Types of Computer Housing / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 7

14. Blade enclosures are used to house blade servers, providing a compact and high-density solution for data centers. Blade servers are servers without their own power supply or expansion slots, designed to be placed in blade enclosures for efficient space utilization. Newer blade servers may have higher power, cooling, and network bandwidth requirements, posing challenges for compatibility with existing enclosures. Blade servers are connected to shared power supplies through a backplane, allowing for cost-effective sharing of components like power supplies and fans. Enclosures are not limited to blade servers but also accommodate storage components like disks, controllers, and SAN switches. Blade Enclosures and Blade Servers / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Blade Enclosures and Blade Servers 8

15. Challenges in Using Newer Server Blades Newer server blades may not fit existing enclosures due to increased power, cooling, or bandwidth requirements. Upgrading power supplies may be necessary if newer blades require more power than the enclosure can provide. Compatibility issues may arise if newer blades allow for higher network throughput not supported by the enclosure. Blade enclosures are not only used for blade servers but also for storage components like disks and SAN switches. Systems based on blade servers are generally more cost-effective than rack-mounted servers due to shared components like power supplies and fans. Challenges in Using Newer Server Blades / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 9

16. CPU instruction sets are represented as binary codes and mnemonics in assembly language. Programmers write machine code using mnemonics, which are then translated into machine instruction codes by an assembler. Assembly language is specific to a particular CPU architecture and provides mnemonics for easier human understanding. Each instruction has a one-to-one correspondence between assembly language instructions and machine code instructions. The assembler translates mnemonics to machine instruction codes, allowing them to run directly on the CPU. Understanding CPU Instruction Sets / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Understanding CPU Instruction Sets 10

17. Evolution of CPU Word Sizes CPU word sizes have evolved over time, starting from 4 bits in early CPUs. 8-bit CPUs gained popularity quickly, allowing storage of values between 0 and 255 in a single memory register. The Intel 8086, a 16-bit microprocessor, became widely used, leading to the x86 microprocessor family. Today's 64-bit CPUs can address significantly larger memory spaces compared to 32-bit CPUs. The Intel x86 processors, including the latest 22-core E5-2699A Xeon Processor, have been pivotal in computer architectures. Evolution of CPU Word Sizes / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 11

18. AMD and Intel are major competitors in the CPU market. Intel processors have been the de-facto standard for many computer architectures. AMD is the second-largest global supplier of CPUs, competing fiercely with Intel. Intel's x86 processors have a long history, starting from the 8088 CPU to the latest 22-core E5-2699A Xeon Processor. AMD's x86 processors have also made significant advancements, challenging Intel's dominance in the market. AMD vs. Intel in CPU Market / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies AMD and Intel in the CPU Market 12

19. ARM processors are a type of CPU architecture commonly used in mobile devices and embedded systems. Known for their energy efficiency and low power consumption, making them ideal for portable devices. ARM processors are based on Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) principles, focusing on simplicity and efficiency. ARM Processors ARM Processors and Oracle SPARC SPARC (Scalable Processor Architecture) is a RISC-based CPU architecture developed by Sun Microsystems, now owned by Oracle. SPARC processors are designed for high-performance computing tasks, such as database management and enterprise applications. Known for their scalability and reliability, SPARC processors are commonly used in data centers and server environments. Oracle SPARC / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 13

20. SPARC Processors SPARC processors are fully open and non-proprietary, allowing any manufacturer to produce a SPARC CPU. The latest SPARC model in 2017 is the 32-core SPARC M7 CPU, running at 4.1 GHz. IBM POWER Processors IBM POWER processors, also known as PowerPC, were introduced by IBM in 1990 and are used in high-end server products. The latest IBM POWER model in 2017 is the 24-core POWER9 CPU, running at 4 GHz. SPARC and IBM POWER Processors / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 14

21. Early computer memory technology using tiny magnetic rings to store data. Introduction of Magnetic Core Memory Shift towards semiconductor-based memory like RAM and ROM for faster access. Transition to Semiconductor Memory Introduction of DRAM for higher memory density but requiring constant refreshing. Development of Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Advancement to SRAM for faster and more stable memory storage. Evolution to Static RAM (SRAM) Innovation of non-volatile flash memory for portable devices and data storage solutions. Emergence of Flash Memory Evolution of Computer Memory Technology 01 02 03 04 05 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 15

22. Utilizes capacitors to store data Requires regular refreshing to maintain data integrity Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) Components and Functions of Computer Memory Stored on a memory chip on the motherboard Controls the computer from startup to loading the operating system Updating BIOS software is crucial for system stability and performance enhancement Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) Different interfaces like RS-232 are used Facilitates serial communication Interfaces for External Peripherals / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 16

23. Serial communication interfaces have evolved from early simple connections to complex data transmission systems. Initially, serial interfaces used a single data line to send and receive information sequentially. Over time, advancements led to the development of faster serial interfaces with improved data transfer rates. Modern serial communication interfaces utilize protocols like RS-232, USB, and Ethernet for diverse connectivity needs. The evolution of serial interfaces has enabled efficient data exchange between devices in various industries. Evolution of Serial Communication Interfaces / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Evolution of Serial Communication Interfaces 17

24. Capable of transferring up to 100W of electricity. Used for USB 3.1 protocol and Thunderbolt 3. USB Type-C Connector 01 Modern Laptop Connectors and Cables Thunderbolt 1: 10 Gbit/s bi-directional data transfers. Thunderbolt 2: Throughput of 20 Gbit/s. Thunderbolt 3: Maximum throughput of 40 Gbit/s, provides 100W power, backward compatible with USB 3.1. Thunderbolt Technology Evolution 02 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) used in x86 servers for internal expansion slots. PCI uses shared parallel bus architecture. Optional 64-bit support available. PCIe (PCI Express) offers faster data transfer speeds and is commonly used in modern systems. PCI and PCIe 03 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 18

25. PCI Express (PCIe) uses point-to-point serial links, unlike PCI's shared parallel bus architecture. PCIe connections are built from lanes, with devices supporting various lane configurations. PCIe provides faster data transfers due to its serial link topology compared to PCI. Thunderbolt technology, like Thunderbolt 3, can also use the USB Type-C connector for high-speed data transfers. Despite PCIe's advantages, PCI remains common in computers due to its widespread use. Differences Between PCI and PCIe Bus Architectures / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies PCI Express (PCIe) vs PCI 19

26. PCI: 32-bit/33 MHz 32-bit/66 MHz 64-bit/33 MHz 64-bit/66 MHz Different types of PCI and PCIe lanes with corresponding speeds in Gbit/s 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 lanes PCIe 1.0 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 lanes PCIe 2.0 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 lanes PCIe 3.0 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512 lanes PCIe 4.0 Types of PCI and PCIe Lanes / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 20

27. Compute virtualization is the process of creating virtual versions of physical computers to optimize resource utilization. Virtualization allows for the dynamic allocation of CPU, memory, disk, and networking resources to virtual machines. Benefits of compute virtualization include cost savings on hardware, power, cooling, maintenance, and reduced risk of hardware failures. Virtualization platforms like VMware, Microsoft Hyper-V, and Citrix XenServer enable the efficient management and movement of virtual machines. Virtual machines can be provisioned quickly without the need for upfront hardware purchases, enhancing flexibility and scalability. Compute Virtualization Concept / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Compute Virtualization 21

28. Virtualization Architecture Overview Virtualization decouples and isolates virtual machines from physical machines and other virtual machines. Virtual machines are logical representations of physical computers in software, allowing for independent operation and isolation. Benefits include quick provisioning without upfront hardware purchases and improved resource utilization. History of virtual machines dates back to IBM's mainframe System/370 in 1972, with a shift to x86 platforms in the early 2000s. Key virtualization platforms include VMware ESX, Microsoft Hyper-V, Citrix XenServer, Oracle VirtualBox, and Red Hat RHEV. Virtualization Architecture Overview / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 22

29. VMware established leadership in x86 virtualization with products like VMware Workstation and VMware GSX. Other vendors offering x86 virtualization include Citrix, Red Hat, and Microsoft. VMware's Leadership in x86 Virtualization 01 VMware's Leadership in x86 Virtualization Cost savings on hardware, power, and cooling are achieved by consolidating physical computers into virtual machines on fewer, larger physical machines. Maintenance costs and hardware failure risks are reduced with fewer physical machines needed. Cost Savings and Efficiency 02 Server virtualization is described as Software Defined Compute, enabling efficient resource management and optimization through centralized management and APIs. Server Virtualization and Software Defined Compute 03 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 23

30. Involves managing virtual machines using a centralized system and APIs for efficient resource management and optimization. Centralized management of resources and automatic optimization eases management efforts in server virtualization. Enables systems managers to handle more machines with the same staff, enhancing operational efficiency. Server virtualization can be viewed as Software Defined Compute, streamlining resource management and allocation. Software Defined Compute (SDC) / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Software Defined Compute (SDC) 24

31. Manage virtual machines by allocating CPU, memory, disk, and networking resources dynamically. Hypervisors VMware ESX VMotion and Microsoft Hyper-V Live Migration enable automatic movement of virtual machines between physical machines. Virtualization Platforms Load balancing Hardware maintenance High availability features like automatic restarts in case of failures. Benefits Easily created and managed Caution needed to avoid creating an excessive number of virtual machines. Virtual Machine Images Hypervisor Management of Virtual Machines 01 02 03 04 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 25

32. Virtual machine sprawl is a common issue in IT infrastructure due to the creation of numerous virtual machines for various purposes, leading to management challenges and resource consumption. Virtual Machine Sprawl Introduction of an additional layer in the infrastructure for virtualization requires extra management efforts, including license fees, training, and maintenance of additional tools. Additional Management Efforts Some servers may require specialized hardware for virtualization, such as modem cards or high-speed I/O, which can add complexity and cost to the infrastructure. Specialized Hardware Requirements Virtualization overhead, especially in running high-performance databases, can impact overall system performance due to resource allocation and isolation requirements. Virtualization Overhead Lack of support from application vendors for virtualized environments can lead to challenges in troubleshooting and maintenance, requiring additional steps for issue resolution. Lack of Vendor Support Drawbacks of Virtualization in IT Infrastructure 01 02 03 04 05 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 26

33. Emulation is a software process that enables programs to run on a different computer system than originally intended. Emulators like Hercules, Charon, and Bochs allow for running programs on varied platforms. Emulation Emulation and Logical Partitions Logical Partitions (LPARs) are subsets of a computer's hardware resources virtualized as separate computers. Commonly used in mainframe and midrange systems. Logical Partitions (LPARs) / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 27

34. Logical Partitions (LPARs) Subsets of a computer's hardware resources virtualized as separate computers. Commonly utilized in mainframe and midrange systems. Role of Hypervisors Manage virtual machines. Allow for dynamic allocation of resources like CPU, memory, disk, and networking to virtual machines. Logical Partitions and Hypervisors / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 28

35. Emulation: Software allowing programs to run on different computer systems. Logical Partitions: Subset of hardware resources virtualized as separate computers. Hypervisors: Software managing virtual machines and their resources. Virtualization Techniques 01 Virtualization Techniques and Hypervisor Types Type 1 Hypervisor: Directly installed on physical hardware, like VMware ESXi. Type 2 Hypervisor: Installed on an operating system, like VMware Workstation. Types of Hypervisors 02 Resource Optimization: Efficient use of hardware resources. Flexibility: Easy provisioning and management of virtual machines. Isolation: Ensuring security and independence of virtual environments. Virtualization Benefits 03 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 29

36. Memory management in virtual machines involves allocating and managing memory resources for virtualized environments. Virtual machines require memory allocation from the physical host machine to operate efficiently. Memory management ensures that each virtual machine has access to the necessary memory resources without impacting other virtual machines. Techniques like memory ballooning and memory sharing are used to optimize memory usage in virtualized environments. Proper memory management is crucial for the performance and stability of virtual machines in datacenter environments. Memory Management in Virtual Machines / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Memory Management in Virtual Machines 30

37. Container Technology Container technology allows for multiple isolated user-space instances on a single operating system kernel. Containers provide isolation, portability, and easy deployment of applications by encapsulating all components, including dependencies and services. History of containers dates back to UNIX-based containers in 1979, integrated into the Linux kernel in 2008. Key benefits of containers include isolation, portability, and easy deployment of applications. Container Technology Overview / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 31

38. Containers in development allow for encapsulating applications and their dependencies for easy deployment. Implementation of containers involves creating isolated user-space instances on a single operating system kernel. Containers provide portability, isolation, and efficient deployment of applications by encapsulating all necessary components. Developers can leverage containers to run applications independently, sharing the same kernel for efficient resource utilization. Implementation of Containers in Development / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Containers in Development 32

39. Containers provide a high level of isolation for applications, ensuring that each operates independently and securely within its own environment. Isolation Despite their benefits, containers can introduce security risks if not properly configured or managed, potentially leading to data breaches or unauthorized access. Vulnerabilities Implementing strict access controls and monitoring mechanisms is crucial to prevent unauthorized access to containerized applications and sensitive data. Access Control Regularly updating and patching container images and runtime environments is essential to address known vulnerabilities and enhance overall security. Patch Management Securing container networking through measures like network segmentation, encryption, and firewalls is vital to protect against external threats and unauthorized communication. Network Security Container Security Implications / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 33

40. Implementing a Repository Implementing a repository with predefined and approved container components is crucial for managing unlicensed software effectively. Container Orchestration Container orchestration, also known as a datacenter operating system, abstracts resources of a cluster of machines and provides services to containers. Frameworks for Management Various frameworks like Docker Swarm, Kubernetes, and Mesos are used for managing container images and orchestrating the container lifecycle. Container Orchestrators Container orchestrators enable containers to run anywhere on a cluster of machines and schedule them based on available resources. Popular Frameworks Docker Swarm, Apache Mesos, Google's Kubernetes, Rancher, Pivotal CloudFoundry, and Mesosphere DC/OS are popular frameworks for container management. Repository and Container Orchestration / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 34

41. Mainframes are high-performance computers designed for high-volume, I/O-intensive computing. They were the first commercially available computers and are still widely used today. Mainframes Overview Mainframes are optimized for handling large volumes of data efficiently. Mainframe Optimization IBM is a major vendor in the mainframe market, holding a significant market share. Market Presence Mainframes offer high reliability with built-in redundancy for hardware upgrades and repairs without downtime. Reliability Mainframes in High-Volume Computing 01 02 03 04 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 35

42. Mainframes consist of processing units, memory, I/O channels, control units, and devices placed in racks or frames. Mainframe Components Mainframes use specialized Processing Units (PUs) within a Central Processor Complex (CPC). Processing Units The CPC contains one to four book packages, each with processors, memory, and I/O connections. Central Processor Complex Mainframes are designed for high-volume, I/O-intensive computing and are highly reliable with built-in redundancy. Design and Reliability Mainframes are still widely used today, with IBM being the largest vendor in the market. Market Presence Mainframe Architecture Overview 01 02 03 04 05 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 36

43. Mainframes use Processing Units (PUs) instead of CPUs for computation. A mainframe typically contains multiple PUs within a Central Processor Complex (CPC). The CPC consists of one to four book packages, each containing processors, memory, and I/O connections. Specialized PUs, like the quad-core z10 mainframe processor, are utilized in mainframes instead of off-the-shelf CPUs. Processors within the CPC start as equivalent PUs and can be characterized for specific tasks during installation or at a later time. Processing Units in Mainframe Systems / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Processing Units in Mainframe Systems 37

44. Control units in mainframe systems are similar to expansion cards in x86 systems and are responsible for working with specific I/O devices. Control Units in Mainframe Systems Mainframes are designed for virtualization and can run multiple virtual machines with different operating systems. Mainframe Virtualization Mainframes offer logical partitions (LPARs) as a virtualization solution, with each LPAR running its own mainframe operating system. Logical Partitions (LPARs) The largest IBM mainframe today has an upper limit of 54 LPARs, allowing for efficient resource allocation and management. IBM Mainframe LPAR Limit Control Units and Mainframe Virtualization 01 02 03 04 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 38

45. Positioning of Midrange Systems Midrange systems are positioned between mainframe and x86 platforms in terms of size, cost, workload, availability, performance, and maturity. Production and Components Typically produced by IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and Oracle. Use parts from one vendor and run an operating system provided by that vendor. High Availability and Security Offer high availability and security due to their stable platform nature. History of Midrange Systems Traces back to the evolution of minicomputers. The DEC PDP-8 was the first commercially successful minicomputer. Enabled smaller businesses and scientific laboratories to have their own computing capabilities. Midrange Systems Overview / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 39

46. Minicomputers emerged as a bridge between mainframes and microcomputers, offering more power than microcomputers but smaller scale than mainframes. Introduction of Minicomputers They were characterized by their moderate computing power, compact size, and affordability compared to mainframes. Features of Minicomputers Over time, minicomputers evolved to offer improved processing capabilities, storage capacities, and connectivity options. Evolutionary Advancements Minicomputers found popularity in small to medium-sized businesses, research institutions, and educational settings due to their cost-effectiveness and versatility. Market Impact The legacy of minicomputers can be seen in modern computing devices, contributing to the development of personal computers and server technologies. Legacy and Influence Evolution of Minicomputers 01 02 03 04 05 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 40

47. Midrange System Architecture / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 41 Midrange System Architecture Positioned between mainframe and x86 platforms in terms of size, cost, workload, availability, performance, and maturity. Production and Operating Systems Typically produced by IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and Oracle. Uses parts from one vendor and runs an operating system provided by that vendor. Availability and Security Offers higher availability and security due to their stable platform nature. Evolution of Midrange Systems Evolved over time to cater to a specific niche in the computing landscape. History of Midrange Systems Traces back to the era of minicomputers. The DEC PDP-8 was a notable early success in this category.

48. One of the earliest styles of multi-CPU architectures, typically used in systems with no more than 8 CPUs. In an UMA system, the machine is organized into a series of nodes containing either a processor or a memory block, interconnected usually by a shared bus. Each processor in an UMA system can access all memory blocks via the shared bus, creating a single memory address space for all CPUs. UMA architecture provides a straightforward memory access model, allowing each processor equal access to all memory blocks in the system. UMA Architecture in Midrange Systems / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Uniform Memory Access (UMA) Architecture 42

49. NUMA stands for Non-Uniform Memory Access. Allows each processor to access memory blocks directly in midrange systems. NUMA Architecture Overview NUMA systems have nodes interconnected by a network. Enables efficient memory access. System Structure Beneficial for systems with multiple CPUs. Enhances performance. Performance Benefits Optimizes memory access by reducing latency. Improves overall system efficiency. Efficiency Optimization NUMA Architecture in Midrange Systems 01 02 03 04 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 43

50. Midrange virtualization technologies are provided by various vendors, each offering unique solutions tailored to specific system requirements. Midrange Virtualization Technologies LPARs are commonly used in mainframe and midrange systems, allowing for the virtualization of hardware resources as separate computers. Logical Partitions (LPARs) IBM AIX offers WPARs within LPARs, enabling the transfer of running workloads between physical systems seamlessly. IBM AIX Workload/Working Partitions (WPARs) HP-UX virtualization technology includes nPARs and vPARs, offering comparable functionalities to LPARs and WPARs for efficient resource allocation. HP-UX Virtualization Technology Oracle Solaris virtualization features zones and containers, providing a protected environment for applications with shared kernels but individual configurations. Oracle Solaris Virtualization Midrange Virtualization Technologies 01 02 03 04 05 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 44

51. Introduction of x86 Servers x86 servers are a prevalent server architecture used in datacenters. Origin and Popularity Initially based on the IBM PC architecture, x86 servers gained popularity due to their low cost and compatibility with Windows and Linux. x86 Architecture Building Blocks x86 architecture is defined by building blocks integrated into specialized chips known as an x86 chipset. Evolution of x86 Systems Earlier x86 systems utilized a Northbridge/Southbridge architecture for data transfer between the CPU, RAM memory, and PCIe bus. Diverse Implementations x86 servers are implemented by various vendors like HP, Dell, HDS, and Lenovo, with diverse hardware components available. x86 Servers Architecture Evolution / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 45

52. Virtualization on x86 Platform Virtualization on the x86 Platform / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Virtualization on the x86 platform allows running multiple operating systems like Windows or Linux on x86 servers. x86 servers typically run one application per server, unlike midrange and mainframe systems. Resource utilization is improved by running multiple operating systems in separate virtual machines on a single x86 server. Popular virtualization platforms for x86 servers include VMware vSphere, Microsoft Hyper-V, Citrix XenServer, Oracle VirtualBox, and Red Hat RHEV. 46

53. Moore's Law states that CPU power has exponentially increased since the introduction of microprocessors in 1971. The Intel 4004 microprocessor, the first universal microprocessor, revolutionized computer technology by combining multiple IC functions into a single chip. The 4004 chip had 2,300 transistors and could perform 60,000 instructions per second, making computers faster and smaller. Moore's Law leads to more CPU cores on a single CPU instead of higher clock speeds, impacting computer performance. Hyper-threading technology in Intel CPUs allows a single processor core to work as a multi-core processor, improving system performance. Moore's Law The performance of computers is influenced by server architecture, memory, CPU speed, and bus speed. Performance of Computers Performance of Computers and Moore's Law / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 47

54. CPU Execution Process and Clock Speed / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 48 CPU Execution Process Fetching: Instructions are retrieved from memory. Decoding: Instructions are translated into signals the CPU can understand. Executing: Instructions are carried out by the CPU. Writing Back: Results are stored back in memory. Clock Speed Clock Ticks: Each step is triggered by a clock tick. Clock Cycles: The number of clock ticks needed varies based on CPU architecture. GHz: CPUs operate at speeds defined in GHz (billions of clock ticks per second). Performance: Higher clock speeds allow CPUs to execute instructions faster.

55. Pipelines in CPUs allow for simultaneous handling of multiple instructions. Processes are split into stages like fetching, decoding, executing, and writing back results. CPU Pipelines CPU cache is crucial for optimizing memory access. It is organized in levels, with L1 cache closest to the core. L1 cache is fed by L2 cache, which in turn gets data from RAM. Some multi-core CPUs feature a shared L3 cache for improved memory usage. Exclusive cache systems ensure cached memory is in only one cache. CPU Caching and Memory Organization CPU Caching and Memory Organization / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 49

56. CPU Pipelines and Instruction Execution / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 50 01 02 03 04 Instructions are fetched from memory. Instructions are decoded to understand their meaning. Instructions are executed by the CPU. Results are written back to memory after execution. Fetching Decoding Executing Writing Back

57. Prefetching and Branch Prediction Prefetching is a technique used by CPUs to fetch data from memory before it is actually needed, aiming to reduce delays in instruction execution. Prefetching Branch prediction is a method employed by CPUs to anticipate the outcome of branch instructions, enhancing performance by reducing cache misses. Branch Prediction CPUs utilize prefetching and branch prediction to optimize instruction delivery, with over 80% of processor instructions being delivered from cache memory using these techniques. Optimization of Instruction Delivery / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 51

58. Designed to process multiple instructions per clock tick by dispatching instructions to multiple functional units within the processor. Achieve this by simultaneously executing multiple instructions in separate data paths within the CPU. Parallel execution allows for more efficient use of clock cycles, enhancing the overall performance of the CPU. Have multiple functional units like arithmetic logic units (ALUs) and multipliers to handle different types of instructions simultaneously. Superscalar CPUs and Parallel Execution / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Superscalar CPUs 52

59. Limitations of CPU Clock Speeds / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 53 Limitations of CPU Clock Speeds Increasing clock speeds beyond 1 GHz can lead to interference on circuit boards due to high-frequency signals acting as radio antennas. Circuit board interference can cause instability in the system, requiring very rigid circuit board designs to manage the effect. Clock speeds above 3 GHz can result in signal phase issues on circuit boards, affecting the synchronization of data processing. The physical limitations of circuit board design and signal propagation pose challenges in sustaining very high CPU clock speeds. To address the limitations of high clock speeds, the industry has shifted towards multi-core CPUs as a solution for enhancing performance without solely relying on clock speed increments.

60. Multi-core CPUs have become prevalent in modern computing systems. Prevalence of Multi-core CPUs The distribution of workload among multiple cores in multi-core CPUs helps in reducing power consumption. Workload Distribution Heat generation is a significant concern with CPUs running between 70-90 degrees Celsius and not exceeding 95 degrees Celsius. Heat Generation Concerns The introduction of multi-core CPUs has addressed heat issues by spreading the workload across multiple cores. Addressing Heat Issues The trend in processor development has shifted towards CPUs with multiple cores to enhance performance and efficiency. Trend in Processor Development Multi-Core CPUs and Heat Generation 01 02 03 04 05 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 54

61. Impact of Moore's Law on CPU Cores Moore's Law leads to an increase in the number of CPU cores on a single CPU rather than higher clock speeds. The shift towards more CPU cores has become prominent due to the limitations posed by Moore's Law on transistor density. Moore's Law and CPU Cores Having more CPU cores allows for better parallel processing and multitasking capabilities. While individual CPU cores may not run significantly faster than older CPUs, the overall performance is enhanced by having more cores. Benefits of More CPU Cores The importance of BIOS support for technologies like hyper-threading is crucial for maximizing the benefits of multiple CPU cores. BIOS Support and Hyper-Threading / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 55

62. Virtualization on x86 platforms allows for running multiple operating systems on a single server, optimizing resource utilization. x86 servers typically run one application per server, unlike midrange and mainframe systems, leading to less efficient hardware usage. By running multiple operating systems in virtual machines on a large x86 server, resource utilization can be improved. Virtualization layer on x86 platforms achieves application isolation similar to midrange and mainframe systems. Popular virtualization products for x86 platforms include VMware vSphere, Microsoft Hyper-V, Citrix XenServer, Oracle VirtualBox, and Red Hat RHEV. Virtualization Impact on CPU Usage / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies Virtualization Impact on CPU Usage 56

63. Access control systems Surveillance cameras Biometric authentication Implementing Physical Security Measures Secure socket layer (SSL) certificates Safeguard data transmission over networks Utilizing Encryption Protocols Firewalls Intrusion detection systems Antivirus software Implementing Cybersecurity Measures Patch security vulnerabilities Enhance system resilience Regular Software and Firmware Updates Penetration testing Identify and address potential security weaknesses Conducting Regular Security Audits Physical and Virtual Security Measures 01 02 03 04 05 / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 57

64. Implement regular security updates and patches to address vulnerabilities. Utilize secure hypervisor configurations to reduce attack surfaces. Employ network segmentation to isolate virtual machines and limit lateral movement. Enable encryption for data at rest and in transit within the virtual environment. Implement strong access controls and authentication mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access. Minimizing Hypervisor Security Risks Minimizing Hypervisor Security Risks Regularly monitor and audit hypervisor activity for any suspicious behavior or unauthorized access attempts. Continued Measures / Exploring Computing Concepts and Technologies 58