Flat belt drives

Flat belt drives

1. Contents
1 Notations 2
1.1 Coecient of Friction Between Belt and Pulley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Velocity ratio of a belt drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Slip of the belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Creep of belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Length of an open belt drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Length of a cross belt drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.7 Power transmitted by a belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.8 Ratio of driving tensions for at belt drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.9 Centrifugal tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.10 Maximum tension in the belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.11 Condition for the transmission of maximum power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.12 Initial tension in the belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Introduction 3
3 Selection of a Belt Drive 3
4 Types of Belt Drives 3
5 Types of Belts 4
6 Material used for Belts 4
7 Working Stresses in Belts 5
8 Density of Belt Materials 5
9 Belt Speed 5
10 Coecient of Friction Between Belt and Pulley 5
11 Standard Belt Thicknesses and Widths 6
12 Belt Joints 6
13 Types of Flat Belt Drives 7
14 Velocity Ratio of a Belt Drive 9
15 Slip of the Belt 10
16 Creep of Belt 11
17 Length of an Open Belt Drive 11
18 Length of a Cross Belt Drive 12
19 Power Transmitted by a Belt 13
20 Ratio of Driving Tensions for Flat Belt Drive 13
21 Centrifugal Tension 15
22 Maximum Tension in the Belt 16
23 Condition for the Transmission of Maximum Power 16
24 Initial Tension in the Belt 17
25 Examples 18
26 References 32
27 Contacts 32

2. 1 Notations
1.1 Coecient of Friction Between Belt and
Pulley
= Speed of the belt in meters per minute.
1.2 Velocity ratio of a belt drive
d1= Diameter of the driver.
d2= Diameter of the follower.
N1= Speed of the driver in r.p.m.
N2= Speed of the follower in r.p.m.
1.3 Slip of the belt
s1% = Slip between the driver and the belt.
s2% = Slip between the belt and follower.
1.4 Creep of belt
1and2= Stress in the belt on the tight and
slack side respectively.
E= Young's modulus for the material of the belt.
1.5 Length of an open belt drive
r1andr2= Radii of the larger and smaller pulleys.
x= Distance between the centers of two pulleys
(i:e: O1O2).
L= Total length of the belt.
1.6 Length of a cross belt drive
r1andr2= Radii of the larger and smaller pulleys.
x= Distance between the centers of two pulleys
(i:e: O1O2).
L= Total length of the belt.
1.7 Power transmitted by a belt
T1andT2= Tensions in the tight side and slack
side of the belt respectively in newtons.
r1andr2= Radii of the driving and driven pulleys
respectively in meters.
= Velocity of the belt in m/s.
1.8 Ratio of driving tensions for at belt drive
T1= Tension in the belt on the tight side.
T2= Tension in the belt on the slack side.
= Angle of contact in radians (i:e:angle sub-
tended by the arcAB, along which the belt
touches the pulley, at the center).
= The coecient of friction between the belt
and pulley.
1.9 Centrifugal tension
m= Mass of belt per unit length in kg.
v= Linear velocity of belt in m/s.
r= Radius of pulley over which the belt runs in
meters.
TC= Centrifugal tension acting tangentially atP
andQin newtons.
Tt1= Maximum or total tension in the belt.
1.10 Maximum tension in the belt
= Maximum safe stress.
b= Width of the belt.
t= Thickness of the belt.
1.11 Condition for the transmission of maxi-
mum power
T1= Tension in the tight side in newtons.
T2= Tension in the slack side in newtons.
= Velocity of the belt in m/s.
T= Maximum tension to which the belt can be
subjected in newtons.
TC= Centrifugal tension in newtons.
1.12 Initial tension in the belt
To= Initial tension in the belt.
T1= Tension in the tight side of the belt.
T2= Tension in the slack side of the belt.
= Coecient of increase of the belt length per
unit force.

3. 2 Introduction
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys which rotate at
the same speed or at dierent speeds. The amount of power transmitted depends upon the following factors :
1. The velocity of the belt.
2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
4. The conditions under which the belt is used.
It may be noted that
1. The shafts should be properly in line to insure uniform tension across the belt section.
2. The pulleys should not be too close together, in order that the arc of contact on the smaller pulley may
be as large as possible.
3. The pulleys should not be so far apart as to cause the belt to weigh heavily on the shafts, thus increasing
the friction load on the bearings.
4. A long belt tends to swing from side to side, causing the belt to run out of the pulleys, which in turn
develops crooked spots in the belt.
5. The tight side of the belt should be at the bottom, so that whatever sag is present on the loose side will
increase the arc of contact at the pulleys.
6. In order to obtain good results with at belts, the maximum distance between the shafts should not exceed
10 meters and the minimum should not be less than 3.5 times the diameter of the larger pulley.
3 Selection of a Belt Drive
Following are the various important factors upon which the selection of a belt drive depends:
1. Speed of the driving and driven shafts,
2. Speed reduction ratio,
3. Power to be transmitted,
4. Center distance between the shafts,
5. Positive drive requirements,
6. Shafts layout,
7. Space available, and
8. Service conditions.
4 Types of Belt Drives
The belt drives are usually classied into the following three groups:
1.Light drives.These are used to transmit small powers at belt speeds upto about 10 m/s as in agricultural
machines and small machine tools.
2.Medium drives.These are used to transmit medium powers at belt speeds over 10 m/s but up to 22
m/s, as in machine tools.
3.Heavy drives.These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22 m/s as in compressors
and generators.

4. 5 Types of Belts
Though there are many types of belts used these days, yet the following are important from the subject point
of view:
1.Flat belt.The at belt is mostly used in the factories and work-shops, where a moderate amount of power
is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not more than 8 meters apart.
2.V-belt.The V-belt is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a great amount of power is to be
transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are very near to each other.
3.Circular belt or rope.The circular belt or rope is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where
a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are more
than 8 meters apart.
Figure 1: Types of belts
If a huge amount of power is to be transmitted, then a single belt may not be sucient. In such a case, wide
pulleys (for V-belts or circular belts) with a number of grooves are used. Then a belt in each groove is provided
to transmit the required amount of power from one pulley to another.
6 Material used for Belts
The material used for belts and ropes must be strong, exible, and durable. It must have a high coecient of
friction. The belts, according to the material used, are classied as follows:
1.Leather belts.The most important material for at belt is leather. The best leather belts are made from
1.2 meters to 1.5 meters long strips cut from either side of the back bone of the top grade steer hides.
Figure 2: Leather belts.
2.Cotton or fabric belts.Most of the fabric belts are made by folding canvas or cotton duck to three or
more layers (depending upon the thickness desired) and stitching together. These belts are woven also into
a strip of the desired width and thickness.
3.Rubber belt.The rubber belts are made of layers of fabric impregnated with rubber composition and
have a thin layer of rubber on the faces. These belts are very exible but are quickly destroyed if allowed
to come into contact with heat, oil or grease.
4.Balata belts.These belts are similar to rubber belts except that balata gum is used in place of rubber.
These belts are acid proof and water proof and it is not eected by animal oils or alkalies. The balata
belts should not be at temperatures above 40
o
C because at this temperature the balata begins to soften
and becomes sticky. The strength of balata belts is 25 per cent higher than rubber belts.

5. 7 Working Stresses in Belts
The ultimate strength of leather belt varies from 21 to 35 MPa and a factor of safety may be taken as 8 to 10.
However, the wear life of a belt is more important than actual strength. It has been shown by experience that
under average conditions an allowable stress of 2.8 MPa or less will give a reasonable belt life. An allowable
stress of 1.75 MPa may be expected to give a belt life of about 15 years.
8 Density of Belt Materials
The density of various belt materials are given in the following table.
9 Belt Speed
A little consideration will show that when the speed of belt increases, the centrifugal force also increases which
tries to pull the belt away from the pulley. This will result in the decrease of power transmitted by the belt. It
has been found that for the ecient transmission of power, the belt speed 20 m/s to 22.5 m/s may be used.
10 Coecient of Friction Between Belt and Pulley
The coecient of friction between the belt and the pulley depends upon the following factors:
1. The material of belt;
2. The material of pulley;
3. The slip of belt; and
4. The speed of belt.
According toC:G:Barth, the coecient of friction () for oak tanned leather belts on cast iron pulley, at the
point of slipping, is given by the following relation,i:e:
= 0:54
42:6
152:6 +
The following table shows the values of coecient of friction for various materials of belt and pulley.

6. 11 Standard Belt Thicknesses and Widths
The standard at belt thicknesses are 5, 6.5, 8, 10 and 12 mm. The preferred values of thicknesses are as follows:
1. 5 mm for nominal belt widths of 35 to 63 mm,
2. 6.5 mm for nominal belt widths of 50 to 140 mm,
3. 8 mm for nominal belt widths of 90 to 224 mm,
4. 10 mm for nominal belt widths of 125 to 400 mm, and
5. 12 mm for nominal belt widths of 250 to 600 mm.
The standard values of nominal belt widths are in R10 series, starting from 25 mm upto 63 mm and in R 20
series starting from 71 mm up to 600 mm. Thus, the standard widths will be 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 71, 80, 90, 100,
112, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 224, 250, 280, 315, 355, 400, 450, 500, 560 and 600 mm.
12 Belt Joints
When the endless belts are not available, then the belts are cut from big rolls and the ends are joined together
by fasteners. The various types of joints are
1. Cemented joint,
2. Laced joint, and
3. Hinged joint.
The following table shows the eciencies of these joints.

7. 13 Types of Flat Belt Drives
The power from one pulley to another may be transmitted by any of the following types of belt drives.
1.Open belt drive.
Figure 3: Open belt drive.
2.Crossed or twist belt drive.
A little consideration will show that at a point where the belt crosses, it rubs against each other and there
will be excessive wear and tear. In order to avoid this, the shafts should be placed at a maximum distance
of 20 b, where bis the width of belt and the speed of the belt should be less than 15 m/s.
Figure 4: Crossed or twist belt drive.
3.Quarter turn belt drive.
In order to prevent the belt from leaving the pulley, the width of the face of the pulley should be greater
or equal to 1.4 b, where bis width of belt.

8. Figure 5:
4.Belt drive with idler pulleys.
A belt drive with an idler pulley (also known asjockey pulley drive) as shown in Fig. 6, is used with
shafts arranged parallel and when an open belt drive can not be used due to small angle of contact on
the smaller pulley. This type of drive is provided to obtain high velocity ratio and when the required belt
tension can not be obtained by other means. When it is desired to transmit motion from one shaft to
several shafts, all arranged in parallel, a belt drive with many idler pulleys, as shown in Fig. 7, may be
employed.
Figure 6: Belt drive with single idler pulley. Figure 7: Belt drive with many idler pulleys.
5.Compound belt drive.
Figure 8: Compound belt drive.

9. 6.Stepped or cone pulley drive.
Figure 9: Stepped or cone pulley drive.
7.Fast and loose pulley drive.
Figure 10: Fast and loose pulley drive.
14 Velocity Ratio of a Belt Drive
It is the ratio between the velocities of the driver and the follower or driven. It may be expressed, mathematically,
as discussed below:
Length of the belt that passes over the driver, in one minute
=d1N1

10. Similarly, length of the belt that passes over the follower, in one minute
=d2N2
Since the length of belt that passes over the driver in one minute is equal to the length of belt that passes over
the follower in one minute, therefore
d1N1=d2N2
and velocity ratio,
N2
N1
=
d1
d2
When thickness of the belt (t) is considered, then velocity ratio,
N2
N1
=
d1+t
d2+t
Notes:
1. The velocity ratio of a belt drive may also be obtained as discussed below:
We know that the peripheral velocity of the belt on the driving pulley,
v1=
d1N1
60
m=s
and peripheral velocity of the belt on the driven pulley,
v2=
d2N2
60
m=s
When there is no slip, thenv1=v2
)
d1N1
60
=
d2N2
60
)
N2
N1
=
d1
d2
2. In case of a compound belt drive as shown in Fig. 6, the velocity ratio is given by
N4
N1
=
d1d3
d2d4
or
Speed of last driven
Speed of rst driver
=
Product of diameters of drivers
Product of diameters of drivens
15 Slip of the Belt
In the previous articles we have discussed the motion of belts and pulleys assuming a rm frictional grip between
the belts and the pulleys. But sometimes, the frictional grip becomes insucient. This may cause some forward
motion of the driver without carrying the belt with it. This is calledslip of the beltand is generally expressed
as a percentage.
The result of the belt slipping is to reduce the velocity ratio of the system. As the slipping of the belt is a
common phenomenon, thus the belt should never be used where a denite velocity ratio is of importance (as in
the case of hour, minute and second arms in a watch).
)Velocity of the belt passing over the driver per second,
v=
d1N1
60

d1N1
60

s1
100
=
d1N1
60

1
s1
100

and velocity of the belt passing over the follower per second
d2N2
60
=vv

s2
100

=v

1
s2
100

=
d1N1
60

1
s1
100

1
s2
100

)
N2
N1
=
d1
d2

1
s1
100

s2
100

:::

Neglecting
s1s2
100100

=
d1
d2

1
s
100

:::(wheres=s1+s2i:etotal percentage of slip)
If thickness of the belt (t) is considered, then
N2
N1
=
d1+t
d2+t

1
s
100

11. 16 Creep of Belt
When the belt passes from the slack side to the tight side, a certain portion of the belt extends and it contracts
again when the belt passes from the tight side to the slack side. Due to these changes of length, there is a
relative motion between the belt and the pulley surfaces. This relative motion is termed ascreep.The total
eect of creep is to reduce slightly the speed of the driven pulley or follower. Considering creep, the velocity
ratio is given by
N2
N1
=
d1
d2

E+
p
2
E+
p
1
Note:Since the eect of creep is very small, therefore it is generally neglected.
17 Length of an Open Belt Drive
We know that the length of the belt,
L= ArcGJE+EF+ ArcFKH+HG
= 2(ArcJE+EF+ ArcFK)
From the geometry of the gure, we also nd that
sin=
O1M
O1O2
=
O1EEM
O1O2
=
r1r2
x
Since the angleis very small, therefore putting
sin=(in radians) =
r1r2
x
ArcJE=r1


2
+

Similarly,
ArcFK=r2


2


and
EF=MO2=
p
(O1O2)
2
(O1M)
2
=
p
x
2
(r1r2)
2
=x
s
1

r1r2
2

2
Expanding this equation by binomial theorem, we have
EF=x
"
1
1
2

r1r2
x

2
+:::
#
=x
(r1r2)
2
x
)The length of the belt,
L= 2

r1


2
+

+x
(r1r2)
2
2x
+r2


2



=(r1+r2) + 2(r1r2) + 2x
(r1r2)
2
x
*=
r1r2
x
)L=(r1+r2) +
2(r1r2)
2
x
+ 2x
(r1r2)
2
x
=(r1+r2) + 2x+
(r1r2)
2
x
... (in terms of pulley radii)
=

2
(d1+d2) + 2x+
(d1d2)
2
4x
... (in terms of pulley diameters)

12. Figure 11: Open belt drive.
18 Length of a Cross Belt Drive
We know that the length of the belt,
L= ArcGJE+EF+ ArcFKH+HG
= 2(ArcJE+FE+ ArcFK)
From the geometry of the gure, we nd that
sin=
O1M
O1O2
=
O1E+EM
O1O2
=
r1+r2
x
Since the angleis very small, therefore putting
sin=(in radians) =
r1+r2
x
)ArcJE=r1


2
+

Similarly,
ArcFK=r2


2
+

and
EF=MO2=
p
(O1O2)
2
(O1M)
2
=
p
x
2
(r1+r2)
2
=x
s
1

r1+r2
2

2
Expanding this equation by binomial theorem, we have
EF=x
"
1
1
2

r1+r2
x

2
+:::
#
=x
(r1+r2)
2
x
)The length of the belt,
L= 2

r1


2
+

+x
(r1+r2)
2
2x
+r2


2
+


=(r1+r2) + 2(r1+r2) + 2x
(r1+r2)
2
x
*=
r1+r2
x
)L=(r1+r2) +
2(r1+r2)
2
x
+ 2x
(r1+r2)
2
x
=(r1+r2) + 2x+
(r1+r2)
2
x
... (in terms of pulley radii)
=

2
(d1+d2) + 2x+
(d1+d2)
2
4x
... (in terms of pulley diameters)

13. Figure 12: Crossed belt drive.
19 Power Transmitted by a Belt
*Work done per second = (T1T2)vN-m/s
;1 N-m/s = 1 W
)power transmitted = (T1T2)vW
A little consideration will show that torque exerted on the driving pulley is (T1T2)r1. Similarly, the torque
exerted on the driven pulley is (T1T2)r2.
Figure 13: Power transmitted by a belt.
20 Ratio of Driving Tensions for Flat Belt Drive
consider a small portion of the beltPQ, subtending an angleat the center of the pulley as shown in Fig. 14.
The beltPQis in equilibrium under the following forces:
1. Tension Tin the belt atP,
2. Tension (T+ T) in the belt atQ,
3. Normal reactionRN, and
4. Frictional forceF=RN.
Resolving all the forces horizontally, we have
RN= (T+T) sin

2
+Tsin

2

14. Since the angleis very small, therefore putting sin=2 ==2, we have
RN= (T+T)

2
+T

2
=
T
2
+
T
2
+
T
2
=T :::

Neglecting
T
2

Now resolving the forces vertically, we have
RN= (T+T) cos

2
Tcos

2
Since the angleis very small, therefore putting cos=2 = 1, we have
RN=T+TT=T)RN=
T

Equating the values ofRN, we get
T=
T

)
T
T
=
Integrating the above equation between the limitsT2andT1and from 0 to, we have
Z
T2
T1
T
T
=
Z

0

)log
e

T1
T2

=)
T1
T2
=e

The equation can be expressed in terms of corresponding logarithm to the base 10,i:e:
2:3 log

T1
T2

=
The above expression gives the relation between the tight side and slack side tensions, in terms of coecient of
friction and the angle of contact.
Figure 14: Ratio of driving tensions for at belt.
Notes:
1. While determining the angle of contact, it must be remembered that it is the angle of contact at the smaller
pulley, if both the pulleys are of the same material. We know that
sin=
r1r2
x
... (for open belt drive)
=
r1+r2
x
... (for cross-belt drive)

15. )Angle of contact or lap,
= (180
o
2)

180
rad ... (for open belt drive)
= (180
o
+ 2)

180
rad ... (for cross-belt drive)
2. When the pulleys are made of dierent material (i:e:when the coecient of friction of the pulleys or the
angle of contact are dierent), then the design will refer to the pulley for whichis small.
21 Centrifugal Tension
Since the belt continuously runs over the pulleys, therefore, some centrifugal force is caused, whose eect is to
increase the tension on both the tight as well as the slack sides. The tension caused by centrifugal force is called
centrifugal tension.At lower belt speeds (less than 10 m/s), the centrifugal tension is very small, but at
higher belt speeds (more than 10 m/s), its eect is considerable and thus should be taken into account.
Consider a small portionPQof the belt subtending an angledat the center of the pulley, as shown in Fig.
15. We know that length of the beltPQ
=r d
and mass of the beltPQ
=m r d
)Centrifugal force acting on the beltPQ,
FC=m r d
v
2
r
=m d v
2
The centrifugal tensionTCacting tangentially atPandQkeeps the belt in equilibrium. Now resolving the
forces (i:e:centrifugal force and centrifugal tension) horizontally, we have
TCsin

d
2

+TCsin

d
2

=FC=m d v
2
Since the angledis very small, therefore putting sin

d
2

=
d
2
, we have
2TC

d
2

=m d v
2
)TC=m v
2
Figure 15: Centrifugal tension.

16. Notes:
1. When centrifugal tension is taken into account, then total tension in the tight side,
Tt1=T1+TC
When centrifugal tension is taken into account, then total tension in the tight side,
Tt2=T2+TC
2. Power transmitted (in watts),
P= (Tt1Tt2)v
= [(T1+TC)(T2+TC)]v= (T1T2)v
Thus we see that the centrifugal tension has no eect on the power transmitted.
3. The ratio of driving tensions may also be written as
2:3 log

Tt1TC
Tt2TC

=
22 Maximum Tension in the Belt
A little consideration will show that the maximum tension in the belt (T) is equal to the total tension in the
tight side of the belt (Tt1).
We know that the maximum tension in the belt,
T= Maximum stressCross-sectional area of belt = b t
When centrifugal tension is neglected, then
T(orTt1) =T1; i:e:Tension in the tight side of the belt.
When centrifugal tension is considered, then
T(orTt1) =T1+TC
23 Condition for the Transmission of Maximum Power
We know that the power transmitted by a belt,
P= (T1T2)v
The ratio of driving tensions is
T1
T2
=e

)T2=
T1
e

Substituting the value ofT2, we have
P=

T1
T1
e


v=T1

1
1
e


v=T1v C
We know that
T1=TTC
Substituting the value ofT1, we have
P= (TTC)vC
*TC=m v
2
P= (Tm v
2
)vC= (T vm v
3
)C
For maximum power, dierentiate the above expression with respect tovand equate to zero,i:e:
dP
dv
= 0)
d
dv
(T vm v
3
)C= 0)T3m v
2
= 0
*m v
2
=TC
)T3TC= 0)T= 3TC
It shows that when the power transmitted is maximum, 1/3rd of the maximum tension is absorbed as centrifugal
tension.

17. Notes:
1. We know thatT1=TTCand for maximum power,TC=
T
3
.
)T1=T
T
3
=
2T
3
2. The velocity of the belt for maximum power,
v=
r
T
3m
24 Initial Tension in the Belt
When the pulleys are stationary, the belt is subjected to some tension, calledinitial tension.
When the driver starts rotating, it pulls the belt from one side (increasing tension in the belt on this side) and
delivers to the other side (decreasing tension in the belt on that side). The increased tension in one side of the
belt is called tension in tight side and the decreased tension in the other side of the belt is called tension in the
slack side.
A little consideration will show that the increase of tension in the tight side
=T1To
and increase in the length of the belt on the tight side
=(T1To)
Similarly, decrease in tension in the slack side
=ToT2
and decrease in the length of the belt on the slack side
=(ToT2)
Assuming that the belt material is perfectly elastic such that the length of the belt remains constant, when it
is at rest or in motion, therefore increase in length on the tight side is equal to decrease in the length on the
slack side. Thus we have
(T1To) =(ToT2))T1To=ToT2
)To=
T1+T2
2
... (Neglecting centrifugal tension)
=
T1+T2+ 2TC
2
... (Considering centrifugal tension)
Note:In actual practice, the belt material is not perfectly elastic. Therefore, the sum of the tensionsT1and
T2, when the belt is transmitting power, is always greater than twice the initial tension. According to C.G.
Barth, the relation betweenTo,T1andT2is given by
p
T1+
p
T2= 2
p
To

18. 25 Examples

32. 26 References
1. R.S. KHURMI, J.K. GUPTA, A Textbook Of Machine Design
27 Contacts
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